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42-420: The chamber contains giant selenite crystals ( gypsum , CaSO 4 · 2 H 2 O ), some of the largest natural crystals ever found. The largest is 11.40 metres (37.4 ft), with a volume of about 5 cubic metres (180 cu ft), and an estimated mass of 12 tonnes. When not flooded, the cave is extremely hot, with air temperatures reaching up to 58 °C (136 °F) with 90 to 99 percent humidity. This

84-491: A matrix or base rock, but can commonly be found as entire free-floating crystals, often in clay beds (and as can desert roses). Satin spar is almost always prismatic and fibrous in a parallel crystal habit. Satin spar often occurs in seams, some of them quite long, and is often attached to a matrix or base rock. Desert roses are most often bladed, exhibiting the familiar shape of a rose, and almost always have an exterior druse. Desert roses form in wet sand, unattached to

126-461: A National Geographic expedition, is 150 metres (490 ft) deep and is not flooded, but its crystal formations are much smaller, with small "cauliflower" formations and fine, threadlike crystals. A scientific team coordinated by Paolo Forti, specialist of cave minerals and crystallographer at the University of Bologna (Italy), explored the cave in detail in 2006. To survive and to be able to work in

168-564: A fingernail (hardness: 2 on Mohs Scale ). The rosettes are not quite as soft due to their exterior druse; nevertheless, they too can be scratched. Selenite crystals that exhibit in either reticular or acicular habits, satin spar, in general (as fibrous crystals are thin and narrow), desert roses that are thinly bladed, and gypsum flowers, particularly acicular gypsum flowers, can be quite brittle and easily broken. All four crystalline varieties can range in size from minute to giant selenite crystals measuring 11 meters long such as those found in

210-403: A fingernail) and its three unequal cleavages. Other distinguishing characteristics include its crystal habits, pearly lustre, easy fusibility with loss of water, and solubility in hot dilute hydrochloric acid . Though sometimes grouped together as "selenite", the four crystalline varieties have differences. General identifying descriptions of the related crystalline varieties are: Satin spar

252-432: A matrix (can be gypsum) or base rock. Gypsum crystals are colorless (most often selenite), white (or pearly – most often satin spar), or gray, but may be tinted brown, yellow, red, or blue by the presence of impurities, such as iron oxides or clay minerals . Gypsum crystals can be transparent (most often selenite), translucent (most often satin spar but also selenite and gypsum flowers), and opaque (most often

294-623: A matrix or base rock. Gypsum flowers are most often acicular , scaly , stellate , and lenticular . Gypsum flowers most often exhibit simple twinning (known as contact twins ); where parallel, long, needle-like crystals, sometimes having severe curves and bends, will frequently form “ram’s horns”, "fishtail", "arrow/spear-head", and "swallowtail" twins. Selenite crystals can also exhibit “arrow/spear-head” as well as “duck-bill” twins. Both selenite crystals and gypsum flowers sometimes form quite densely in acicular mats or nets; and can be quite brittle and fragile. Gypsum flowers are usually attached to

336-403: A reservoir filled with cold water and ice. The cooling provided by melting ice was sufficient to provide about half an hour of autonomy. Besides mineralogical and crystallographic studies, biogeochemical and microbial characterization of the gypsum giant crystals were performed. Stein-Erik Lauritzen ( University of Bergen , Norway) performed uranium-thorium dating to determine the maximum age of

378-595: A venue for both research and education specialized on natural science, and featured prominent researcher like Michael Sars , Daniel Cornelius Danielssen and Fridtjof Nansen . Bergen would eventually become a city with several arenas for higher education and research with the Geophysical Institute being established in 1917, the Chr. Michelsen Institute in 1930, the Norwegian School of Economics in 1936 and finally

420-532: Is comparable to temperature records in Death Valley , but with much wetter air that condenses in the lungs and prevents cooling via sweating. The cave is relatively unexplored because of these factors. Without proper protection, people can only endure approximately ten minutes of exposure at a time. The cave was discovered in April 2000 by brothers Juan and Pedro Sánchez while drilling in the mine. As of October 2015,

462-489: Is considered to be one of the nation’s four so-called "established universities." It has faculties and programmes in all the academic fields typical of a classical university, as well as such degree programmes as medicine and law that, traditionally, only the “established universities” are authorized by law to offer. It is also one of Norway's leading universities in many of the natural sciences, including marine research and climate research . It has consistently been ranked in

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504-515: Is covered with perfectly faceted crystalline blocks. Huge crystal beams jut out from both the blocks and the floor. The crystals deteriorate in air, so the Naica Project attempted to visually document the crystals before they deteriorated further. Two other smaller caverns were also discovered in 2000, Queen's Eye Cave and Candles Cave, and another chamber was found in a drilling project in 2009. The new cave, named Ice Palace, by James Marc Beverly on

546-586: Is organised into the following seven departments: The Faculty is tied to a number of centres: Centres of Excellence in Research: Centres of Research-based Innovation: Centres of Excellence in Education: Other important units and centres: Since January 2013 the faculty is organised in the following departments and units: The University of Bergen is the only institution in the Nordic countries where

588-785: Is sometimes cut into cabochons to best display its chatoyance . Crystal habit refers to the shapes that crystals exhibit. Selenite crystals show a variety of habits, but the most common are tabular, prismatic, or acicular (columnar) crystals, often with no imperfections or inclusions . Twinned crystals are common, and often take the form of "swallow tail" twins. Selenite crystals sometimes form in thin tabular or mica -like sheets and have been used as window panes as at Santa Sabina in Rome. Selenite crystals sometimes will also exhibit bladed rosette habit (usually transparent and like desert roses) often with accompanying transparent, columnar crystals. Selenite crystals can be found both attached to

630-423: Is the most common of all the sulfate minerals. Gypsum is formed as an evaporative mineral, frequently found in alkaline lake muds, clay beds, evaporated seas, salt flats, salt springs, and caves. It is frequently found in conjunction with other minerals such as, copper ores, sulfur and sulfides, silver, iron ores, coal, calcite, dolomite, limestone, and opal. Gypsum has been dated to almost every geologic age since

672-539: The EU . Students are however required to be members of the student welfare organisation. As of 2022, this fee ( semesteravgift ) is NOK 590 (approx. US$ 70) per semester, and provides access to several services, including cultural activities, childcare, refunds for many medical expenses and subsidized accommodation. 40kr of the fee is a donation to the SAIH, a student charity, but this is optional. The Faculty of Fine Art, Music and Design

714-464: The Silurian Period 443.7 ± 1.5 Ma . In dry, desert conditions and arid areas, sand may become trapped both on the inside and the outside of gypsum crystals as they form. Interior inclusion of sand can take on shapes such as an interior hourglass shape common to selenite crystals of the ancient Great Salt Plains Lake bed, Oklahoma, US. Exterior inclusion (druse) occurs as embedded sand grains on

756-547: The growth of the crystals . Giant Crystal Cave was discovered in April 2000 by miners excavating a new tunnel for the Industrias Peñoles mining company located in Naica, Mexico, while drilling through the Naica fault, which they were concerned would flood the mine. The mining complex in Naica contains substantial deposits of silver , zinc and lead . The Cave of Crystals is a horseshoe-shaped cavity in limestone . Its floor

798-585: The 15th century, it has named the transparent variety that occurs in crystals or crystalline masses. The name derives through Middle English selenite from Latin selenites , ultimately from Greek selēnítēs líthos ( σεληνίτης λίθος , lit.   ' moon stone ' ). It got this name because people historically believed the mineral waxed and waned with the cycles of the Moon. The main distinguishing characteristics of crystalline gypsum are its softness (hardness 2 on Mohs scale , soft enough to scratch with

840-482: The cave and in the dump. University of Bergen The University of Bergen ( Norwegian : Universitetet i Bergen ) is a public research university in Bergen , Norway . As of 2021, the university had over 4,000 employees and 19,000 students. It was established by an act of parliament in 1946 consolidating several scientific institutions that dated as far back as 1825. It is Norway's second-oldest university, and

882-454: The caves of the Naica Mine of Chihuahua , Mexico . The crystals thrived in the cave's extremely rare and stable natural environment. Temperatures stayed at 58 °C, and the cave was filled with mineral-rich water that drove the crystals' growth. The largest of those crystals weighs 55 tons, is 11 meters (36 ft) long, and is over 500,000 years old. Gypsum occurs on every continent and

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924-456: The chemical formula CaSO 4 ·2H 2 O. Selenite contains no significant selenium  – The similar names both derive from Greek selḗnē ( σελήνη ' Moon '). Some of the largest crystals ever found are of selenite, the largest specimen found in the Naica Mine 's Cave of the Crystals being 12 metres long and weighing 55 tons. "Selenite" is mostly synonymous with gypsum, but from

966-593: The course of at least 500,000 years, forming the enormous crystals found today. In 1910, miners discovered a cavern beneath the Naica Mine workings, the Cave of Swords ( Spanish : Cueva de las espadas ). It is located at a depth of 120 metres (390 ft), above the Cave of the Crystals, and contains spectacular, smaller (1-metre (3 ft 3 in) long) crystals. It is speculated that at this level, transition temperatures may have fallen much more rapidly, leading to an end in

1008-449: The extreme temperature and humid conditions which prevent prolonged incursion in the crystal chamber, they partnered with Ferrino and La Venta to develop their own refrigerated suits and cold breathing systems (respectively dubbed Tolomea suit and Sinusit respirator). Special caving overalls were fitted with a mattress of refrigerating tubes placed all over the body and connected to a backpack weighing about 20 kilograms (44 lb) containing

1050-738: The fibers and polished on the ends, satin spar exhibits an optical illusion when placed on a printed or pictured surface: print and pictures appear to be on the surface of the sample. It is often called and sold as the “television stone” (as is ulexite ). Some selenite and satin spar specimens exhibit fluorescence or phosphorescence . All four crystalline varieties are slightly flexible, though will break if bent significantly. They are not elastic, meaning they can be bent, but will not bend back on their own. All four crystalline varieties are sectile in that they can be easily cut, will peel (particularly selenite crystals that exhibit mica-like properties), and like all gypsum varieties, can be scratched by

1092-549: The founding of Bergen Cathedral School in 1153, the Seminarium Fredericianum in 1750 and the establishment of the Royal Norwegian Naval Academy in 1817. Academia and higher education would also be significantly advanced in the city with the establishment of Bergen Museum , later renamed University Museum of Bergen , in 1825. Founded by Wilhelm Frimann Christie and Jacob Neumann , the museum became

1134-749: The giant crystals, about 500,000 years. A team led by A. E. S. Van Driessche directly measured the growth rates of these giant gypsum crystals using present-day water of the Naica. They obtained a growth rate of (1.4 ± 0.2) × 10 nm/s , which is the slowest directly measured normal growth rate for any crystal growth process. Taking into account this rate, the largest crystals would have taken approximately 1 million years to reach their current size. Penelope Boston ( New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology , USA), speleologist and geomicrobiologist specialist of extremophile organisms, realized sterile sampling of gypsum drillcores by making small boreholes inside large crystals under aseptic conditions. The aim

1176-593: The known genetic databases. Other researches covered the fields of palynology ( pollen study), geochemistry, hydrogeology and the physical conditions prevailing in the Cave of Crystals. The cave was featured on the Discovery Channel program Naica: Beyond The Crystal Cave in February 2011. Earlier, it was featured on the History Channel program Life After People , in the episode "Depths of Destruction" of

1218-454: The mine had reflooded and the cavern filled once more with the water rich in minerals required for the crystals to grow. A group of scientists in the Naica Project have been studying these caverns. Naica lies on a fault above an underground magma chamber which is approximately 3–5 kilometres (2–3 mi) below the cave. The magma heated the ground water which was saturated with sulfide ions (S). Cool oxygenated surface water contacted

1260-545: The mineral-saturated heated water, but the two did not mix because of the difference in their densities . The oxygen slowly diffused into the heated water and oxidized the sulfides (S) into sulfates ( SO 4 ) that precipitated as anhydrite (CaSO 4 ). When the overall temperature of the cave started to drop below 56 °C (133 °F), the hydrothermal and sedimentary anhydrite crystals dissolved, and gypsum (CaSO 4 · 2 H 2 O ) crystals formed. The hydrated sulfate gypsum crystallized at an extremely slow rate over

1302-451: The mining company decides to open another entrance, researchers might again enter to continue their work, according to a February 2019 report. Selenite (mineral) Selenite , satin spar , desert rose , and gypsum flower are crystal habit varieties of the mineral gypsum . All varieties of gypsum, including selenite and alabaster , are composed of calcium sulfate dihydrate (meaning that it has two molecules of water), with

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1344-562: The presence of ancient micro-organisms in the original fluid solution in which the crystals developed. At the 2017 meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science , researchers, including Dr. Boston, announced the discovery of bacteria found in inclusions embedded in some of the crystals. Using sterile methods, the researchers were able to extract and reanimate these organisms, which are not closely related to anything in

1386-578: The rosettes and flowers). Opacity can be caused by impurities, inclusions, druse, and crust, and can occur in all four crystalline varieties. Selenite typically shows vitreous luster , but may show pearly luster on cleavage surfaces. Satin spar shows characteristic silky luster. Luster is not often exhibited in the rosettes, due to their exterior druse; nevertheless, the rosettes often show glassy to pearly luster on edges. Gypsum flowers usually exhibit more luster than desert roses. Fibrous satin spar exhibits chatoyancy (cat's eye effect). When cut across

1428-468: The second season. Additionally, these caves were also featured on the program Angry Planet , in episode 311. Exploration has given credence to the existence of further chambers, but further exploration would have required significant removal of the crystals. As the cave's accessibility is dependent on the mine's water pumps, once mining operations ceased, the caves were allowed to re-flood in October 2015. If

1470-469: The surface such as, commonly seen in the familiar desert rose. When gypsum dehydrates severely, anhydrite is formed. If water is reintroduced, gypsum can and will reform – including as the four crystalline varieties. An example of gypsum crystals reforming in modern times is found at Philips Copper Mine (closed and abandoned), Putnam County, New York, US where selenite micro crystal coatings are commonly found on numerous surfaces (rock and otherwise) in

1512-593: The top 200 or top one percent of universities in the world, and as one of the best 10 or best 50 universities worldwide in some fields, such as earth and marine sciences. It is part of the Coimbra Group and of the U5 group of Norway's oldest and highest-ranked universities. The university traces its roots to several earlier scientific and scholarly institutions founded in Bergen . Academic activity had taken place in Bergen since

1554-418: The university in 1946. The University of Bergen was established by an act of parliament in 1946, as Norway's second university. The University of Bergen has an elected rector . The current rector is Margareth Hagen , who was elected for a four-year term starting August 1, 2021 after serving as interim rector. The university has 7 faculties, the newest being The Faculty of Fine Art, Music and Design which

1596-400: The university since 1969. The faculty is one of three Norwegian institutions which offer legal studies, the other two being the law faculties at the University of Oslo and the University of Tromsø . The faculty offers a five-year programme leading to a Master's degree in law and a three-year PhD programme, and currently has approximately 1900 students. As of January 1, 2023, the faculty

1638-672: The university was ranked as number 135 worldwide by the Times Higher Education World University Rankings , and 181st worldwide by the 2015/16 QS World University Rankings . UiB was also ranked number 148 worldwide in the July 2010 Webometrics Ranking of World Universities . The URAP (University Ranking by Academic Performance) has ranked UiB for 2014/2015 as the 219th worldwide. The University of Bergen, in common with other Norwegian universities, does not charge tuition fees, except for students coming from outside

1680-508: Was established in 2017. The University of Bergen Library and the University Museum of Bergen have a faculty-like status. Most of the university campus and administration is located in the Nygård neighbourhood , which has resulted in the campus area often being referred to as Nygårdshøyden or simply H øyden , meaning "the hill". The University of Bergen has three strategic areas: In 2010

1722-576: Was established on 1 January 2017. It is composed of the earlier Grieg Academy – Department of Music, and the Bergen Academy of Art and Design . Two Norwegian Centres of Research Excellence are hosted at the Faculty of Humanities: The faculty revised its structure and names in August 2007. The Faculty of Law was established as a separate faculty in 1980, with legal studies and research having been conducted at

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1764-490: Was to detect the possible presence of ancient bacteria encapsulated inside fluid and solid inclusions present in the calcium sulfate matrix from its formation. Solid inclusions mainly consist of magnesium and iron oxy-hydroxide , but no organic matter could be found associated with the solid hydroxides. No DNA from ancient bacteria could be extracted from the solid inclusions and amplified by PCR . Microbial studies on fluid inclusions are foreseen to attempt to evidence

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