93-684: Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq ( Persian : غیاث الدین تغلق ), or Ghazi Malik ( غازی ملک ; Ghazi means fighter for Islam ; died 1 February 1325) was the Sultan of Delhi from 1320 to 1325. He was the first sultan of the Tughluq dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate . During his reign, Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq founded the city of Tughluqabad . His reign ending upon his death in 1325 when a pavilion built in his honour collapsed. The 14th century historian Ibn Battuta claimed that
186-514: A Sassanid genealogy for his family from Bahram Gor , which seems to be the official position of the Delhi Sultanate. However this can be dismissed as flattery. This is clear from the fact that another courtier Amir Khusrau , in his Tughluq Nama , states that Tughluq described himself as an unimportant man (" awara mard ") in his early career. Tughlaq Nama declares Tughlaq to have been a minor chief of humble origins. There are numerous views on
279-638: A Dari dialect. In the 19th century, under the Qajar dynasty , the dialect that is spoken in Tehran rose to prominence. There was still substantial Arabic vocabulary, but many of these words have been integrated into Persian phonology and grammar. In addition, under the Qajar rule, numerous Russian , French , and English terms entered the Persian language, especially vocabulary related to technology. The first official attentions to
372-418: A dictionary called Words of Scientific Association ( لغت انجمن علمی ), which was completed in the future and renamed Katouzian Dictionary ( فرهنگ کاتوزیان ). The first academy for the Persian language was founded on 20 May 1935, under the name Academy of Iran . It was established by the initiative of Reza Shah Pahlavi , and mainly by Hekmat e Shirazi and Mohammad Ali Foroughi , all prominent names in
465-406: A few days, Mubarak Shah ordered them to proceed to Gujarat and end the rebellion, and Multani resumed his march. In Gujarat, Multani tried to resolve the situation diplomatically. He wrote letters to the rebel leaders, pointing out that Alp Khan's murder had been avenged with Kafur's murder. He asked them to end the rebellion, and warned them of serious consequences if they refused to do so. Most of
558-500: A language name is first attested in English in the mid-16th century. Farsi , which is the Persian word for the Persian language, has also been used widely in English in recent decades, more often to refer to Iran's standard Persian. However, the name Persian is still more widely used. The Academy of Persian Language and Literature has maintained that the endonym Farsi is to be avoided in foreign languages, and that Persian
651-417: A literary language considerably different from the spoken Persian of the time. This became the basis of what is now known as "Contemporary Standard Persian". There are three standard varieties of modern Persian: All these three varieties are based on the classic Persian literature and its literary tradition. There are also several local dialects from Iran, Afghanistan and Tajikistan which slightly differ from
744-528: A number of horses. Tughuq distributed the seized treasure among his soldiers. Meanwhile, in Delhi, to discourage any further conspiracies, Khusrau Khan consulted his counsellors, and ordered killings of Alauddin's three sons - Bahauddin, Ali, and Usman - who had earlier been blinded and imprisoned. Tughluq's army defeated Khusrau Khan's forces at the Battle of Saraswati and the Battle of Lahrawat . Khusrau Khan fled from
837-529: A period of several centuries, Ottoman Turkish (which was highly Persianised itself) had developed toward a fully accepted language of literature, and which was even able to lexically satisfy the demands of a scientific presentation. However, the number of Persian and Arabic loanwords contained in those works increased at times up to 88%. In the Ottoman Empire, Persian was used at the royal court, for diplomacy, poetry, historiographical works, literary works, and
930-421: A result, Multani's force resumed its march to Gujarat. Tughluq accompanied this force, although Multani retained its supreme command. In July 1320, Mubarak Shah was murdered as a result of a conspiracy by his general Khusrau Khan , who became the ruler of Delhi. Tughluq was one of the governors who refused to recognize Khusrau Khan as the new Sultan. However, he did not take any action against Khusrau Khan because
1023-399: A safe passageway for his son. When Khusrau Khan learned of the conspiracy, he dispatched his minister of war Shaista Khan in pursuit of Fakhruddin, but Shaista Khan could not catch the rebels. At Dipalpur, Tughluq and his son discussed the situation, and decided to put up a fight against Khusrau Khan. Tughluq declared that he wanted to dethrone Khusrau Khan for "the glory of Islam", because he
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#17328691770601116-408: A second letter to him, he expressed sympathy with Tughluq's cause. Multani stated that he was surrounded by Khusrau's allies, and therefore, would not take sides in the upcoming battle. Ghazi Malik Tughluq killed Khusrau after a battle, and ascended the throne of Delhi with the title " Ghiyath al-Din " ( r. 1320–1325 ). He appears to have retained Multani in the royal service. According to
1209-461: A secretary ( dabir ) to ‘Ala’ al-Dīn's brother Ulugh Khan . According to Alauddin's courtier Amir Khusrau , he was a learned statesman and a veteran military general. The later chronicler Ziauddin Barani describes him as a widely-travelled well-experienced man, who was known for his wise counsel and his ability to tackle complex problems. Barani also mentions that, like Khusrau, he was skilled with both
1302-779: A significant population within Uzbekistan , as well as within other regions with a Persianate history in the cultural sphere of Greater Iran . It is written officially within Iran and Afghanistan in the Persian alphabet , a derivative of the Arabic script , and within Tajikistan in the Tajik alphabet , a derivative of the Cyrillic script . Modern Persian is a continuation of Middle Persian , an official language of
1395-580: A speaker of Persian. Persian is a member of the Western Iranian group of the Iranian languages , which make up a branch of the Indo-European languages in their Indo-Iranian subdivision . The Western Iranian languages themselves are divided into two subgroups: Southwestern Iranian languages, of which Persian is the most widely spoken, and Northwestern Iranian languages, of which Kurdish and Balochi are
1488-489: Is "an official disguise" for the Hindu communities that fought for Tughluq, who claimed to be fighting for the "glory of Islam". The Khokhars were one of these communities: their ruler was Sahij Rai, and their chiefs included Gul Chandra and Niju. The Mewatis , also known as Meos, were another community of Hindu origin that supported Tughluq. Tughluq's officers captured a caravan carrying tribute from Sindh to Delhi, along with
1581-505: Is a pluricentric language predominantly spoken and used officially within Iran , Afghanistan , and Tajikistan in three mutually intelligible standard varieties , respectively Iranian Persian (officially known as Persian ), Dari Persian (officially known as Dari since 1964), and Tajiki Persian (officially known as Tajik since 1999). It is also spoken natively in the Tajik variety by
1674-610: Is a direct descendant of Middle and Old Persian. Gernot Windfuhr considers new Persian as an evolution of the Old Persian language and the Middle Persian language but also states that none of the known Middle Persian dialects is the direct predecessor of Modern Persian. Ludwig Paul states: "The language of the Shahnameh should be seen as one instance of continuous historical development from Middle to New Persian." The known history of
1767-654: Is attested in Old Persian cuneiform on inscriptions from between the 6th and 4th century BC. Middle Persian is attested in Aramaic -derived scripts ( Pahlavi and Manichaean ) on inscriptions and in Zoroastrian and Manichaean scriptures from between the third to the tenth centuries (see Middle Persian literature ). New Persian literature was first recorded in the ninth century, after the Muslim conquest of Persia , since then adopting
1860-425: Is conventionally divided into three stages: Early New Persian remains largely intelligible to speakers of Contemporary Persian, as the morphology and, to a lesser extent, the lexicon of the language have remained relatively stable. New Persian texts written in the Arabic script first appear in the 9th-century. The language is a direct descendant of Middle Persian, the official, religious, and literary language of
1953-455: Is not actually attested until 600 years later when it appears in the Sassanid era (224–651 AD) inscriptions, so any form of the language before this date cannot be described with any degree of certainty. Moreover, as a literary language, Middle Persian is not attested until much later, in the 6th or 7th century. From the 8th century onward, Middle Persian gradually began yielding to New Persian, with
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#17328691770602046-468: Is one of Afghanistan's two official languages, together with Pashto . The term Dari , meaning "of the court", originally referred to the variety of Persian used in the court of the Sasanian Empire in capital Ctesiphon , which was spread to the northeast of the empire and gradually replaced the former Iranian dialects of Parthia ( Parthian ). Tajik Persian ( форси́и тоҷикӣ́ , forsi-i tojikī ),
2139-570: Is one of the earliest attested Indo-European languages. According to certain historical assumptions about the early history and origin of ancient Persians in Southwestern Iran (where Achaemenids hailed from), Old Persian was originally spoken by a tribe called Parsuwash , who arrived in the Iranian Plateau early in the 1st millennium BCE and finally migrated down into the area of present-day Fārs province. Their language, Old Persian, became
2232-486: Is the appropriate designation of the language in English, as it has the longer tradition in western languages and better expresses the role of the language as a mark of cultural and national continuity. Iranian historian and linguist Ehsan Yarshater , founder of the Encyclopædia Iranica and Columbia University 's Center for Iranian Studies, mentions the same concern in an academic journal on Iranology , rejecting
2325-486: The Encyclopædia Iranica notes that the Iranian, Afghan, and Tajiki varieties comprise distinct branches of the Persian language, and within each branch a wide variety of local dialects exist. The following are some languages closely related to Persian, or in some cases are considered dialects: More distantly related branches of the Iranian language family include Kurdish and Balochi . The Glottolog database proposes
2418-502: The Kalila wa Dimna . The language spread geographically from the 11th century on and was the medium through which, among others, Central Asian Turks became familiar with Islam and urban culture. New Persian was widely used as a trans-regional lingua franca , a task aided due to its relatively simple morphology, and this situation persisted until at least the 19th century. In the late Middle Ages, new Islamic literary languages were created on
2511-651: The British colonization , Persian was widely used as a second language in the Indian subcontinent . It took prominence as the language of culture and education in several Muslim courts on the subcontinent and became the sole "official language" under the Mughal emperors . The Bengal Sultanate witnessed an influx of Persian scholars, lawyers, teachers, and clerics. Thousands of Persian books and manuscripts were published in Bengal. The period of
2604-547: The Kakatiya capital Warangal . The ensuing Siege of Warangal resulted in the annexation of Warangal, and the end of the Kakatiya dynasty. In 1323 he appointed his son Muhammad bin Tughluq as his heir and successor and took a written promise or agreement to the arrangement from the ministers and nobles of the state. He also started construction of Tughlaqabad Fort . In 1324, Tughluq turned his attention towards Bengal , then in
2697-581: The Sasanian Empire (224–651 CE), itself a continuation of Old Persian , which was used in the Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BCE). It originated in the region of Fars ( Persia ) in southwestern Iran. Its grammar is similar to that of many European languages. Throughout history, Persian was considered prestigious by various empires centered in West Asia , Central Asia , and South Asia . Old Persian
2790-655: The Sultanate of Rum , Turkmen beyliks of Anatolia , Delhi Sultanate , the Shirvanshahs , Safavids , Afsharids , Zands , Qajars , Khanate of Bukhara , Khanate of Kokand , Emirate of Bukhara , Khanate of Khiva , Ottomans , and also many Mughal successors such as the Nizam of Hyderabad . Persian was the only non-European language known and used by Marco Polo at the Court of Kublai Khan and in his journeys through China. A branch of
2883-688: The Turkic , Armenian , Georgian , & Indo-Aryan languages . It also exerted some influence on Arabic, while borrowing a lot of vocabulary from it in the Middle Ages. Some of the world's most famous pieces of literature from the Middle Ages, such as the Shahnameh by Ferdowsi , the works of Rumi , the Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám , the Panj Ganj of Nizami Ganjavi , The Divān of Hafez , The Conference of
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2976-483: The ezāfe construction, expressed through ī (modern e/ye ), to indicate some of the relations between words that have been lost with the simplification of the earlier grammatical system. Although the "middle period" of the Iranian languages formally begins with the fall of the Achaemenid Empire, the transition from Old to Middle Persian had probably already begun before the 4th century BC. However, Middle Persian
3069-585: The " Persianized " Turko-Mongol dynasties during the 12th to 15th centuries, and under restored Persian rule during the 16th to 19th centuries. Persian during this time served as lingua franca of Greater Persia and of much of the Indian subcontinent . It was also the official and cultural language of many Islamic dynasties, including the Samanids, Buyids , Tahirids , Ziyarids , the Mughal Empire , Timurids , Ghaznavids , Karakhanids , Seljuqs , Khwarazmians ,
3162-672: The Birds by Attar of Nishapur , and the miscellanea of Gulistan and Bustan by Saadi Shirazi , are written in Persian. Some of the prominent modern Persian poets were Nima Yooshij , Ahmad Shamlou , Simin Behbahani , Sohrab Sepehri , Rahi Mo'ayyeri , Mehdi Akhavan-Sales , and Forugh Farrokhzad . There are approximately 130 million Persian speakers worldwide, including Persians , Lurs , Tajiks , Hazaras , Iranian Azeris , Iranian Kurds , Balochs , Tats , Afghan Pashtuns , and Aimaqs . The term Persophone might also be used to refer to
3255-512: The Khalji service as a personal attendant of Alauddin's brother Ulugh Khan . At the Battle of Amroha (1305), in which the Khalji army defeated a Mongol force from the Chagatai Khanate , Tughluq was among the chief subordinates of the Khalji general Malik Nayak. During the 1306 Mongol invasion , Tughluq led the vanguard of the Khalji army, which was commanded by general Malik Kafur , and defeated
3348-558: The Middle Ages, and is because of the lack of the phoneme /p/ in Standard Arabic. The standard Persian of Iran has been called, apart from Persian and Farsi , by names such as Iranian Persian and Western Persian , exclusively. Officially, the official language of Iran is designated simply as Persian ( فارسی , fārsi ). The standard Persian of Afghanistan has been officially named Dari ( دری , dari ) since 1958. Also referred to as Afghan Persian in English, it
3441-604: The Mongols 18 times; Ziauddin Barani , in his Tarikh-i Firuz Shahi , states this number as 20. Ibn Battuta 's Rihla mentions an inscription at the Jama masjid of Multan, which recorded Tughluq's 29 victories over the Tatars ( Turko-Mongols ). None of the authors provide a list of Tughluq's victories against the Mongols, but these victories probably included successes in border skirmishes. After Alauddin's death in 1316, Malik Kafur controlled
3534-567: The Mongols defeating them in 1305 at the Battle of Amroha . When Tughluq proceeded from Multan to Delhi , the tribe of Soomro revolted and took possession of Thatta . Tughluq appointed Tajuddin Malik as governor of Multan and Khwájah Khatír as governor of Bhakkar and he left Malik Ali Sher in charge of Sehwan . In 1323, Tughluq sent his son Fakhruddin Jauna (later Muhammad bin Tughluq) on an expedition to
3627-532: The Ottoman Empire all spoke Persian, such as Sultan Selim I , despite being Safavid Iran's archrival and a staunch opposer of Shia Islam . It was a major literary language in the empire. Some of the noted earlier Persian works during the Ottoman rule are Idris Bidlisi 's Hasht Bihisht , which began in 1502 and covered the reign of the first eight Ottoman rulers, and the Salim-Namah , a glorification of Selim I. After
3720-583: The Paramara king Mahalakadeva had taken shelter. His army defeated the Paramaras, and killed Mahalakadeva and his son. When the Devagiri governor Malik Kafur was recalled to Delhi as the viceroy during Alauddin's sickness, Multani was made the governor of Devagiri. After Alauddin's death, Kafur asked Multani to come to Delhi, but while he was en route, Kafur directed him to Gujarat . Kafur had executed Alp Khan ,
3813-521: The Persian language can be divided into the following three distinct periods: As a written language , Old Persian is attested in royal Achaemenid inscriptions. The oldest known text written in Old Persian is from the Behistun Inscription , dating to the time of King Darius I (reigned 522–486 BC). Examples of Old Persian have been found in what is now Iran , Romania ( Gherla ), Armenia , Bahrain , Iraq , Turkey, and Egypt . Old Persian
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3906-425: The Persian language, a language historically called Dari, emerged in present-day Afghanistan. The first significant Persian poet was Rudaki . He flourished in the 10th century, when the Samanids were at the height of their power. His reputation as a court poet and as an accomplished musician and singer has survived, although little of his poetry has been preserved. Among his lost works are versified fables collected in
3999-401: The Persian model: Ottoman Turkish , Chagatai Turkic , Dobhashi Bengali , and Urdu, which are regarded as "structural daughter languages" of Persian. "Classical Persian" loosely refers to the standardized language of medieval Persia used in literature and poetry . This is the language of the 10th to 12th centuries, which continued to be used as literary language and lingua franca under
4092-848: The Perso-Arabic script. Persian was the first language to break through the monopoly of Arabic on writing in the Muslim world , with Persian poetry becoming a tradition in many eastern courts. It was used officially as a language of bureaucracy even by non-native speakers, such as the Ottomans in Anatolia , the Mughals in South Asia, and the Pashtuns in Afghanistan. It influenced languages spoken in neighboring regions and beyond, including other Iranian languages,
4185-479: The Sasanian Empire (224–651). However, it is not descended from the literary form of Middle Persian (known as pārsīk , commonly called Pahlavi), which was spoken by the people of Fars and used in Zoroastrian religious writings. Instead, it is descended from the dialect spoken by the court of the Sasanian capital Ctesiphon and the northeastern Iranian region of Khorasan , known as Dari. The region, which comprised
4278-575: The Sassanids (who were Persians, i.e. from the southwest) from the preceding Arsacids (who were Parthians, i.e. from the northeast). While Ibn al-Muqaffa' (eighth century) still distinguished between Pahlavi (i.e. Parthian) and Persian (in Arabic text: al-Farisiyah) (i.e. Middle Persian), this distinction is not evident in Arab commentaries written after that date. "New Persian" (also referred to as Modern Persian)
4371-457: The Seljuks, the Sultanate of Rum , took Persian language, art, and letters to Anatolia. They adopted the Persian language as the official language of the empire. The Ottomans , who can roughly be seen as their eventual successors, inherited this tradition. Persian was the official court language of the empire, and for some time, the official language of the empire. The educated and noble class of
4464-519: The Sultan. According to Amir Khusrau, Tughluq's relatively small army consisted of warriors from a variety of ethnicities, including "Ghizz, Turks , Mongols , Rumis (Greeks), Rusi (Rus'), Tajiks , and Khurasainis ." According to Khusrau, these soldiers were "people of pure birth and not racial mixtures". However, with the exception of a Mongol officer, Khusrau does not mention any soldiers from these ethnicities. According to historian Banarsi Prasad Saksena , Khusrau's enumeration of these ethnicities
4557-652: The Sultanate's administration for a brief period with Alauddin's minor son Shihabuddin Omar as a puppet ruler. There is no record of Tughluq opposing Kafur during this period. Kafur dispatched Ayn al-Mulk Multani to crush a rebellion in Gujarat , but was killed soon after, while Multani was in Chittor on his way to Gujarat. Alauddin's elder son Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah then took control of
4650-407: The administration, and sent Tughluq to Chittor with a message asking Multani to continue his march to Gujarat. Multani welcomed Tughluq at Chittor, but refused to continue the march, as his officers had not seen the new Sultan in person. Tughluq then returned to Delhi, and advised Mubarak Shah to send firmans (royal mandates) confirming his position to Multani's officers. The new Sultan agreed, and as
4743-494: The ancestry of Tughluq. Ranging from Turko-Mongol , to Turkic origins, mentioned by Ibn Battuta and Shams-i Siraj Afi Tughlaq began his career as a menial servant in the service of a merchant where he served as a keeper of horses before entering Khalji service. According to Khusrau's Tughluq Nama , Tughluq spent a considerable time searching for a job in Delhi, before he joined the imperial guard of Jalaluddin Khalji . Khusrau states that Tughluq first distinguished himself in
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#17328691770604836-493: The area of Lake Urmia in the records of Shalmaneser III . The exact identity of the Parsuwash is not known for certain, but from a linguistic viewpoint the word matches Old Persian pārsa itself coming directly from the older word * pārćwa . Also, as Old Persian contains many words from another extinct Iranian language, Median , according to P. O. Skjærvø it is probable that Old Persian had already been spoken before
4929-463: The battlefield, but was captured and killed a few days later. Tughluq was proclaimed the new ruler on 6 September 1320. Tughluq founded the Tughluq dynasty and reigned over the Sultanate of Delhi from 1320 to 1325. Tughluq's policy was harsh against Mongols . He had killed envoys of the Ilkhan Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan and punished Mongol prisoners harshly. He had fought various campaigns against
5022-562: The chronicler Isami , Multani joined Ulugh Khan (who later ascended the throne of Delhi as Muhammad bin Tughluq , r. 1325–1351 ) on the 1322 expedition to Warangal . Several of Ulugh Khan's officers revolted against him during the prolonged siege, but Multani remained loyal to him. No information about Multani's later life is available. Some medieval chronicles attempt to provide such information, but they have confused Multani with another noble `Ayn al-Mulk Mahru (called `Ayn al-Din by Isami). Isami and Barani clearly distinguish between
5115-457: The code fas for the dialects spoken across Iran and Afghanistan. This consists of the individual languages Dari ( prs ) and Iranian Persian ( pes ). It uses tgk for Tajik, separately. In general, the Iranian languages are known from three periods: namely Old, Middle, and New (Modern). These correspond to three historical eras of Iranian history ; Old era being sometime around the Achaemenid Empire (i.e., 400–300 BC), Middle era being
5208-512: The collapse of the Sassanid state, Parsik came to be applied exclusively to (either Middle or New) Persian that was written in the Arabic script . From about the 9th century onward, as Middle Persian was on the threshold of becoming New Persian, the older form of the language came to be erroneously called Pahlavi , which was actually but one of the writing systems used to render both Middle Persian as well as various other Middle Iranian languages. That writing system had previously been adopted by
5301-447: The death of the sultan was the result of a conspiracy against him. Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq was succeeded by his eldest son, Muhammad bin Tughluq . Literary, numismatic and epigraphic evidence makes it clear that Tughluq was the Sultan's personal name, and not an ancestral designation. His ancestry is debated among modern historians, because the earlier sources differ widely regarding it. Tughluq's court poet Badr-i Chach attempted to find
5394-489: The early 1290s, during the Siege of Ranthambore , in which the Khalji forces were led by Ulugh Khan. Khusrau suggests that Tughluq was reduced to obscurity for a brief period after Jalaluddin was killed by his nephew Alauddin Khalji . This probably happened because, unlike many other nobles, Tughluq did not quickly change his loyalty to Alauddin. Nevertheless, it was during Alauddin's reign that Tughluq rose to prominence. He entered
5487-508: The era of Delhi Sultanate. His actual name is unknown: "`Ayn Al-Mulk" is a title (also transliterated as `Ain ul-Mulk), while Multani is a nisba indicating that he hailed from the city of Multan . The 15th century chronicler Yahya bin Ahmad Sirhindi calls him "`Ayn Al-Mulk-i Shihab", which suggests that his father's name was Shihab. Multānī started his career during the reign of Sultan ‘Ala’ al-Dīn Khaljī ( r. 1296–1316 ), as
5580-430: The extent of its influence on certain languages of the Indian subcontinent. Words borrowed from Persian are still quite commonly used in certain Indo-Aryan languages, especially Hindi - Urdu (also historically known as Hindustani ), Punjabi , Kashmiri , and Sindhi . There is also a small population of Zoroastrian Iranis in India, who migrated in the 19th century to escape religious execution in Qajar Iran and speak
5673-489: The following phylogenetic classification: Ayn al-Mulk Multani ‘Ayn al-Mulk Mūltānī was a military commander and official who served the Khalji and Tughluq dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate in present-day India. He served as Alauddin Khalji 's governor of Malwa and Devagiri , and after Alauddin's death, suppressed a revolt in Gujarat . 'Ayn al-Mulk Multānī belonged to a Punjabi community of traders known as Multanis , who controlled long-distance trade during
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#17328691770605766-420: The force commanded by him at Dipalpur was not strong enough to take on the imperial army at Delhi. Tughluq's son Fakhruddin Jauna (who later ascended the throne as Muhammad bin Tughluq), who was a high-ranking officer in Delhi, took the initiative to dethrone Khusrau Khan. He convened a secret meeting of his friends in Delhi, and then sent his messenger Ali Yaghdi to Dipalpur, asking his father for assistance in
5859-444: The formation of many modern languages in West Asia, Europe, Central Asia , and South Asia . Following the Turko-Persian Ghaznavid conquest of South Asia , Persian was firstly introduced in the region by Turkic Central Asians. The basis in general for the introduction of Persian language into the subcontinent was set, from its earliest days, by various Persianized Central Asian Turkic and Afghan dynasties. For five centuries prior to
5952-421: The formation of the Achaemenid Empire and was spoken during most of the first half of the first millennium BCE. Xenophon , a Greek general serving in some of the Persian expeditions, describes many aspects of Armenian village life and hospitality in around 401 BCE, which is when Old Persian was still spoken and extensively used. He relates that the Armenian people spoke a language that to his ear sounded like
6045-435: The governor of Gujarat, leading to a revolt in the province, and another general Kamal al-Din Gurg had been killed while trying to suppress the revolt. While Multani was on the way to Gujarat, Kafur was killed and Alauddin's son Qutb ud din Mubarak Shah ( r. 1316–1320 ) seized the throne of Delhi. As a result, the nobles accompanying Multani refused to proceed further, and his entourage had to halt at Chittor . After
6138-579: The invaders. Alauddin appointed Tughluq as the governor of Multan , and then that of Dipalpur , both in present-day Pakistan. Ghazi Malik's armies mainly consisted of Jat tribesmen recruited from Dipalpur, who fought for him in all his battles. These provinces were located in the frontier region of the Delhi Sultanate, and included the routes used by the Mongol invaders . The fact that Alauddin trusted Tughluq with such challenging assignments suggests that Tughluq must have gained reputation for his martial skills by this time. Khusrau states that Tughluq defeated
6231-410: The language of the Persians. Related to Old Persian, but from a different branch of the Iranian language family, was Avestan , the language of the Zoroastrian liturgical texts. The complex grammatical conjugation and declension of Old Persian yielded to the structure of Middle Persian in which the dual number disappeared, leaving only singular and plural, as did gender. Middle Persian developed
6324-444: The letter, so he took the letter to the Sultan and expressed his loyalty. However, when Tughluq sent a second message to him, he expressed sympathy with Tughluq's cause. Multani stated that he was surrounded by Khusrau's allies, and therefore, would not take sides in the upcoming battle. He told Tughluq that he would withdraw on the approach of Tughluq's forces to Delhi, and that Tughluq could choose to retain him or kill him upon becoming
6417-402: The matter. In response, Tughluq asked him to come to Dipalpur with the son of the Uchch governor Bahram Aiba, who was also opposed to Khusrau Khan. Accordingly, Fakhruddin and his companions - which included some slaves and servants - left Delhi for Dipalpur on horses one afternoon. Tughluq sent his officer Muhammad Sartiah to take control of the Sirsa fort on the Delhi-Dipalpur route to secure
6510-432: The middle-period form only continuing in the texts of Zoroastrianism . Middle Persian is considered to be a later form of the same dialect as Old Persian. The native name of Middle Persian was Parsig or Parsik , after the name of the ethnic group of the southwest, that is, "of Pars ", Old Persian Parsa , New Persian Fars . This is the origin of the name Farsi as it is today used to signify New Persian. Following
6603-424: The midst of a civil war. After victory, he placed Nasiruddin on the throne of West Bengal as a vassal state, and East Bengal was annexed. On his way back to Delhi , he fought and defeated the Raja of Tirhut (north Bihar ) and annexed his territory. At Kara-Manikpur in February 1325, the wooden pavilion used for his reception collapsed, killing him and his second son Prince Mahmud Khan. Ibn Battuta claimed it
6696-525: The most widely spoken. The term Persian is an English derivation of Latin Persiānus , the adjectival form of Persia , itself deriving from Greek Persís ( Περσίς ), a Hellenized form of Old Persian Pārsa ( 𐎱𐎠𐎼𐎿 ), which means " Persia " (a region in southwestern Iran, corresponding to modern-day Fars ). According to the Oxford English Dictionary , the term Persian as
6789-461: The nationalist movement of the time. The academy was a key institution in the struggle to re-build Iran as a nation-state after the collapse of the Qajar dynasty. During the 1930s and 1940s, the academy led massive campaigns to replace the many Arabic , Russian , French , and Greek loanwords whose widespread use in Persian during the centuries preceding the foundation of the Pahlavi dynasty had created
6882-495: The necessity of protecting the Persian language against foreign words, and to the standardization of Persian orthography , were under the reign of Naser ed Din Shah of the Qajar dynasty in 1871. After Naser ed Din Shah, Mozaffar ed Din Shah ordered the establishment of the first Persian association in 1903. This association officially declared that it used Persian and Arabic as acceptable sources for coining words. The ultimate goal
6975-414: The next period most officially around the Sasanian Empire , and New era being the period afterward down to present day. According to available documents, the Persian language is "the only Iranian language" for which close philological relationships between all of its three stages are established and so that Old, Middle, and New Persian represent one and the same language of Persian; that is, New Persian
7068-713: The northern part of Greece). Vardar Yenicesi differed from other localities in the Balkans insofar as that it was a town where Persian was also widely spoken. However, the Persian of Vardar Yenicesi and throughout the rest of the Ottoman-held Balkans was different from formal Persian both in accent and vocabulary. The difference was apparent to such a degree that the Ottomans referred to it as "Rumelian Persian" ( Rumili Farsisi ). As learned people such as students, scholars and literati often frequented Vardar Yenicesi, it soon became
7161-529: The official language of the Achaemenid kings. Assyrian records, which in fact appear to provide the earliest evidence for ancient Iranian (Persian and Median) presence on the Iranian Plateau, give a good chronology but only an approximate geographical indication of what seem to be ancient Persians. In these records of the 9th century BCE, Parsuwash (along with Matai , presumably Medians) are first mentioned in
7254-628: The present territories of northwestern Afghanistan as well as parts of Central Asia, played a leading role in the rise of New Persian. Khorasan, which was the homeland of the Parthians, was Persianized under the Sasanians. Dari Persian thus supplanted Parthian language , which by the end of the Sasanian era had fallen out of use. New Persian has incorporated many foreign words, including from eastern northern and northern Iranian languages such as Sogdian and especially Parthian. The transition to New Persian
7347-569: The rebels agreed to join his camp. Two of the rebels -- Haydar and Zirak -- refused to oblige, and were easily defeated. Multani returned to Delhi after establishing peace and order in Gujarat. In 1318, the Devagiri governor Yak Lakhi staged a rebellion, and Multani was sent to subjugate him. Around this time, he was appointed as the wazir . After Mubarak Shah was killed in 1320, the new Sultan Khusrau Khan r. 1320– honoured Multani with
7440-578: The region during the following centuries. Persian continued to act as a courtly language for various empires in Punjab through the early 19th century serving finally as the official state language of the Sikh Empire , preceding British conquest and the decline of Persian in South Asia. Beginning in 1843, though, English and Hindustani gradually replaced Persian in importance on the subcontinent. Evidence of Persian's historical influence there can be seen in
7533-540: The reign of Sultan Ghiyathuddin Azam Shah is described as the "golden age of Persian literature in Bengal". Its stature was illustrated by the Sultan's own correspondence and collaboration with the Persian poet Hafez ; a poem which can be found in the Divan of Hafez today. A Bengali dialect emerged among the common Bengali Muslim folk, based on a Persian model and known as Dobhashi ; meaning mixed language . Dobhashi Bengali
7626-607: The site of a flourishing Persianate linguistic and literary culture. The 16th-century Ottoman Aşık Çelebi (died 1572), who hailed from Prizren in modern-day Kosovo , was galvanized by the abundant Persian-speaking and Persian-writing communities of Vardar Yenicesi, and he referred to the city as a "hotbed of Persian". Many Ottoman Persianists who established a career in the Ottoman capital of Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul ) pursued early Persian training in Saraybosna, amongst them Ahmed Sudi . The Persian language influenced
7719-561: The standard Persian of Tajikistan, has been officially designated as Tajik ( тоҷикӣ , tojikī ) since the time of the Soviet Union . It is the name given to the varieties of Persian spoken in Central Asia in general. The international language-encoding standard ISO 639-1 uses the code fa for the Persian language, as its coding system is mostly based on the native-language designations. The more detailed standard ISO 639-3 uses
7812-687: The standard Persian. The Hazaragi dialect (in Central Afghanistan and Pakistan), Herati (in Western Afghanistan), Darwazi (in Afghanistan and Tajikistan), Basseri (in Southern Iran), and the Tehrani accent (in Iran, the basis of standard Iranian Persian) are examples of these dialects. Persian-speaking peoples of Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan can understand one another with a relatively high degree of mutual intelligibility . Nevertheless,
7905-447: The sword and the pen. In 1304-05 (704 AH), ‘Ala’ al-Dīn Khaljī sent an army to Malwa , likely headed by Mūltānī who was subsequently appointed governor of the province. Multani played an important role in consolidating Alauddin's rule in Malwa. He forced the Paramara vassals of Ujjain , Dhar , and Chanderi to acknowledge Alauddin's suzerainty. Subsequently, he invaded Mandu , where
7998-423: The title "Alam Khan" to win him over. Subsequently, Ghazi Malik Tughluq , the muqta of Depalpur , tried to persuade Multani and other nobles to rebel against Khusrau Khan and avenge Mubarak Shah's death. When Multani received Tughluq's letter, he was concerned about the presence of Khusrau Khan's agents. Therefore, he took the letter to Khusrau Khan and assured the Sultan of his loyalty. However, when Tughuq wrote
8091-478: The use of Farsi in foreign languages. Etymologically, the Persian term Farsi derives from its earlier form Pārsi ( Pārsik in Middle Persian ), which in turn comes from the same root as the English term Persian . In the same process, the Middle Persian toponym Pārs ("Persia") evolved into the modern name Fars. The phonemic shift from /p/ to /f/ is due to the influence of Arabic in
8184-474: Was a conspiracy, hatched by his vizier , Jauna Khan (Khwajah Jahan). Persian language Russia Persian ( / ˈ p ɜːr ʒ ən , - ʃ ən / PUR -zhən, -shən ), also known by its endonym Farsi ( فارسی , Fārsī [fɒːɾˈsiː] ), is a Western Iranian language belonging to the Iranian branch of the Indo-Iranian subdivision of the Indo-European languages . Persian
8277-578: Was already complete by the era of the three princely dynasties of Iranian origin, the Tahirid dynasty (820–872), Saffarid dynasty (860–903), and Samanid Empire (874–999). Abbas of Merv is mentioned as being the earliest minstrel to chant verse in the New Persian tongue and after him the poems of Hanzala Badghisi were among the most famous between the Persian-speakers of the time. The first poems of
8370-446: Was loyal to Alauddin's family, and because he wanted to punish the criminals in Delhi. At Dipalpur, Tughluq and his son discussed the situation, and decided to put up a fight against Khusrau Khan. Tughluq declareidentical letters to five neighbouring governors, seeking their support: Tughluq sent another letter to Ayn al-Mulk Multani , who had become the wazir by this time. Multani was surrounded by Khusrau Khan's men when he received
8463-586: Was patronised and given official status under the Sultans of Bengal , and was a popular literary form used by Bengalis during the pre-colonial period, irrespective of their religion. Following the defeat of the Hindu Shahi dynasty, classical Persian was established as a courtly language in the region during the late 10th century under Ghaznavid rule over the northwestern frontier of the subcontinent . Employed by Punjabis in literature, Persian achieved prominence in
8556-600: Was taught in state schools, and was also offered as an elective course or recommended for study in some madrasas . Persian learning was also widespread in the Ottoman-held Balkans ( Rumelia ), with a range of cities being famed for their long-standing traditions in the study of Persian and its classics, amongst them Saraybosna (modern Sarajevo , Bosnia and Herzegovina), Mostar (also in Bosnia and Herzegovina), and Vardar Yenicesi (or Yenice-i Vardar, now Giannitsa , in
8649-484: Was to prevent books from being printed with wrong use of words. According to the executive guarantee of this association, the government was responsible for wrongfully printed books. Words coined by this association, such as rāh-āhan ( راهآهن ) for "railway", were printed in Soltani Newspaper ; but the association was eventually closed due to inattention. A scientific association was founded in 1911, resulting in
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