The Ghana Medical Association ( GMA ) represents physicians , surgeons and dentists working throughout Ghana . It was established in 1958 and is divided into ten divisions representing each region of Ghana as at the end of 2018.
107-543: The earliest medical organisation of medical staff was during the Gold Coast era when the Gold Coast Medical Practitioners Union was formed in 1933. This was founded by three doctors, Frederick Victor Nanka-Bruce who was the president and spokesman, C.E. Reindorf and W.A.C. Nanka-Bruce. J.E. Hutton Mills was the secretary. Following the establishment of an African government under colonial rule in 1951,
214-713: A poll tax covering the region, and most importantly a judicial system that asserted the right of the Confederation, not the British, to mete out justice. This Confederation was paralleled in the east by the Ga -led Accra Native Confederation . Amfo Otu the Paramount Chief of Abura Dunkwa and the de facto Defense Secretary and Supreme Commander of the Fante Army, marched the union forces to Komenda to join that city in its effort to prevent
321-807: A Ghana branch of the British Medical Association was formed in January 1953. This also had Nanka-Bruce as its first president. Both associations were merged to form the Ghana Medical Association on 4 January 1958. It was inaugurated by Kwame Nkrumah at the Arden Hall of the Ambassador Hotel in Accra . Charles Easmon was elected as the first president of the GMA. This council meets every other month. It
428-522: A London committee of merchants chose Captain George Maclean to become president of a local council of merchants. Although his formal jurisdiction was limited, Maclean's achievements were substantial; for example, he arranged a peace treaty with Asante in 1831. Maclean also supervised the coastal people by holding regular court in Cape Coast, where he sentenced and punished those found guilty of disturbing
535-466: A colony in 1901 and in 1902 it was made illegal to "compel or attempt the compel the services" or another person, but slavery was not explicitly abolished due to British fear that an abolition would cause "internal disorganization"; chattel slavery was formally banned in 1908, but the British authorities did not enforce the law until the 1920s. Military confrontations between Asante and the Fante contributed to
642-561: A colony on the Gold Coast: British reaction to the Asante wars and the resulting instability and disruption of trade, and Britain's increasing preoccupation with the suppression and elimination of the slave trade . During most of the 19th century, Asante, the most powerful state of the Akan interior, sought to expand its rule and to promote and protect its trade. The first Asante invasion of
749-657: A concession of about 160 square kilometres in which to prospect commercially for gold. Although certain tribal authorities profited greatly from the granting of mining concessions, it was the European mining companies and the colonial government that accumulated much of the wealth. Revenue from export of the colony's natural resources financed internal improvements in infrastructure and social services. The foundation of an educational system more advanced than any other else in West Africa also resulted from mineral export revenue. Many of
856-652: A confederacy to be recognised not only by the people of the Gold Coast, but also by the European powers. The confederacy was headed by the Chief of Mankessim , who was given the title of Breyni . It was the obligation of highest Chief to respect the wishes of a council of the leaders of the other major towns. Despite a similar political structure the Fante never managed to become as united as the Ashanti, though their differences were overcome when their kingdoms were under dire threat. During
963-425: A goal of filling half of the colony's technical positions with Africans as soon as they could be trained. His program has been described as the most ambitious ever proposed in West Africa up to that time. Another of the governor's programs led to the development of an artificial harbour at Takoradi, which then became Ghana's first port. Achimota College, which developed into one of the nation's finest secondary schools,
1070-483: A nucleus of malcontents ripe for disruptive action. They were now joined by farmers, who resented drastic governmental measures required to cut out diseased cacao trees to control an epidemic, and by many others who were unhappy that the end of the war had not been followed by economic improvements. Fante Confederacy The Fante Confederacy refers either to the alliance of the Fante states in existence at least since
1177-535: A plebiscite to become part of modern Ghana. Beginning in 1850, the coastal regions increasingly came under control of the governor of the British fortresses, who was assisted by the Executive Council and the Legislative Council. The Executive Council was a small advisory body of European officials that recommended laws and voted taxes, subject to the governor's approval. The Legislative Council included
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#17328989296361284-448: A small educated minority. Once the movement had begun, events moved rapidly—not always fast enough to satisfy the nationalist leaders, but still at a pace that surprised not only the colonial government but many of the more conservative African elements as well. As early as the latter part of the 19th century, a growing number of educated Africans increasingly found unacceptable an arbitrary political system that placed almost all power in
1391-542: A variety of natural resources: gold, metal ores, diamonds, ivory , pepper , timber, grain and cocoa . The British built railways and a complex transport infrastructure to ship these commodities, which forms the basis for the transport system of modern-day Ghana. By 1945, in the wake of a major colonial role in the Second World War, nationalists in the Gold Coast stood up to demand more autonomy, sharing power with Britain from 1951 to 1955. By 1956, British Togoland ,
1498-682: Is also often used to describe all of the four separate jurisdictions that were under the administration of the Governor of the Gold Coast . These were the Gold Coast itself, Ashanti , the Northern Territories protectorate and the British Togoland trust territory . The first European explorers to arrive at the coast were the Portuguese in 1471. They encountered a variety of African kingdoms, some of which controlled substantial deposits of gold in
1605-627: Is made up of the following persons: In November 2024, the Ghana Medical Association (GMA) held its 66th Annual General Conference in the Volta Region , focusing on improving internet access for healthcare through collaboration between the government and telecom companies. GMA President Dr. Frank Serebour highlighted telemedicine’s potential to enhance healthcare access and efficiency, especially in rural areas. The conference also noted barriers to telemedicine , such as limited internet infrastructure and regulatory concerns. Additionally, members discussed
1712-539: The African Company of Merchants signed a treaty of friendship that recognised Asante claims to sovereignty over large areas of the coast and its peoples. The assets of the African Company of Merchants consisted primarily of nine trading posts or factories : Fort William , Fort James , Fort Sekondi , Fort Winneba , Fort Apollonia , Fort Tantumquery , Fort Metal Cross , Fort Komenda , and Cape Coast Castle ,
1819-484: The Northern Territories protectorate and the Ashanti protectorate were annexed to the Gold Coast. The Ghana Independence Act 1957 constituted the Gold Coast Crown Colony as part of the new dominion of Ghana. By the late 19th century, the British, through conquest or purchase, occupied most of the forts along the coast. Two major factors laid the foundations of British rule and the eventual establishment of
1926-423: The 1850s they considered establishing European courts in place of traditional African ones. As a result of the exercise of ever-expanding judicial powers on the coast and also to ensure that the coastal peoples remained firmly under control, the British, following their defeat of Asante in 1874, proclaimed the former coastal protectorate a crown colony. The Gold Coast Colony, established on 24 July 1874, comprised
2033-550: The 21st century they continue to constitute the largest ethnic community in Ghana. Four Anglo-Ashanti Wars were fought between the Ashanti (Asante) and the British, who were sometimes allied with the Fante. The First Anglo-Ashanti War (1822–24), was fought over an insult to an Ashanti chief. Sergeant Kujo Otetfo of the British Royal African Colonial Corps, during an argument with an Ashanti trader, "grossly abused
2140-493: The Asante point of view, the British had failed to control the activities of their local coastal allies. Had this been done, Asante might not have found it necessary to attempt to impose peace on the coastal peoples. MacCarthy's encouragement of coastal opposition to Asante and the subsequent 1824 British military attack further indicated to Asante leaders that the Europeans, especially the British, did not respect Asante. In 1830,
2247-400: The Asante problem permanently, the British invaded Asante with a sizeable military force. The attack, launched in January 1874 by 2,500 British soldiers and large numbers of African auxiliaries, resulted in the occupation and burning of Kumasi , the Asante capital. The subsequent peace treaty required the Asante to renounce any claim to many southern territories. The Asante also had to keep
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#17328989296362354-518: The Ashanti and curtailing the amount of trade that could pass between over Fante lands, cutting off supplies to the confederacy. By the early nineteenth century, the Ashanti had consolidated the large parts of the middle region under their rule and began to plan for a full-scale invasion of the Fante Confederacy. In 1806 the Ashanti-Fante War began. The British largely confined their role in
2461-491: The Ashanti lost their independence. In 1900, they rebelled in the Ashanti Uprising , but the British suppressed the insurrection and captured the city of Kumasi. The territory of the Ashanti people became a British protectorate on 1 January 1902. By 1901, the British had established a colony incorporating all of the Gold Coast, with its kingdoms and tribes under a single administration. The British exploited and exported
2568-482: The Ashanti were pre-occupied with expanding their confederacy to the north rather than against the stronger coastal groups. The next few decades saw internal disputes within Ashanti. The Fante subsequently intervened, lending material support to rebel groups in Ashanti and offering safe harbour to refugees and dissidents fleeing the Ashanti Confederacy. The Fante introduced laws forbidding the selling of firearms to
2675-556: The British Crown. The British abolished the position of asantehene and exiled the incumbent from the colony. The core of the Asante federation accepted these terms grudgingly. In 1900, the Asante rebelled in the War of the Golden Stool but were defeated the next year. In 1902, the British proclaimed Asante a colony under the jurisdiction of the governor of the Gold Coast. The annexation
2782-417: The British did not enforce these laws, since the indigenous economy was dependent on slave labor and there were little oportunity for vage labor for former slaves; consequently, most slaves were never made aware of the anti-slavery laws, and slave owning and open slave dealing was tolerated until the British officials finally started to enforce the laws in 1911. In 1902 it was made illegal to "compel or attempt
2889-470: The British, the Fante became the administrators of the entire Gold Coast. The Fante leaders were the best-educated and wealthiest of the people's in the region. The Fante established long-distance maritime trade links with the kingdom of Kongo around the Congo-Angola region. This was accomplished with dugout canoes powered by sails of woven palm fronds . For the first half of the eighteenth century,
2996-555: The Confederation was failing to provide the needed protection. While the confederacy waged war against the Dutch in the south-west, they also waged war on their northern Flank with the Ashantis in protecting their vast territory. This proved to be a stretch too far for the state. British reaction to the Confederacy was mixed. Originally, the British had little interest in directly administering
3103-694: The Dutch after fighting both on different flanks for years. The Fante were adept in battle, and stories of their prowess soon spread through Europe. Fante Asafo battle flags have become prized collectible items in Europe and the Americas. Examples can be found here https://vatican.com/2/Other-Fante-Asafo-Flag , http://www.amatuli.co.za/Blog/ID/22/Fante-Flags Archived 2020-08-06 at the Wayback Machine and http://www.theconservationcenter.com/articles/2019/6/28/asafo-flags-a-stitch-in-time . This led to an 1868 meeting of
3210-470: The Dutch from taking control of the fort vacated by the British. This effort was successful and the Dutch were rebuffed. Amfo Otu, one of the Great Fante War Lords, next turned to trying to take Elmina , the centre of Dutch power on the coast. The attempt to storm the city failed and the Fante forces became bogged down in a long war. In 1871 the constitution was rewritten and a new Executive Council
3317-408: The Dutch would get all the forts to the west, including most of those in the Fante areas. These factors annoyed people throughout the region. Legally the local rulers saw the Europeans as tenants, and they demanded the right to approve the fort exchanges. The local rulers were not even consulted before the agreement was announced. The Fante also worried about the close relations between the Ashanti and
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3424-486: The Fante worked to play the Ashante off against the British while maintaining their independence, over time, however, British influence came to dominate the Fante lands. In 1844 the Fante leaders agreed to a bond with the British that made the area a protectorate of the British, but guaranteed internal control would remain with the local rulers. However, the British soon began to exceed the agreement, and intervened in life along
3531-532: The Gold Coast Regiment served with distinction in battles against German forces in Cameroon and in the long East Africa campaign. In World War II, troops from the Gold Coast emerged with even greater prestige after outstanding service in such places as Ethiopia and Burma. In the ensuing years, however, postwar problems of inflation and instability severely hampered readjustment for returning veterans, who were in
3638-530: The King of Ashanti, and it was this insignificant event that provided the spark that set the whole country in a blaze of war". In the Second Ashanti War (1873–74), the British sacked the Ashanti capital of Kumasi . The Third Ashanti War (1893–94) occurred because the new Ashanti ruler Asantehene wanted to exercise his new title. From 1895 to 1896 the British and Ashanti fought their fourth and final war, in which
3745-445: The Legislative Council were appointed by the governor. Official members always outnumbered unofficial members. The gradual emergence of centralised colonial government brought about unified control over local services, although the actual administration of these services was still delegated to local authorities. Specific duties and responsibilities came to be clearly delineated, and the role of traditional states in local administration
3852-537: The Legislative Council, Joseph E. Casely-Hayford , convened the National Congress of British West Africa , which sent a delegation to London to urge the Colonial Office to consider the principle of elected representation. The group, which claimed to speak for all British West African colonies, represented the first expression of political solidarity between intellectuals and nationalists of the area. Even though
3959-520: The Legislative Council, however, had to await a different political climate in London, which came about only with the postwar election of a British Labour Party government. The new Gold Coast constitution of 1946 (also known as the Burns constitution after Sir Alan Burns , the governor of the time) was a bold document. For the first time, the concept of an official majority was abandoned. The Legislative Council
4066-479: The Northern Territories and the surrounding French and German colonies. The Northern Territories were proclaimed a British protectorate in 1902. Like the Asante protectorate, the Northern Territories were placed under the authority of a resident commissioner who was responsible to the governor of the Gold Coast. The governor ruled both Asante and the Northern Territories by proclamations until 1946. With
4173-587: The Old Ghana Empire in present-day Mali. They believe the Akan people migrated further south after the collapse of Old Ghana. The Mfantefo (Fantes) settled in an area around modern-day Takyiman in Bono Ahafo. It was from there that their three revered warriors and leaders; Oson, Odapagyan and Obonomankoma led them further south to their current location in the Central Region of Ghana . The Fante had long been in
4280-472: The Sekondi-Tarkwa railroad, begun in 1898, was extended until it connected most of the important commercial centres of the south, and by 1937, there were 9,700 kilometres of roads. Telecommunication and postal services were initiated as well. New crops were also introduced and gained widespread acceptance. Cacao trees, introduced in 1878, brought the first cash crop to the farmers of the interior; it became
4387-529: The assembly of chiefs should become a permanent fixture of the protectorate's constitutional machinery, but the assembly was given no specific constitutional authority to pass laws or to levy taxes without the consent of the people. In 1872, British influence over the Gold Coast increased further when Britain purchased the Dutch Gold Coast . The Asante, who for years had considered the Dutch at Elmina as their allies, thereby lost their last trade outlet to
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4494-427: The beginning of his governorship of the Gold Coast, Guggisberg presented a 10-year development program to the Legislative Council. He suggested first the improvement of transportation. Then, in order of priority, his prescribed improvements included water supply, drainage, hydroelectric projects, public buildings, town improvements, schools, hospitals, prisons, communication lines, and other services. Guggisberg also set
4601-553: The benefits of artificial intelligence in diagnostics and recommended establishing standards to support its integration into healthcare. The president of the GMA since 2017 has been Frank Ankobea. There have been 22 past presidents as at 2018. Gold Coast (British colony) The Gold Coast was a British Crown colony on the Gulf of Guinea in West Africa from 1821 until its independence in 1957 as Ghana . The term Gold Coast
4708-429: The bond, and British influence was accepted, strengthened, and expanded. Under the terms of the 1844 arrangement, the British appeared to provide security to the coastal areas; thus, an informal protectorate came into being. As responsibilities for defending local allies and managing the affairs of the coastal protectorate increased, the administration of the Gold Coast was separated from Sierra Leone in 1850. At about
4815-441: The chiefs with honours, decorations, and knighthoods. Indirect rule tended to preserve traditional forms and sources of power, however, and it failed to provide meaningful opportunities for the growing number of educated young men anxious to find a niche in their country's development. Other groups were dissatisfied because there was not sufficient co-operation between the councils and the central government and because some felt that
4922-651: The coast, incorporating them into the British Gold Coast colony and taking over the local interests of other European countries. They purchased and incorporated the Danish Gold Coast in 1850 and the Dutch Gold Coast , including Fort Elmina , in 1872. Britain steadily expanded its colony through the invasion and subjection of local kingdoms as well, particularly the Ashanti and Fante confederacies . The Ashanti people had controlled much of Ghana before Europeans arrived, and were often in conflict with them. In
5029-473: The coast. The Fante leaders were displeased and felt the British were only interested in their trade. The most controversial action was an 1868 agreement between the British and Dutch to trade forts along the coast. Previously the entire coast had been a mix of British and Dutch forts. The British and Dutch governments agreed to exchange forts: the British would control all the forts east of the Kakum River , and
5136-475: The coastal area a colony, the British moved the colonial capital from Cape Coast to the former Danish castle at Christiansborg in Accra. The British sphere of influence was eventually extended to include Asante. Following the defeat of Asante in 1896, the British proclaimed a protectorate over the kingdom. Once the asantehene and his council had been exiled, the British appointed a resident commissioner to Asante, who
5243-504: The coastal areas and extended inland as far as the ill-defined borders of Asante. The coastal peoples did not greet this move with enthusiasm. They were not consulted about this annexation, which arbitrarily set aside the Bond of 1844 and treated its signatories like conquered territories. The British, however, made no claim to any rights to the land, a circumstance that probably explains the absence of popular resistance. Shortly after declaring
5350-410: The coastal chiefs to define Britain's relations with them. The government did so in 1843, the same year crown government was reinstated. Commander Henry Worsley Hill was appointed first governor of the Gold Coast . Under Maclean's administration, several coastal tribes had submitted voluntarily to British protection. Hill proceeded to define the conditions and responsibilities of his jurisdiction over
5457-539: The coastal regions took place in 1807; the Asante moved south again in the Ga-Fante War of 1811 and in the Ashanti–Akim–Akwapim War of 1814–16. These invasions, though not decisive, disrupted trade in such products as feathers, ivory, rubber and palm oil , and threatened the security of the European forts. Local British, Dutch, and Danish authorities were all forced to come to terms with the Asante. In 1817,
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#17328989296365564-504: The coastline. The Gold Coast had long been a name for the region used by Europeans because of the large gold resources found in the area. The slave trade was the principal exchange and major part of the economy for many years. In this period, European nations began to explore and colonize the Americas. Soon the Portuguese and Spanish began to export African slaves to the Caribbean, and North and South America. The Dutch and British also entered
5671-402: The colony of Sierra Leone . The British forts and Sierra Leone remained under common administration for the first half of the century. MacCarthy's mandate was to impose peace and to end the slave trade. He sought to do this by encouraging the coastal peoples to oppose Kumasi rule and by closing the great roads to the coast. Incidents and sporadic warfare continued, however. In 1824, MacCarthy
5778-490: The compel the services" or another person, but slavery was not explicitly abolished due to British fear that an abolition would cause "internal disorganization"; chattel slavery was formally banned in 1908, but the British authorities did not enforce the law until the 1920s. When the Kingdom of Ashanti was conquered by the British in 1896, the British assured the chiefs that they would be allowed to keep their slaves; Asante became
5885-418: The conflict to supplying the Fante with military equipment and supplies, continuing a decades-long tradition. The British continued sometimes to work with the Fante to curtail the Ashanti. With advice from the British in 1811 the Fante again went to war. While defeated in open battle the Fante were able to win the war by forcing the Ashanti to withdraw by employing guerilla tactics. For the next several decades
5992-664: The delegation was not received in London (on the grounds that it represented only the interests of a small group of urbanised Africans), its actions aroused considerable support among the African elite at home. Notwithstanding their call for elected representation as opposed to a system whereby the governor appointed council members, these nationalists insisted that they were loyal to the British Crown and that they merely sought an extension of British political and social practices to Africans. Notable leaders included Africanus Horton, Jr. ; J. M. Sarbah ; and S. R. B. Attah-Ahoma . Such men gave
6099-459: The early eighteenth century, the Fante expanded at the expense of smaller neighbouring states eventually annexing the lands of the Asebu , Cabesterra , and Agona . The Fante were allies of the British who supported their efforts against the rival Dutch, who were aligned with the Ashanti. The Fante Confederacy was smaller than the Ashanti, but through their control of the coastal trade and close links with
6206-538: The economic and civil improvements in the Gold Coast in the early part of the current century have been attributed to Frederick Gordon Guggisberg , governor from 1919 to 1927. Born in Galt (near Toronto), Canada, Guggisberg joined the British army in 1889. During the first decade of the 20th century, he worked as a surveyor in the British colonies of the Gold Coast and Nigeria, and later, during World War I, he served in France. At
6313-429: The effective colonisation of these territories, the intention of the British was to use both force and agreements to control chiefs in Asante and the north. Once indirect rule was implemented, the chiefs became responsible to the colonial authorities who supported them. In many respects, therefore, the power of each chief was greatly enhanced. Although Lugard pointed to the civilising influence of indirect rule, critics of
6420-408: The experience of the pre-colonial , colonial and post-independence era. The results indicate that for Ghana , the colonial period of the 20th century was not particularly bad. To be more precise the living standards improved rapidly in the first decade of 20th century when cocoa cultivation took off. In general, the performance of economy and living standard of colonial time shows a better record than
6527-501: The export of timber and gold. Gold, which initially brought Europeans to the Gold Coast, remained in the hands of Africans until the 1890s. Traditional techniques of panning and shaft mining, however, yielded only limited output. The development of modern modes of extracting minerals made gold mining an exclusively foreign-run enterprise. For example, the Ashanti Goldfields Corporation, which was organised in 1897, gained
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#17328989296366634-459: The forefront of growing discontent and unrest. Their war service and veterans' associations had broadened their horizons, making it difficult for them to return to the humble and circumscribed positions set aside for Africans by the colonial authorities. (See also Gold Coast in World War II ). As the country developed economically, the focus of government power gradually shifted from the hands of
6741-494: The forts in the area. The new state had a King-President as its head and below him a council of kings and elders and a national assembly representing a larger portion of the population. King Ghartey IV (c. 1820–1897) of Winneba was elected as the first King-President, while King Nana Amfo Otu Gyandoh I of Abura was placed in charge of the United armed forces. The new government created a standing army of some 15,000 men, introduced
6848-571: The government steadily increased its interest and support. In 1909, the government established a technical school and a teachers' training college at Accra; several other secondary schools were set up by the missions. The government steadily increased its financial backing for the growing number of both state and mission schools. In 1948, the country opened its first centre of higher learning, the University College. The colony assisted Britain in both World War I and World War II. From 1914 to 1918,
6955-413: The governor and his officials into those of Ghanaians. The changes resulted from the gradual development of a strong spirit of nationalism and were to result eventually in independence. The development of national consciousness accelerated quickly after World War II, when, in addition to ex-servicemen, a substantial group of urban African workers and traders emerged to lend mass support to the aspirations of
7062-499: The governor, were given wide powers of local government under the supervision of the central government's provincial commissioners, who assured that their policies would be those of the central government. In the year 1948 native Ghanaians decided to fight for their independence. The provincial councils and moves to strengthen them were not popular. Even by British standards, the chiefs were not given enough power to be effective instruments of indirect rule. Some Ghanaians believed that
7169-523: The growth of British influence on the Gold Coast. It was concern about Asante activities on the coast that had compelled the Fante states to sign the Bond of 1844. In theory, the bond allowed the British quite limited judicial powers—the trying of murder and robbery cases only. Also, the British could not acquire further judicial rights without the consent of the kings, chiefs, and people of the protectorate. In practice, however, British efforts to usurp more and more judicial authority were so successful that in
7276-457: The hands of the governor through his appointment of council members. In the 1890s, some members of the educated coastal elite organised themselves into the Aborigines' Rights Protection Society to protest a land bill that threatened traditional land tenure. This protest helped lay the foundation for political action that would ultimately lead to independence. In 1920, one of the African members of
7383-453: The hands of the governor, to whom the Legislative Council was responsible. Hence, the constitution, although greeted with enthusiasm as a significant milestone, soon encountered trouble. World War II had just ended, and many Gold Coast veterans who had served in British overseas expeditions returned to a country beset with shortages, inflation, unemployment, and black-market practices. There veterans, along with discontented urban elements, formed
7490-445: The last of which was the administrative centre. The coastal people, primarily some of the Fante and the inhabitants of the new town of Accra , who were chiefly Ga , came to rely on British protection against Asante incursions. But the merchant companies had limited ability to provide such security. The British Crown dissolved the company in 1821, giving authority over British forts on the Gold Coast to Charles MacCarthy , governor of
7597-465: The leading Fante Paramount Chiefs and also representatives of their Akan allies Denkyira , Wassa , Twifu and Assin , who met in Mankessim , the traditional Fante Capital Town and formed a Confederation. The Confederate States, due to war with the Dutch and Danish, became allies of the British, but also demanded the right to self-government. They also promised to prevent the Dutch from assuming control of
7704-576: The local authorities were too dominated by the British district commissioners. In 1925, provincial councils of chiefs were established in all three territories of the colony, partly to give the chiefs a colony-wide function. This move was followed in 1927 by the promulgation of the Native Administration Ordinance, which replaced an 1883 arrangement that had placed chiefs in the Gold Coast Colony under British supervision. The purpose
7811-419: The mainstay of the nation's economy in the 1920s when disease wiped out Brazil's trees. The production of cocoa was largely in the hands of Africans. The Cocoa Marketing Board was created in 1947 to assist farmers and to stabilise the production and sale of their crop. By the end of that decade, the Gold Coast was exporting more than half of the world's cocoa supply. The colony's earnings increased further from
7918-477: The members of the Executive Council and unofficial members initially chosen from British commercial interests. After 1900 three chiefs and three other Africans were added to the Legislative Council, these being chosen from the Europeanized communities of Accra, Cape Coast, and Sekondi. The inclusion of Africans from Asante and the Northern Territories did not take place until much later. Prior to 1925, all members of
8025-422: The mid-1930s, however, a gradual rapprochement between chiefs and intellectuals had begun. Agitation for more adequate representation continued. Newspapers owned and managed by Africans played a major part in provoking this discontent—six were being published in the 1930s. As a result of the call for broader representation, two more unofficial African members were added to the Executive Council in 1943. Changes in
8132-431: The nationalist movement a distinctly elitist flavour that was to last until the late 1940s. The constitution of 1925, promulgated by Gordon Guggisberg , created provincial councils of paramount chiefs for all but the northern provinces of the colony. These councils in turn elected six chiefs as unofficial members of the Legislative Council. Although the new constitution appeared to recognise African sentiments, Guggisberg
8239-413: The natives, because it exposed traditional rulers to the benefits of European political organisation and values. This "civilizing" process notwithstanding, indirect rule had the ultimate advantage of guaranteeing the maintenance of law and order. The application of indirect rule in the Gold Coast became essential, especially after Asante and the Northern Territories were brought under British rule. Before
8346-647: The north under British control, the three territories of the Gold Coast—the Colony (the coastal regions), Asante, and the Northern Territories—became, for all practical purposes, a single political unit, or crown colony, known as "the dependency" or simply as the Gold Coast. The borders of present-day Ghana were realised in May 1956 when the people of the Volta region, known as British Mandated Togoland, voted in
8453-400: The peace. Between 1830 and 1843, while Maclean was in charge of affairs on the Gold Coast, no confrontations occurred with Asante. The volume of trade reportedly increased threefold. Maclean's exercise of limited judicial power on the coast was so effective that a parliamentary committee recommended that the British government permanently administer its settlements and negotiate treaties with
8560-453: The policy argued that the element of popular participation was removed from the traditional political system. Despite the theoretical argument in favour of decentralisation, indirect rule in practice caused chiefs to look to Accra (the capital) rather than to their people for all decisions. Many chiefs and elders came to regard themselves as a ruling aristocracy. Their councils were generally led by government commissioners, who often rewarded
8667-423: The policy, indirect rule was cost effective because it reduced the number of European officials in the field. By allowing local rulers to exercise direct administrative control over their people, opposition to European rule from the local population would be minimised. The chiefs, however, were to take instructions from their European supervisors. The plan, according to Lugard, had the further advantage of civilising
8774-409: The post-independence period. It was through British-style education that a new Ghanaian elite gained the means and the desire to strive for independence. During the colonial years, the country's educational institutions improved markedly. From beginnings in missionary schools, the early part of the 20th century saw significant advances in many fields, and, although the missions continued to participate,
8881-472: The protected areas. He negotiated a special treaty with a number of Fante and other local chiefs that became known as the Bond of 1844 . This document obliged local leaders to submit serious crimes, such as murder and robbery, to British jurisdiction; it laid the legal foundation for subsequent British colonisation of the coastal area. Additional coastal states as well as other states farther inland eventually signed
8988-588: The provincial councils were empowered to become tribunals to decide matters of customary law when the dispute lay between chiefs in different hierarchies. Until 1939, when the Native Treasuries Ordinance was passed, however, there was no provision for local budgets. In 1935, the Native Authorities Ordinance combined the central colonial government and the local authorities into a single governing system. New native authorities, appointed by
9095-474: The rapid growth of the Ashanti Confederacy in the early eighteenth century that began to threaten the security of the surrounding region. Sanders argues that the same forces that were driving the expansion and centralisation of the Ashanti, the lucrative trade with the Europeans and the introduction of firearms and other weapons, also fueled the increasing unity of the Fante. The Fante united and produced
9202-426: The reforms, by increasing the power of the chiefs at the expense of local initiative, permitted the colonial government to avoid movement toward any form of popular participation in the colony's government. The years of British administration of the Gold Coast during the 20th century were an era of significant progress in social, economic, and educational development. Communications were greatly improved. For example,
9309-409: The region both inland and on the coast of what is today Ghana . In the sixteenth century, they began to expand along the coastal areas in order to defend from foreign invaders. The establishment of the confederacy was a proclamation of the several small independent kingdoms that made-up the Fante tribes. The standard explanation has long been that the Fante states were forced to form a confederation by
9416-440: The region themselves and some felt a self-governing European style state was a positive development. However, other British representatives in the region and in London saw the Confederacy as a dangerous precedent that was anti-British and doomed to failure. The Dutch, while winning militarily against the Fante, could little afford to fight a war in West Africa and decided to abandon the entire Gold Coast. The British, now in control of
9523-491: The resources of the state. It proved unable to collect much of the poll tax, and the British refused to allow the Confederacy to tax lucrative trade in the region. For a time the Ghartey brothers funded the state out-of-pocket , but soon the Confederacy's coffers dwindled. Moreover, the fighting with the Dutch and its allies had left the northern part of the Confederacy, on the border with the Ashanti, undefended and these regions felt
9630-411: The road to Kumasi open to trade. From this point on, Asante power steadily declined. The confederation slowly disintegrated as subject territories broke away and as protected regions defected to British rule. Enforcement of the treaty led to recurring difficulties and outbreaks of fighting. In 1896, the British dispatched another expedition that occupied Kumasi and forced Asante to become a protectorate of
9737-405: The same time, growing acceptance of the advantages offered by the British presence led to the initiation of another important step. In April 1852, local chiefs and elders met at Cape Coast to consult with the governor on means of raising revenue. With the governor's approval, the council of chiefs constituted itself as a legislative assembly. In approving its resolutions, the governor indicated that
9844-493: The sea. To prevent this loss and to ensure that revenue received from that post continued, the Asante staged their last invasion of the coast in 1873. After early successes, they finally came up against well-trained British forces who compelled them to retreat beyond the Pra River . Later attempts to negotiate a settlement with the British were rejected by the commander of their forces, Major General Sir Garnet Wolseley . To settle
9951-518: The sixteenth century, or it can also refer to the modern Confederation formed in 1868. The Confederation is seen as one of the first and most prominent self-rule movements in Ghana and the entirety of Africa. Its mission was to shake off colonialism and establish a modern free democratic state. All Fante substates including the Abura, Goamoa, Oguaa, Edina, Ekumfi, Asebu, Edith and many others, joined this Union. Fantes, like all Akans, trace their ancestry to
10058-407: The slave trade, at first supplying slaves to markets in the Caribbean and on the Caribbean coast of South America. The Royal Trading Company was established by the British Crown in 1752 and succeeded by the African Company of Merchants , which led British trading efforts into the early 19th century. In 1821, the British government withdrew the company's charter and seized privately held lands along
10165-570: The society; a traditional leader continued to rule not only because he was the choice of what may be termed the nobility, but also because he was accepted by his people. The unseating or destooling of a chief by tribal elders was a fairly common practice if the chief failed to meet the desires or expectations of the community. Traditional chiefs figured prominently in the system of indirect rule adopted by British authorities to administer their colonies in Africa. According to Frederick Lugard , architect of
10272-509: The soil. In 1483, the Portuguese came to the continent for increased trade. They built the Castle of Elmina , the first European settlement on the Gold Coast. From here they acquired slaves and gold in trade for European goods, such as metal knives, beads, mirrors, rum, and guns. News of the successful trading spread quickly, and British, Dutch, Danish, Prussian and Swedish traders arrived as well. The European traders built several forts along
10379-399: Was also a Guggisberg idea. When measuring the influence of living standard during the colonial period, the obvious constraint of a long-term perspective is the limited amount of proper data and a consistent measure of human well-being. The anthropometric methods provide a way to overcome the limitations, and reveal the evolution of the long run. Baten drew a long run trend that included
10486-400: Was also clarified. The structure of local government had its roots in traditional patterns of government. Village councils of chiefs and elders were almost exclusively responsible for the immediate needs of individual localities, including traditional law and order and the general welfare. The councils, however, ruled by consent rather than by right. Chiefs were chosen by the ruling class of
10593-409: Was concerned primarily with protecting British interests. For example, he provided Africans with a limited voice in the central government; yet, by limiting nominations to chiefs, he drove a wedge between chiefs and their educated subjects. The intellectuals believed that the chiefs, in return for British support, had allowed the provincial councils to fall completely under control of the government. By
10700-490: Was created. Amfo Otu and Edu of Mankessim were elected co-King-Presidents, but shortly afterward Amfo Otu's role was switched to the General Field Marshal and Edu became the sole King-President. The Fante Confederacy was substantially weakened by European powers including the British, Dutch and Danish. They saw it as a threat to their control and dominance of Africa. The long fighting around Elmina soon began to drain
10807-424: Was given both civil and criminal jurisdiction over the territories. Each Asante state was administered from Kumasi as a separate entity and was ultimately responsible to the governor of the Gold Coast. As noted above, Asante became a colony following its final defeat in 1901. In the meantime, the British became interested in the broad areas north of Asante, known generally as the Northern Territories. This interest
10914-518: Was killed and most of his force was wiped out in a battle with Asante forces. The British were able to defeat an Asante invasion of the coast in 1826 with a combined force of British and local forces, including the Fante and the people of Accra. When the British government allowed control of the Gold Coast settlements to revert to the British African Company of Merchants in the late 1820s, relations with Asante were still problematic. From
11021-665: Was made with misgivings and recriminations on both sides. With Asante subdued and annexed, British colonisation of the region became a reality. The British finally succeeded in their earlier plans to abolish slavery and slave trade. In 1874, the British declared all children born to slaves in the Gold Coast Protectorate after 1 January 1875 were born free, thereby introducing a gradual abolition of slavery in line with their policy in India. The British followed up these reforms by banning debt bondage and enslavement by pawning. However,
11128-512: Was not a priority among British leaders until after rioting and looting in Accra and other towns and cities in early 1948 over issues of pensions for ex-servicemen, the dominant role of foreigners in the economy, the shortage of housing, and other economic and political grievances. With elected members in a decisive majority, Ghana had reached a level of political maturity unequaled anywhere in colonial Africa. The constitution did not, however, grant full self-government. Executive power remained in
11235-431: Was now composed of six ex officio members, six nominated members, and eighteen elected members. The 1946 constitution also admitted representatives from Asante into the council for the first time. Even with a Labour Party government in power, however, the British continued to view the colonies as a source of raw materials that were needed to strengthen their crippled economy. Change that would place real power in African hands
11342-500: Was prompted primarily by the need to forestall the French and the Germans, who had been making rapid advances in the surrounding areas. British officials had first penetrated the area in the 1880s, and after 1896 protection was extended to northern areas whose trade with the coast had been controlled by Asante. In 1898 and 1899, European colonial powers amicably demarcated the boundaries between
11449-427: Was to clarify and to regulate the powers and areas of jurisdiction of chiefs and councils. Councils were given specific responsibilities over disputed elections and the unseating of chiefs; the procedure for the election of chiefs was set forth; and judicial powers were defined and delegated. Councils were entrusted with the role of defining customary law in their areas (the government had to approve their decisions), and
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