159-712: Before World War II During World War II The Anti-Comintern Pact , officially the Agreement against the Communist International was an anti-Communist pact concluded between Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan on 25 November 1936 and was directed against the Communist International (Comintern). It was signed by German ambassador-at-large Joachim von Ribbentrop and Japanese ambassador to Germany Kintomo Mushanokōji . Italy joined in 1937 (earlier it had signed
318-520: A Generalleutnant . On 5 November 1937, the conference was held between the Reich's top military-foreign policy leadership and Hitler, which was recorded in the so-called Hossbach Memorandum . At the conference, Hitler stated that it was the time for war or, more accurately, wars, as what Hitler envisioned were a series of localised wars in Central and Eastern Europe in the near future. Hitler argued that because
477-785: A Free Conservative member of the German Reichstag and Chamberlain of King William II of Württemberg . Neurath studied law in Tübingen and in Berlin . After graduating in 1897, he initially joined a local law firm in his home town. In 1901, he entered into civil service and worked for the Foreign Office in Berlin. In 1903, he was assigned to the German embassy in London , at first as Vice-Consul and from 1909 as Legationsrat (legation counsel). After
636-858: A German-Japanese alliance against the USSR, or at least a promise of non-support for the Soviet Union in case of a war between one of the countries against it. This change in Comintern policy also made it urgent for the European fascists to prevent the strengthening of leftist popular fronts against them. The Republic of China was an important partner to the Germans, but a bitter enemy of the Japanese Empire, as Japan had invaded Manchuria in 1931 . Although Ribbentrop hoped to involve both China and Japan in his anti-communist bloc,
795-577: A U.S.-based Christian rights group, in 2006, Gao was sentenced to a suspended three-year sentence for " incitement to subversion " against the communist state, and ultimately was imprisoned in Xinjiang in December 2011. Released from prison in August 2014, he was placed under house arrest. In a memoir published in 2016, Gao recounted the torture sessions and three years of solitary confinement, during which he said he
954-580: A central party figure after the Nazis' rise to power in 1933, Ōkawa's audience was more limited. Ōkawa found his main support base with young nationalistic military officers, particularly those in the Kwantung Army, the military unit that instigated Japan's initial invasion of North East China in 1931. Ōkawa's work was in late 1936 furthered by Takeo Nimiya's influential foreign policy pamphlet "The Unique Principles Guiding Japanese Diplomacy", in which Takeo laid out
1113-505: A domestic affair. In French foreign policy, the 1934 German–Polish Non-Aggression Pact had caused concerns about the stability of the French alliance system in eastern Europe, leading to a French realignment towards the Soviet Union that resulted in the 1936 Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance . The Spanish Civil War , in which Germany supported the Nationalists and the Soviet Union
1272-858: A former spy for the Soviet Union who testified against his fellow spies before the House Un-American Activities Committee ; Bella Dodd was another American anticommunist. Other anti-communists who were once Marxists include the writers Max Eastman , John Dos Passos , James Burnham , Morrie Ryskind , Frank Meyer , Will Herberg , Sidney Hook , the contributors to the book The God That Failed : Louis Fischer , André Gide , Arthur Koestler , Ignazio Silone , Stephen Spender Tajar Zavalani and Richard Wright . Anti-communists who were once socialists, liberals or social democrats include John Chamberlain , Friedrich Hayek , Raymond Moley , Norman Podhoretz , David Horowitz , and Irving Kristol . A wave of revolutionary impulses since
1431-580: A further restraint on the Soviet Union. The two countries shared a common ideological antagonist in the communism, which was extensively covered in the German and Japanese media and perceived as a real threat of subversion among German and Japanese political elites. As a result of Japanese reservations about an outright military alliance, the Anti-Comintern Pact was conceptualized as an anti-communist agreement rather than an outright military alliance. However,
1590-666: A government sponsored rally against potential North Korean military aggression on Yeouido Island in Seoul to an audience of around 1 million. In 1976, Moon established News World Communications , an international news media conglomerate which publishes The Washington Times newspaper in Washington, D.C., and newspapers in South Korea, Japan, and South America, partly to promote political conservatism. According to The Washington Post , "the Times
1749-609: A high critical campaign against the Leninist regime denouncing the atrocities committed by them against him and the Hungarian people. The Leninist government accused him and demanded that the Vatican remove him the title of Archbishop of Esztergom and forbid him to make public speeches against communism. The Vatican eventually annulled the excommunication imposed on his political opponents and stripped him of his titles. Pope Paul VI , who declared
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#17330847371101908-431: A huge rearmament program. Its goal, a Red penetration of many areas, interferes with Japan's East Asia policy and poses a grave threat to our empire's defense. Thwarting the Soviet Union's aggressive intention therefore has become the most crucial element in our diplomacy. This goal must be achieved by diplomatic means and by completion of a defense buildup. [...] Germany has interests that closely parallels ours vis-a-vis
2067-506: A lie fabricated by a handful of anti-China people to tarnish China's reputation. The virulent accusations made during the hearing had already been robustly refuted seven years before, not only by Chinese authorities but also by diplomats and journalists of several other countries who conducted their own conscientious investigations in China, including officers and staff of the U.S. Embassy in Beijing and
2226-511: A news conference at which he confirmed that none of the human bodies exhibited had come from China. The statement made by Hagens refuted the Falun Gong's rumors. According to Chinese government officials, "[t]he allegations that Falun Gong members are being murdered in China for organ harvesting, as well as the Kilgour-Matas report, have long before been found false and proved to be nothing but
2385-494: A notable voice of dissent against the Communist Party by founding organizations such as the far-right Epoch Times , New Tang Dynasty Television and others that criticize the Communist Party. Falun Gong activists repeatedly alleged that they were tortured while they were in custody. The Chinese government rejects the allegations, stating that deaths which occurred in custody occurred due to factors such as natural causes and
2544-414: A partnership with Britain over a partnership with Japan. The execution of German foreign policy was nominally left to Konstantin von Neurath 's foreign ministry, but Joachim von Ribbentrop headed the semi-autonomous Dienststelle Ribbentrop , created in late 1934, where he could carry out Hitler's personal foreign policy requests independently from foreign ministry consent. This created a rivalry between
2703-690: A public protest against the Soviet Union in response to its shooting down of Korean Airlines Flight 007 . In 1984, the HSA–UWC founded the Washington Institute for Values in Public Policy, a Washington, D.C. think tank that underwrites conservative-oriented research and seminars at Stanford University , the University of Chicago , and other institutions. In the same year, member Dan Fefferman founded
2862-512: A response to the growing threat that the Soviet Union posed in Asia and the close parallels between Japanese and German interests regarding the USSR. This document also revealed intentions to include other European, Islamic and Asian countries in the anti-Soviet pact and specifically named Poland as a potential candidate for pact membership. Both the Japanese and German movements shared an aversion towards
3021-670: A result of the possible irritation of the Chinese government and the potential misgivings of the Soviet government about the potential perception of an attempted encirclement by a German-Japanese entente, such a recognition of Manchukuo was initially opposed by Neurath and the foreign ministry. In response to his initial request to recognize Manchukuo, Dirksen was instructed to avoid "any close relations with Japan which might lay [Germany] open to being suspected of wishing to render assistance against Russia". This German caution towards any offense cast against
3180-592: A secret additional protocol which specified a joint German-Japanese policy specifically aimed against the Soviet Union. After August 1939, Japan distanced itself from Germany as a result of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. The Anti-Comintern Pact was followed by the September 1940 Tripartite Pact , which identified the United States as the primary threat rather than the Soviet Union (although in theory applying to
3339-462: A three-star general. Late in the war, Neurath had contacts with the German resistance . The Allies prosecuted Neurath at the Nuremberg trials in 1946. Otto von Lüdinghausen appeared for his defence. The prosecution accused him of " conspiracy to commit crimes against peace; planning, initiating and waging wars of aggression; war crimes and crimes against humanity ". Neurath's defence strategy
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#17330847371103498-741: A view to then rejoining the "purged" ALP, the DLP preferenced the Liberal Party of Australia (LPA), enabling them to remain in power for over two decades. The strategy was unsuccessful and after the Whitlam government during the 1970s the majority of the DLP decided to wind up the party in 1978, although the small federal and state-based Democratic Labour Party continued based in Victoria, with state parties reformed in New South Wales and Queensland in 2008. After
3657-501: A vision of a long-term orientation of Japanese diplomacy around a racially justified expansionist policy based on traditional Japanese spiritual values rather than western-style imperialism. Nimiya's pamphlet was especially popular with young bureaucrats and students who were about to enter Japanese state politics in the late 1930s and early 1940s. The Soviet Union's revolutionary pressure on Asia increases as it continues to strengthen its national defense and international position through
3816-555: A well known anarchist school of thought, there are also anarchists who oppose communism. Anti-communist anarchists include anarcho-primitivists and other green anarchists , who critique communism for its need of industrialisation and its perceived authoritarianism. In The Communist Manifesto , Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels outlined some provisional short-term measures that could be steps towards communism . They noted that "these measures will, of course, be different in different countries. Nevertheless, in most advanced countries,
3975-503: Is political and ideological opposition to communist beliefs, groups, and individuals. Organized anti-communism developed after the 1917 October Revolution in Russia , and it reached global dimensions during the Cold War , when the United States and the Soviet Union engaged in an intense rivalry. Anti-communism has been an element of many movements and different political positions across
4134-399: Is "considered by some to be one of the most important books on political theory of the 20th century". The God That Failed is a 1949 book which collects together six essays with the testimonies of a number of famous former communists who were writers and journalists. The common theme of the essays is the authors' disillusionment with and abandonment of communism. The promotional byline to
4293-584: Is still quite a possibility that the latter should be content to have him remain as a figurehead for some time yet". He was involved in the German withdrawal from the League of Nations in 1933, the negotiations of the Anglo-German Naval Agreement (1935) and the remilitarisation of the Rhineland . Neurath was also made a member of Hans Frank 's Academy for German Law . To mark the fourth anniversary of
4452-512: The Machtergreifung on 30 January 1933. During the early days of Hitler's rule, Neurath lent an aura of respectability to Hitler's expansionist foreign policy. In May 1933, the American chargé d'affaires reported, "Baron von Neurath has shown such a remarkable capacity for submitting to what in normal times could only be considered as affronts and indignities on the part of the Nazis, that it
4611-452: The 1926 Treaty of Berlin . Germany was already agitating against the Soviet Union in 1935 when after a previous German–Polish declaration of non-aggression , through Hermann Goring proposed a military alliance with Poland against the Soviet Union, but this was rejected. Germany made later approaches to Poland nevertheless. In a note on the day of the signing of the Anti-Comintern Pact, 25 November 1936, Ribbentrop informed Mushanokōji that
4770-528: The Anti-Comintern Pact . Italy joined as a signatory in 1937 and other countries in or affiliated with the Axis Powers such as Finland and Spain joined in 1941. In the first article of the treaty, Germany and Japan agreed to share information about Comintern activities and to plan their operations against such activities jointly. In the second article, the two parties opened the possibility of extending
4929-458: The Civic Union for Stability, Justice & Progress , Constructive Ecological Movement , Russian Democratic Reform Movement , Dignity and Mercy , and Women of Russia . Even though these movements were not successful in contesting the election, they displayed how there was still a strong support of anti-communism after the collapse of the Soviet Union. All of these movements were all critical of
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5088-726: The French Revolution that had swept over Europe and other parts of the world and thus also created as a counter-revolutionary reaction. Historian James H. Billington describes, in the book Fire in the Minds of Men , the historical frame of revolutions that extended from the waning of the French Revolution in the late eighteenth century and that culminated in the Russian Revolution . Most exiled Russian White émigré that included exiled Russian liberals were actively anti-communist in
5247-488: The Gesamtverband Deutscher antikommunistischer Vereinigungen (abbr. GDAV, 'general association of German anti-communist federations'), was a German agency established by Joseph Goebbels in 1933. Its activities covered a wide range of operations designed to denounce communism in general and the Soviet Union in particular, push antisemitic propaganda and garner domestic and international support for Nazi policy. It
5406-471: The Great Depression , when they organized street battles against German Communist formations. When Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933, his propaganda chief Joseph Goebbels set up the " Anti-Komintern ". It published massive amounts of anti-Bolshevik propaganda , with the goal of demonizing Bolshevism and the Soviet Union before a worldwide audience. In 1936, Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan signed
5565-621: The Italian Communist Party (PCI) from reaching power. From 1945 onward, the Australian Labor Party (ALP) leadership accepted the assistance of an anti-communist Roman Catholic movement, led by B. A. Santamaria to oppose alleged communist subversion of Australian trade unions, of which Catholics were an important traditional support base. Bert Cremean , Deputy Leader of State Parliamentary Labor Party and Santamaria, met with ALP's political and industrial leaders to discuss
5724-511: The Italo-Soviet Pact directed partly against Hitler), but it was legally recognized as an original signatory by the terms of its entry. Spain and Hungary joined in 1939. Other countries joined during World War II. The Japanese signatories had hoped that the Anti-Comintern Pact would effectively be an alliance against the Soviet Union , which was how the Soviets perceived it. There was also
5883-539: The Kremlin has," for dividing the bipartisan foreign policy of the United States. Liberal anti-communists like Edward Shils and Daniel Moynihan had a contempt for McCarthyism. As Moynihan put it, "reaction to McCarthy took the form of a modish anti anti-communism that considered impolite any discussion of the very real threat Communism posed to Western values and security." After revelations of Soviet spy networks from
6042-700: The Night of the Long Knives — would have been futile if not dangerous. In response to the reservations expressed at the conference, Hitler tightened his control of the military-foreign policy making apparatus by removing those who expressed reservations at the November conference: Blomberg, Fritsch and Neurath. On 4 February 1938, Neurath was sacked as Foreign Minister with Blomberg and Fritsch also losing their posts (the Blomberg–Fritsch Affair ). Neurath felt his office
6201-563: The Petrov affair blamed "subversive" activities of the "Groupers" for the defeat. After bitter public dispute, many Groupers (including most members of the New South Wales and Victorian state executives and most Victorian Labor branches) were expelled from the ALP and formed the historical Democratic Labor Party (DLP). In an attempt to force the ALP reform and remove alleged Communist influence, with
6360-648: The Qing dynasty (r. 1908–1912, 1917). Following the Lytton Report , which laid the blame for the conflict in Manchuria firmly at the feet of the Japanese, Sir John Simon , the foreign secretary of the United Kingdom, failed to condemn Japan in his speech on 7 December 1932, and subsequently earned the favor of Japanese politicians such as Yōsuke Matsuoka , who viewed the lackluster British response as further encouragement for
6519-521: The Republicans , reinforced the urgency in the mind of the German leadership to create some sort of anti-Soviet military arrangement to counteract a potential aggression by the Soviet Union. The Spanish nationalists also received aid from Mussolini's Italy ( Corpo Truppe Volontarie ), but the Italian attitude to a potential anti-communist or anti-Soviet agreement was initially the opposite of the German position:
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6678-471: The Secret Cabinet Council , a purported super-cabinet to advise Hitler on foreign affairs. On paper, it appeared that Neurath had been promoted. However, this body only existed on paper; Hermann Göring subsequently testified that it never met, "not for a minute". In March 1939, Neurath was appointed Reichsprotektor of occupied Bohemia and Moravia , serving as Hitler's personal representative in
6837-507: The Soviet Union under the rule of Joseph Stalin . Also on the left-wing, Arthur Koestler —a former member of the Communist Party of Germany —explored the ethics of revolution from an anti-communist perspective in a variety of works. His trilogy of early novels testified to Koestler's growing conviction that utopian ends do not justify the means often used by revolutionary governments. These novels are The Gladiators (which explores
6996-862: The Soviet occupation of Hungary during the final stages of the Second World War, many clerics were arrested. The case of the Archbishop József Mindszenty of Esztergom , head of the Catholic Church in Hungary, was the most known. He was accused of treason to the Communist ideas and was sent to trials and tortured during several years between 1949 and 1956. During the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 against Marxism–Leninism and Soviet control, Mindszenty
7155-491: The Vichy regime and the Legion of French Volunteers against Bolshevism ( Wehrmacht Infantry Regiment 638) in France; and in South America movements such as the Argentine Anticommunist Alliance and Brazilian Integralism . Historians Ian Kershaw and Joachim Fest argue that in the early 1920s the Nazis were only one of many nationalist and fascist political parties contending for the leadership of Germany's anti-communist movement. The Nazis only came to dominance during
7314-462: The mainstream media and the alternative press , and many members of them said that it could lead to World War Three and a nuclear holocaust . The movement's anti-communist activities received financial support from Japanese millionaire and activist Ryōichi Sasakawa . In 1972, Moon predicted the decline of communism , based on the teachings of his book, the Divine Principle : "After 7,000 biblical years—6,000 years of restoration history plus
7473-422: The political spectrum , including anarchism , centrism , conservatism , fascism , liberalism , nationalism , social democracy , socialism , leftism , and libertarianism , as well as broad movements resisting communist governance . Anti-communism has also been expressed by several religious groups , and in art and literature . The first organization which was specifically dedicated to opposing communism
7632-411: The totalitarian and atheistic ideologies that have been associated with 'communism' in modern times. ... Regulating the economy solely by centralized planning perverts the basis of social bonds ... [Still,] reasonable regulation of the marketplace and economic initiatives, in keeping with a just hierarchy of values and a view to the common good, is to be commended". Pope John Paul II ,
7791-426: The 1920s and 1930s. Many of them had been active in the White movements that functioned as a big tent movement representing an array of political opinions in Russia united in their opposition to the Bolsheviks. In Britain, anti-communism was widespread among the British foreign policy elite in the 1930s with its strong upperclass connections. The upper-class Cliveden set was strongly anti-communist in Britain. In
7950-433: The 1930s. Liberal and social democrats in Germany formed the Iron Front to oppose communists, Nazi fascists, and revanchist conservative monarchists alike. In 1936, the Anti-Comintern Pact , initially between Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan , was formed as an anti-communist alliance. In Asia , Imperial Japan and the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalist Party) were the leading anti-communist forces in this period. By 1945,
8109-582: The 20th anniversary party for the Times , Moon said: "The Washington Times will become the instrument in spreading the truth about God to the world." In 1980, members founded CAUSA International , an anti-communist educational organization based in New York City. In the 1980s, it was active in 21 countries. In the United States, it sponsored educational conferences for evangelical and fundamentalist Christian leaders as well as seminars and conferences for Senate staffers, Hispanic Americans and conservative activists. In 1986, CAUSA International sponsored
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#17330847371108268-457: The American entry into World War II, citing German and Italian support for Japanese aggression as the reason. The domestic situation in the French Third Republic was unstable. This provided the opportunity for France's rivals, especially Germany, to expand their influence, while at the same time weakening France's European partners, such as Poland and Czechoslovakia . The cabinet of Léon Blum , supported by France's popular front , had taken
8427-555: The Archdiocese of Esztergom officially vacated, refused to fill the seat while Mindszenty was still alive. According to the Christian Science Monitor , Gao Zhisheng , a Christian lawyer in China, is "one of the most persistent and courageous thorns" against China under communist rule. Gao gained acclaim for challenging the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) by defending coal miners, migrant workers, political activists, and people persecuted for their religious beliefs, including Christians and Falun Gong adherents. According to ChinaAid ,
8586-570: The Army's Preparedness and the Spirit Required" advocated strengthening the army and openly called for the reform of the civilian government and the reform of the Japanese state to better suit the military's goals. The Japanese imperial state's system was dubbed "a cone without vertex" by Japanese historian Ken Ishida . The Imperial Japanese Army (IJA), Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) and the Japanese foreign ministry each had its own agenda with regards as to how Japan should orient its foreign policy. The Japanese system, highly traditional and based around
8745-492: The Bolshevik regime, which they saw as betraying the war effort with peace with Germany, followed by annexed portions of the Soviet Union losing their self-determination. Later, knowledge of Stalinist show trials and other repressions in the USSR , from 1922 onward, led to a liberal anti-communist consensus by the start of WWII, which temporarily gave way during the WWII alliance with the Soviet Union. Historian Richard Powers distinguishes two main forms of anti-communism during
8904-439: The Civil War, Grand Duke Kirill Vladimirovich of Russia and Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich of Russia . Fascism is often considered to be a reaction to communist and socialist uprisings in Europe. Italian Fascism , founded and led by Benito Mussolini , took power after years of leftist unrest led many disgruntled conservatives to fear that a communist revolution was inevitable. Nazi Germany 's massacres and killings included
9063-684: The Cold War ended. Nevertheless, anti-communism remains an important intellectual element of many contemporary political movements. Organized anti-communist movements remain in opposition to the People's Republic of China and other communist states . Since the split of the communist parties from the socialist Second International to form the Marxist–Leninist Third International , social democrats have been critical of communism for its anti-liberal nature. Examples of left-wing critics of Marxist–Leninist states and parties are Friedrich Ebert , Boris Souvarine , George Orwell , Bayard Rustin , Irving Howe , and Max Shachtman . The American Federation of Labor
9222-415: The Communist International drastically changed the course that communist parties were advised to take in democratic systems. Instead of viewing the democratic and fascist parties as politically allied ( social fascism ), the communist movements were encouraged to ally with leftist and centrist forces (the policy of the popular front ) in order to prevent the rightists from gaining ground. Diplomatically,
9381-511: The Communist Party headquarters ( Zhongnanhai ) in a silent protest following an incident in Tianjin. Two months later, the Communist Party banned the practice, initiated a security crackdown and launched a propaganda campaign against it. Since 1999, Falun Gong practitioners in China have reportedly been subjected to torture , arbitrary imprisonment , beatings, forced labor , organ harvesting and psychiatric abuses . Falun Gong responded with their own media campaign and have emerged as
9540-439: The Contras , in addition to paying for flights by rebel leaders. CAUSA's aid to the Contras escalated after Congress cut off CIA funding for them. According to contemporary CIA reports, supplies for the anti-Sandinista forces and their families came from a variety of sources in the US ranging from Moon's Unification Church to U.S. politicians, evangelical groups and former military officers. In 1983, some American members joined
9699-415: The German government as protesting against the "excesses" of the genocide. In 1917, he temporarily quit the diplomatic service to succeed his uncle Julius von Soden as head of the royal Württemberg government. On 30 May 1901, Neurath married Marie Auguste Moser von Filseck (1875–1960) in Stuttgart . His son, Konstantin, was born in 1902, followed by his daughter, Winifred, in 1904. In 1919, Neurath, with
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#17330847371109858-428: The German government viewed these two treaties' terms as void under the secret additional protocol. Mushanokōji replied on the same day, expressing the Japanese government's "sincere satisfaction" with the German stance. This had been partially a result of the Japanese government's insistence, most notably in a request on 24 July 1936, to clarify the treaty's implications for past bilateral treaties between either party and
10017-415: The International Coalition for Religious Freedom in Virginia , which is active in protesting what it considers to be threats to religious freedom by governmental agencies. In August 1985, the Professors World Peace Academy , an organization founded by Moon, sponsored a conference in Geneva to debate the theme "The situation in the world after the fall of the communist empire." After the dissolution of
10176-484: The Italians viewed the signing of an anti-communist treaty as superfluous, as Italy's anti-communist commitment was in the Italian viewpoint sufficiently proven in their support for the Spanish nationalists. The Spanish Civil War was viewed by the Germans as concrete proof that the teachings of the Seventh World Congress of the Comintern, which had been specifically aimed against Germany (and Japan), were indeed affecting geopolitics. Anti-communism Anti-communism
10335-426: The Japanese course in China. Japan left the League of Nations as a result of the Lytton Report in February 1933. The Tanggu Truce ended the hostilities in Manchuria, but Japanese ambition in China was not yet satisfied. Between 1933 and 1936, Japanese foreign minister Kōki Hirota pursued the Hirota wakyo gaiko , the 'friendly diplomacy of Hirota'. Summed up by the Amau Doctrine of 1934, Japan viewed itself as
10494-421: The Japanese decision to withdraw from the League of Nations, and called upon Japan to accept its fate and to formulate a great plan for the next 100 years. The military subsequently continued its practice of publishing pamphlets with overt political content without prior coordination with the civilian government. In November 1936, about the time of the Anti-Comintern Pact's conclusion, the army pamphlet "Perfecting
10653-402: The Japanese military establishment was concerned about the growth of Soviet military strength, and Japanese military attachés in Europe had held conferences about the potential threat coming specifically from the USSR as early as 1929 to discuss potential countermeasures. The Japanese government on 8 August 1936 issued an internal document that specifically justified the German-Japanese alliance as
10812-421: The Japanese-Soviet negotiations. He inquired about it in a letter to Ribbentrop after the signing of the treaty on 25 November, and also mentioned the issue of border questions between Japanese-controlled Manchukuo and the USSR. Ribbentrop confirmed the German government's assent that Japan was autonomous and free to proceed in the matters mentioned by Mushanokōji his reply on the same day. The Anti-Comintern Pact
10971-403: The League of Nations, and both countries left the League during the year 1933. The two countries shared a similar list of diplomatic adversaries: The United Kingdom, the United States, and the Soviet Union. While the German and Japanese racial ideologies of the supposed superiority of the Aryan race and the Yamato race , respectively, showed parallels, these parallels should logically have made
11130-406: The Seventh World Congress also brought on the ' collective security ' policy in the Soviet Union, wherein the USSR would attempt to align with the western democracies to counteract the fascist regimes. The Seventh World Congress specifically declared fascist Germany and Japan, next to Poland, to be among the world's chief instigators of war. This declaration accelerated Ribbentrop's efforts to secure
11289-407: The Soviet Union in 1991 the Unification movement promoted extensive missionary work in Russia and other former Soviet nations. In the Muslim parts of the Soviet Union ( Caucasus and Central Asia), the party-state suppressed Islamic worship, education, association, and pilgrimage institutions that were seen as obstacles to ideological and social change along communist lines. Where the Islamic state
11448-466: The Soviet Union because of the special arrangement that exists between Russia and France. Hence, it is in Germany's interest to cooperate with us; and we in turn should promote close relations with Germany, leading to alliance between Japan and Germany. This relationship must be expanded to include Poland and other friendly European countries near the Soviet Union as well as other Asian and Islamic countries, as
11607-432: The Soviet Union resulted from the impression in Berlin that Japan during the year 1934 was under serious threat of diplomatic and military encirclement. Specifically, Dirksen was also instructed to pay close attention to any signs of a potential war between Japan and the USSR, which the Germans assumed the Soviet Union would probably receive the aid of the western democracies if it were to break out, although this potential war
11766-523: The Soviet Union. Japan had fought in the Great War on the side of the victorious Entente Powers . However, as part of the Washington Naval Conference of 1922 , the United States and United Kingdom successfully managed to both limit Japan's naval forces by treaty and to force Japan to surrender her gains in China made during World War I. While there were some advantages for Tokyo gained during
11925-497: The Soviet government over fishing rights in the Sea of Japan . As the Anti-Comintern Pact's secret additional protocol between Germany and Japan against the USSR was to forbid political treaties by either state with the Soviet Union without the express consent of the other party to the Anti-Comintern Pact, Japanese ambassador Mushanokōji was concerned whether the Pact would result in consequences for
12084-399: The Soviets as well), however by December 1941 this too was virtually inoperative. The Anti-Comintern Pact was subsequently renewed in November 1941 and saw the entry of several new members into the pact. The Nazi regime saw signing of the Anti-Comintern Pact as a "litmus test of loyalty". The Anti-Comintern Pact ceased to exist with the end of World War II. The Anti-Komintern , officially
12243-601: The Stalinist policy of the USSR, and some leftist parties and organizations within the movements called it an "unmitigated disaster for socialists" Milovan Djilas was a former Yugoslav communist official who became a prominent dissident and critic of communism. Leszek Kołakowski was a Polish communist who became a famous anti-communist. He was best known for his critical analyses of Marxist thought, especially his acclaimed three-volume history, Main Currents of Marxism , which
12402-806: The U.S. Consulate-General in Shenyang". In 2006, allegations emerged that a large number of Falun Gong practitioners had been killed to supply China's organ transplant industry . The Kilgour-Matas report found that "the source of 41,500 transplants for the six-year period 2000 to 2005 is unexplained" and concluded that "there has been and continues today to be large scale organ seizures from unwilling Falun Gong practitioners". Ethan Gutmann estimated that 65,000 Falun Gong practitioners were killed for their organs from 2000 to 2008. In 2009, courts in Spain and Argentina indicted senior Chinese officials for genocide and crimes against humanity for their role in orchestrating
12561-639: The Unification Church began supporting anti-communist organizations, including the World League for Freedom and Democracy founded in 1966 in Taipei , Republic of China (Taiwan), by Chiang Kai-shek , and the Korean Culture and Freedom Foundation , an international public diplomacy organization which also sponsored Radio Free Asia. The Unification movement was criticized for its anti-communist activism by
12720-516: The United Kingdom also, thus enabling Japan to be a partner in Ribbentrop's anti-British coalition. German alignment with Japan, against the wishes of the traditionally sinophile German foreign service and German public at large, began at the end of 1933. During the time of the Weimar Republic , the German government had made major treaties with the USSR, including the 1922 Treaty of Rapallo and
12879-537: The United Kingdom in particular was more than happy to let Japan proceed in Manchuria as long as British interests in southern and central China remained undisturbed. Even after the Shanghai Incident of 28 January 1932, the British attitude remained on the whole friendly to the Japanese cause and indifferent towards Chinese pleas for assistance. Among the few exceptions to this were British efforts to bring about peace in
13038-463: The United States, anti-communist fervor was at its highest during the late 1940s and early 1950s, when a Hollywood blacklist was established, the House Un-American Activities Committee held the televised Army–McCarthy hearings , led by Senator Joseph McCarthy , and the John Birch Society was formed. The White movement was a loose confederation of anti-communist forces that fought against
13197-482: The acquisition of resources from North China via subjugation, conquest of the western Pacific and South East Asia, and preparations for a war against the Soviet Union. Cooperative diplomacy will not solve the present emergency, which is not an isolated incident but represents a world emergency that has come about despite the great efforts that have been made by all countries since the World War. Japan must take advantage of
13356-508: The alliance less likely, as the two countries' fascisms viewed each other as racially inferior. In fact, Hitler's Mein Kampf specifically names the Japanese as an example of a racial grouping on the second out of three cultural tiers, a step down from the Aryan race on the top. To prevent diplomatic complications as a result of German racial thought, German racist propaganda in the state-controlled press
13515-532: The approval by President Friedrich Ebert , returned to diplomacy and joined the embassy in Copenhagen as Minister to Denmark . From 1921 to 1930, he was the ambassador to Rome and was not overly impressed with Italian fascism . After the death of Chancellor Gustav Stresemann in 1929, Neurath was already considered for the post of Foreign Minister in the cabinet of Chancellor Hermann Müller by President Paul von Hindenburg , but his appointment failed because of
13674-508: The armament industry, as the Chinese military was an important customer for German arms manufacturers and heavy industry. Chinese exports to Germany, including deliveries of tin and tungsten , were also seen as vital. During his time as Japanese ambassador to Germany, Mushanokōji made it one of his goals to undermine German-Chinese economic and diplomatic relations. Within Germany's foreign service, Ribbentrop favored cooperation with Japan, whereas Neurath preferred alignment with China. One of
13833-507: The attempt of diplomatic reconciliation that was at the same time (at least half-heartedly) attempted by the civilian government in Tokyo (named "Shidehara diplomacy" after former Prime Minister Kijūrō Shidehara ). The pamphlet demanded a complete subjugation of all aspects of foreign and domestic policy to the all-encompassing question of "national defense" and the nation's preparation for total war. It further denounced "cooperative diplomacy", lauded
13992-399: The book is "Six famous men tell how they changed their minds about communism." Anatoliy Golitsyn and Oleg Kalugin were both former KGB officers, the latter being a general. Dmitri Volkogonov was a Soviet general who got access to soviet archives following glasnost , and wrote a critical biography dismantling the cult of Lenin by refuting Leninist ideology. Whittaker Chambers was
14151-644: The chief instigators of war at any given moment (at the present time against fascist Germany and against Poland and Japan which are in league with it) constitutes a most important task of the Communist Parties. At the Seventh World Congress of the Comintern in July 1935, following the advice of Georgi Dimitrov to the Soviet government that had resulted from Dimitrov's experiences in France and Austria during 1934,
14310-555: The city of Shanghai itself, where the UK had direct economic interests. The Japanese Pacification of Manchukuo on the other hand was viewed in Britain as a positive development that ultimately would help to disperse bandit activity. In February 1932, the Japanese established a puppet state in North East China, the Empire of Manchukuo , nominally headed by Puyi , the dethroned last emperor of
14469-827: The communist Bolsheviks , also known as the Reds , in the Russian Civil War . After the civil war, the movement continued operating to a lesser extent as militarized associations of insurrectionists both outside and within Russian borders in Siberia until roughly World War II . During the Russian Civil War, the White movement functioned as a big-tent political movement representing an array of political opinions in Russia united in their opposition to
14628-479: The communist Bolsheviks. They ranged from the republican-minded liberals and Kerenskyite social-democrats on the left through monarchists and supporters of a united multinational Russia to the ultra-nationalist Black Hundreds on the right. Following the military defeat of the Whites, remnants and continuations of the movement remained in several organizations, some of which only had narrow support, enduring within
14787-675: The communist Soviet Union was among major Allied nations fighting against the Axis powers in World War II (WII.) Shortly after the end of the war, rivalry between the Marxist–Leninist Soviet Union and liberal capitalist United States resulted in the Cold War . During this period, the United States government played a leading role in supporting global anti-communism as part of its containment policy. Military conflicts between communists and anti-communists occurred in various parts of
14946-587: The conference – it was granted parity with USA and UK in the Pacific Ocean and was entitled to build a navy that would outmatch the French and Italian navies, as well as being recognized as the world's only non-western colonial power – the treaty was unpopular in Japan. Japanese nationalists, as well as the Imperial Japanese Navy, denounced the treaty's restrictive aspects. Culturally, the 1922 Washington Treaty
15105-577: The consensus that Neurath had been a willing and active participant in war crimes but held no such prominent position during the height of the Third Reich's tyranny and so had been only a minor adherent to the atrocities committed. He was found guilty by the Allies on all four counts and was sentenced to 15 years' imprisonment. Neurath was held as a war criminal in Spandau Prison until November 1954, when he
15264-405: The consumption of the international audience. The book was not released in Germany itself to avoid conflict between the book's varied accounts with German state propaganda. On 18 June 1935, the United Kingdom and Germany signed the Anglo-German Naval Agreement , which came as a surprise to the Japanese. This marked the beginning of a series of attempts by Adolf Hitler to improve relations between
15423-531: The continued hostilities and eventual outbreak of war made the ambivalent German position, including the Sino-German military cooperation and the status of Alexander von Falkenhausen and other military advisors to Chiang Kai-shek , a serious concern to both of the Asian states. Furthermore, China was the biggest trade partner for German businesses in Asia. China was also favored by the German military establishment and
15582-408: The declassified Venona project , Moynihan wondered: "Might less secrecy have prevented the liberal overreaction to McCarthyism as well as McCarthyism itself?" Chancellor Konrad Adenauer , who presided over postwar West Germany as a market liberal democracy, signaled that the Soviet Union was the "greatest threat to liberty", an idea that exerted major domestic and international influence. After
15741-674: The documentary film Nicaragua Was Our Home , about the Miskito Indians of Nicaragua and their persecution at the hands of the Nicaraguan government. It was filmed and produced by USA-UWC member Lee Shapiro , who later died while filming with anti-Soviet forces during the Soviet–Afghan War . At this time CAUSA international also directly assisted the United States Central Intelligence Agency in supplying
15900-492: The establishment of the state-controlled Vietnam Buddhist Sangha . Thích Quảng Độ was a Vietnamese Buddhist monk and an anti-communist dissident. In January 2008, the Europe-based magazine A Different View chose Thích Quảng Độ as one of the 15 Champions of World Democracy. The Catholic Church has a long history of anti-communism. The most recent Catechism of the Catholic Church states: "The Catholic Church has rejected
16059-645: The existence of the Soviet Union, anti-communism became an important feature of many different political movements and governments across the world. In the United States , anti-communism came to prominence during the First Red Scare of 1919–1920. During the 1920s and 1930s, opposition to communism in America and in Europe was promoted by conservatives, monarchists, fascists, liberals, and social democrats. Fascist governments rose to prominence as major opponents of communism in
16218-422: The fall of Gorbachev and the Soviet Union in 1991 , the anti-communist movement grew rapidly. In the early 1990s, many new anti-communist movements emerged in the former Soviet bloc as a result of failed elections and Boris Yeltsin's Palace Coup . When this seizure of power occurred, more than thirty electoral blocs set out to contest the election. Some of these anti-Stalinist groups were: Choice of Russia ,
16377-563: The fall of the first cabinet of Reijirō Wakatsuki , and by the 1929 Great Depression . German historian Bernd Martin dubbed the Washington Naval Conference the "Japanese ' Versailles '." The Mukden Incident of 18 September 1931 began the period of Japanese aggression in Asia between 1931 and 1945, sometimes called the Fifteen Years War . The diplomatic reaction of the European great powers to Japan's attack against China
16536-543: The following will be pretty generally applicable." Ludwig von Mises described this as a "10-point plan" for the redistribution of land and production and argued that the initial and ongoing forms of redistribution constitute direct coercion. Neither Marx's 10-point plan nor the rest of the manifesto say anything about who has the right to carry out the plan. Milton Friedman argued that the absence of voluntary economic activity makes it too easy for repressive political leaders to grant themselves coercive powers. Friedman's view
16695-615: The glorious challenge posed by the Manchurian Incident and our withdrawal from the League of Nations. We must accept our fate, firmly refusing to be weakened by avoiding the challenge, and must have the courage to use this opportunity to formulate a great plan for our country's next hundred years. The Japanese army in October 1934 published a pamphlet entitled "The Essence of National Defense and Proposals to Strengthen It", going directly against
16854-565: The growth of labor unions , the Civil Rights Movement , and the War on Poverty and simultaneously opposed what they saw as Communist totalitarianism abroad. As such, they supported efforts to contain Soviet communism and other forms of communism. President Harry Truman formulated the Truman Doctrine to stop Soviet expansionism. Truman also called Joseph McCarthy "the greatest asset
17013-584: The information which the Western media obtains about Falun Gong is distributed by the Rachlin media group which is described as a public relations firm for Falun Gong. According to reports which were released by the Vienna Radio Network on July 12, Gunther von Hagens , a famous German anatomist, recently held an exhibition of human bodies which provoked Falun Gong's allegations of live organ harvesting. Hagens held
17172-496: The late 1930s. Whereas Hitler favored a friendly policy towards Britain to eliminate the Soviet Union, Ribbentrop saw the western allies as Germany's main enemy and designed much of German foreign policy, including the Anti-Comintern Pact, with the goal to contain the British Empire in mind as well. When it came to Japan, Ribbentrop believed that the Japanese focus on the Soviet Union as its main antagonist could be redirected towards
17331-611: The major questions in the German foreign service in regards to Germany's diplomatic ambivalence between China and Japan was the recognition of the Japanese puppet state in Manchukuo, installed after the 1931 Japanese invasion of North East China. A recognition of Manchukuo, as suggested by German ambassador in Tokyo Herbert von Dirksen beginning in early 1934, would have clearly presented a German statement in favor of Japanese expansionism and would have disturbed Germany's Chinese partners. As
17490-576: The millennium, the time of completion—communism will fall in its 70th year. Here is the meaning of the year 1978. Communism, begun in 1917, could maintain itself approximately 60 years and reach its peak. So 1978 is the border line and afterward communism will decline; in the 70th year it will be altogether ruined. This is true. Therefore, now is the time for people who are studying communism to abandon it." In 1973, he called for an "automatic theocracy " to replace communism and solve "every political and economic situation in every field". In 1975, Moon spoke at
17649-523: The more compliant Joachim von Ribbentrop , a fervent Nazi. Neurath served as Reich Protector of Bohemia and Moravia between 1939 and 1943, but his authority was only nominal after September 1941. Neurath was tried as a war criminal at the Nuremberg trials and was sentenced to 15 years in prison for his compliance and actions in Nazi Germany. He received an early release in 1954 and then retired to his family estate, where he died two years later. Neurath
17808-408: The movements assisting their opposition to what they alleged was Communist subversion of Australian trade unionism . To oppose Communist infiltration of unions, Industrial Groups were formed. The groups were active from 1945 to 1954, with the knowledge and support of the ALP leadership, until after Labor's loss of the 1954 election, when federal leader H. V. Evatt in the context of his response to
17967-465: The objections raised by the governing parties. In 1930, Neurath returned to head the embassy in London. Neurath was recalled to Germany in 1932 and became Reichsminister of Foreign Affairs as an independent politician in the "Cabinet of Barons" under Chancellor Franz von Papen in June. He continued to hold that position under Chancellor Kurt von Schleicher in December and then under Adolf Hitler from
18126-637: The pact as his 'greatest wish'. In Japan, the treaty was viewed with suspicion. Mushanokōji on 4 July 1935 in an embassy meeting stated his opinion that it would be unwise for Japan to rush into an alliance with Germany, as he (correctly) interpreted the Anglo-German Naval Agreement as a German attempt to ally the UK. The United States and Britain had been hostile towards Japan ever since the Mukden Incident of 1931, and Mushanokōji feared that Japan might isolate itself if Germany ended up choosing
18285-501: The pact to other countries "whose domestic peace is endangered by the disruptive activities of the Communist Internationale". Such invitations to third parties would be undertaken jointly and after the expressed consent by both parties. Communists were among the first people targeted by the Nazis, with Dachau concentration camp when it first opened being for the holding of communists, leading socialists and other "enemies of
18444-417: The period, liberal anti-communism and countersubversive anti-communism . The countersubversives, he argues, derived from a pre-WWII isolationist tradition on the right. Liberal anti-communists believed that political debate was enough to show Communists as disloyal and irrelevant, while countersubversive anticommunists believed that Communists had to be exposed and punished. Cold War liberals supported
18603-489: The persecution of Czech Jews according to the Nuremberg Laws . Draconian as those measures were, Neurath's rule overall was fairly mild by Nazi standards. Notably, he tried to restrain the excesses of his police chief, Karl Hermann Frank . However, in September 1941, Hitler decided that Neurath's rule was too lenient and so stripped him of his day-to-day powers. Reinhard Heydrich was named as his deputy but in truth held
18762-499: The persecution of communists and among the first to be sent to concentration camps. In Europe, numerous right and far-right activists including conservative intellectuals, capitalists and industrialists were vocal opponents of communism. During the late 1930s and the 1940s, several other anti-communist regimes and groups supported fascism. These included the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS in Spain;
18921-570: The post under Adolf Hitler . In the early years of the Nazi regime, Neurath was regarded as playing a key role in Hitler's foreign policy pursuits in undermining the Treaty of Versailles and in territorial expansion in the prelude to World War II . However, he was often averse to Hitler's aims for tactical, not necessarily ideological, reasons. That aversion eventually induced Hitler to replace Neurath in 1938 with
19080-425: The power structure was such that "it was only Hitler and Ribbentrop who decided foreign policy, and that it was therefore of no use to talk to their subordinates". Ōshima thus attempted to get any important step of the negotiations to Ribbentrop's or Hitler's desks directly. While Ribbentrop was Hitler's personal diplomat of choice, his personal view on geostrategic diplomacy varied quite distinctly from Hitler's during
19239-542: The projected wars because they had started their rearmament later than Germany. The opposition expressed by Fritsch, Blomberg and Neurath was concerned entirely with the assessment that Germany could not start a war in the heart of Europe without Anglo-French involvement, and more time was needed to rearm. However, they did not express any moral opposition to aggression or disagreement with Hitler's basic idea of annexing Austria or Czechoslovakia. That said, offering moral or humanitarian arguments to Hitler — just three years after
19398-606: The protective power of all of East Asia, mirroring the role of the United States in the Americas under the Monroe Doctrine of 1823. This posturing was again permitted by the European great powers, and Neville Chamberlain even attempted to negotiate an Anglo-Japanese non-aggression pact to improve British relations with Japan in 1934. In secret, Hirota's foreign policy leadership set an array of highly ambitious goals for Japan's diplomacy. This included an industrial buildup in Manchukuo,
19557-442: The protectorate. Hitler chose Neurath in part to pacify the international outrage over the German occupation of Czechoslovakia . Soon after his arrival at Prague Castle , Neurath instituted harsh press censorship and banned political parties and trade unions. He ordered a harsh crackdown on protesting students in October and November 1939 (1,200 student protesters went to concentration camps and nine were executed). He also supervised
19716-399: The real power. Heydrich was assassinated in 1942 and succeeded by Kurt Daluege . Neurath officially remained as Reichsprotektor . He tried to resign in 1941, but his resignation was not accepted until August 1943, when he was succeeded by the former Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick . On 21 June 1943, Neurath had been raised to the honorary rank of an SS- Obergruppenführer , the equivalent to
19875-550: The refusal to accept medical treatment. According to David Ownby, "[t]he Chinese government has suppressed movements like the Falun Gong hundreds of times over the course of Chinese history ", adding that the Chinese Communist government did "the same thing the imperial state had always done, which was to arrest and generally, not always, execute the leaders and pretend to reeducate the others and send them back home and hope that they would be good people from there on". Most of
20034-612: The regime on 30 January 1937, Hitler determined to enroll all the remaining non-Nazi ministers in the Nazi Party and to confer upon them personally the Golden Party Badge . By his acceptance, Neurath officially joined the Nazi Party (membership number 3,805,229). Additionally, in September 1937, he was given the honorary rank of a Gruppenführer in the SS , equivalent in the Wehrmacht rank to
20193-500: The reins in June 1936. The social instability and political violence within France made the French government careful and ineffective in applying France's otherwise extensive diplomatic and military power. Hitler, who expected France's popular front to result in a situation similar to the Spanish Civil War, openly announced to the French ambassador on 6 October 1936 that a communist takeover in France would not be treated by Germany as
20352-685: The slave uprising led by Spartacus in the Roman Empire as an allegory for the Russian Revolution ), Darkness at Noon (based on the Moscow Trials , this was a very widely read novel that made Koestler one of the most prominent anti-communist intellectuals of the period), The Yogi and the Commissar and Arrival and Departure . Konstantin von Neurath Konstantin Hermann Karl Freiherr von Neurath (2 February 1873 – 14 August 1956)
20511-476: The spiritual and socio-cultural value of Emperor Hirohito , also involved the imperial court, which served as a buffer between these three rival groups and the Emperor at the top, which allowed Hirohito to escape direct political responsibilities for any failures and setbacks that the system might produce. At the time of the negotiations for the Anti-Comintern Pact, the Japanese government was also in negotiations with
20670-519: The state" in 1933. Thích Huyền Quang was a prominent Vietnamese Buddhist monk and anti-communist dissident. In 1977, Quang wrote a letter to Prime Minister Phạm Văn Đồng detailing accounts of oppression by the Marxist–Leninist regime. For this, he and five other senior monks were arrested and detained. In 1982, Quang was arrested and subsequently placed under permanent house arrest for opposition to government policy after publicly denouncing
20829-588: The suppression of Falun Gong. In the 1940s, Unification Church founder Sun Myung Moon cooperated with Communist Party of Korea members in support of the Korean independence movement against Imperial Japan . After the Korean War (1950–1953), he became an outspoken anti-communist. Moon viewed the Cold War between liberal democracy and communism as the final conflict between God and Satan , with divided Korea as its primary front line . Soon after its founding,
20988-439: The two countries. In Hitler's mind, a positive relationship towards the United Kingdom would weaken Britain's allies France and Italy (at that point still a German rival) and contain the Soviet Union. Hitler would later also send Ribbentrop to London with the specific task of securing British membership in the Anti-Comintern Pact during his 1936–1938 tenure as German ambassador to the United Kingdom , declaring British accession into
21147-439: The two services. While Hitler favored Ribbentrop as his personal foreign policy champion, he at least initially maintained Neurath's staff of career diplomats to maximize his government's diplomatic legitimacy abroad. Hiroshi Ōshima , Japanese military attaché in Berlin and the single most important individual on the Japanese side of the Anti-Comintern Pact's negotiations, interpreted the German foreign service structure as one where
21306-665: The visit of the Prince of Wales to the Kingdom of Württemberg in 1904, as Lord Chamberlain to King William II, Neurath was created an Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order . Neurath's career was decisively advanced by Secretary of State Alfred von Kiderlen-Waechter . In 1914, he was sent to the embassy in Constantinople . During World War I , he served as an officer with an infantry regiment until 1916, when he
21465-582: The wars were necessary to provide Germany with Lebensraum , autarky and the arms race with France and Britain made it imperative to act before the Western powers developed an insurmountable lead in the arms race. He further declared that Germany must be ready for war as early as 1938 and at the latest by 1943. Of those invited to the conference, objections arose from Neurath, War Minister Generalfeldmarschall Werner von Blomberg and Army Commander-in-Chief, Generaloberst Werner von Fritsch . They all believed that any German aggression in Eastern Europe
21624-424: The wider White émigré overseas community until after the fall of the European communist states in the Revolutions of 1989 and the subsequent dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1990–1991. This community-in-exile of anti-communists often divided into liberal-leaning and conservative-leaning segments, with some still hoping for the restoration of the Romanov dynasty . Two claimants to the empty throne emerged during
21783-417: The world, including during the Chinese Civil War , the Korean War , the Malayan Emergency , the Vietnam War , the Soviet–Afghan War , and Operation Condor . NATO was founded as an anti-communist military alliance in 1949, and continued throughout the Cold War. After the Revolutions of 1989 and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, most of the world's communist governments were overthrown, and
21942-474: Was a German diplomat and Nazi war criminal who served as Foreign Minister of Germany between 1932 and 1938. Born to a Swabian noble family, Neurath began his diplomatic career in 1901. He fought in World War I and was awarded the Iron Cross for his service. After the war, Neurath served as minister to Denmark, ambassador to Italy and ambassador to Britain. In 1932, he was appointed Foreign Minister by Chancellor Franz von Papen , and he continued to hold
22101-433: Was a harsh critic of communism as was Pope Pius IX , who issued a Papal encyclical , entitled Quanta cura , in which he called "communism and Socialism" the most fatal error. Popes' anti-communist stances were carried on in Italy by the Christian Democracy (DC), the centrist party founded by Alcide De Gasperi in 1943, which dominated Italian politics for almost fifty years, until its dissolution in 1993, preventing
22260-415: Was also shared by Friedrich Hayek and John Maynard Keynes , both of whom believed that capitalism is vital for freedom to survive and thrive. Ayn Rand was strongly anti-communist. She argued that Communist leaders typically claim to work for the common good, but many or all of them were corrupt and totalitarian. At the end of World War I , liberal internationalists developed an early opposition to
22419-457: Was always strongly anti-communist. The more leftist Congress of Industrial Organizations purged its communists in 1947 and was staunchly anti-communist afterwards. In Britain, the Labour Party strenuously resisted Communist efforts to infiltrate its ranks and take control of locals in the 1930s. The Labour Party became anti-communist and Labour Prime Minister Clement Attlee was a staunch supporter of NATO . Despite anarcho-communism being
22578-425: Was badly wounded. In December 1914, he was awarded the Iron Cross . He returned to the German diplomatic service in the Ottoman Empire (1914–1916), where he wrote a memorandum on the German embassy's official position regarding the Armenian Genocide to German consulates in the Ottoman Empire. The memorandum justified the actions of the Ottoman government during the Armenian Genocide while also attempting to present
22737-416: Was born at the manor of Kleinglattbach (since 1972 part of Vaihingen an der Enz ) in Württemberg , the scion of a Swabian Freiherren noble family and political dynasty of the Kingdom of Württemberg. His grandfather, Constantin Franz von Neurath, had served as Foreign Minister under King Charles I of Württemberg (reigned 1864–1891), and his father, Konstantin Sebastian von Neurath (died 1912), had been
22896-433: Was bound to trigger a war with France because of the French alliance system in Eastern Europe, the so-called cordon sanitaire . They further believed that if a Franco-German war broke out, it would quickly escalate to a European war since Britain would almost certainly intervene, rather than risk the prospect of France's defeat. Moreover, they contended that Hitler's assumption was flawed that Britain and France would ignore
23055-455: Was directed away from the topic of the Japanese people so as to not irritate Japan. In the face of the war provocations of the German fascists and Japanese militarists, and the speeding up of armaments by the war parties in the capitalist countries [...] the central slogan of the Communist Parties must be: struggle for peace. All those interested in the preservation of peace should be drawn into this vital front. The concentration of forces against
23214-469: Was established by Moon to combat communism and be a conservative alternative to what he perceived as the liberal bias of The Washington Post ." Bo Hi Pak , called Moon's "right-hand man", was the founding president and the founding chairman of the board. Moon asked Richard L. Rubenstein , a rabbi and college professor, to join its board of directors. The Washington Times has often been noted for its generally pro-Israel editorial policies. In 2002, during
23373-459: Was established, left-wing politics were often associated with profanity and outlawed. In countries such as Sudan, Yemen, Syria, Iraq and Iran, communists and other leftist parties find themselves in a bitter competition for power with Islamists. George Orwell , a democratic socialist , wrote two of the most widely read and influential anti-totalitarian novels, namely Nineteen Eighty-Four and Animal Farm , both of which featured allusions to
23532-464: Was insufficient to stop the Japanese advance, despite continued Chinese appeals to the League of Nations . This attack, which had no central order from Tokyo precede it and was rather an autonomous decision by the Kwantung Army leadership, was kept confined to North East China by the Japanese commanders in the hopes that this would be enough to keep European responses lukewarm and thus further Japanese advances. This estimation proved to be accurate, and
23691-407: Was marginalized and opposed Hitler's aggressive war plans because he felt that Germany needed more time to rearm, which were detailed in the Hossbach Memorandum of 5 November 1937. Neurath was succeeded by Joachim von Ribbentrop but remained in government as a minister without portfolio to allay the concerns that his removal would have caused internationally. Neurath was also named as president of
23850-401: Was more of a statement than an actual political commitment, and the statement was one of mutual ideological alignment and diplomatic attachment to one another. Both countries shared examples of very politically significant racial ideologies, with Alfred Rosenberg in Germany and Shūmei Ōkawa in Japan becoming the leading racialist ideologues. Whereas Rosenberg enjoyed government backing and was
24009-483: Was not perceived as immediately imminent. Regardless, the German foreign service sought at all costs to avoid entanglement in such a conflict. For their part, the Japanese political and military establishments were by 1934 also less than certain about the usefulness of the new Hitler government in Germany, which Tokyo assumed would attempt to maintain a peaceful relationship with the Soviet Union and avoid any open alignment with Moscow's enemies. The distrust that Japan felt
24168-429: Was partially caused by the close relationship between Germany and China, which in turn was perceived as an ally of the Soviet Union against Japan. After the Anti-Comintern Pact's signing, Falkenhausen was recalled to Germany against his will after Japanese pressure in 1938. China eventually declared war on Germany and Italy, along with Japan, on 9 December 1941, in the aftermath of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and
24327-461: Was placed under the leadership Dr. Adolf Ehrt [ de ]. Under Ehrt's leadership, the Comintern was denounced as 'godless' in reference to its atheism . Beginning in July 1936, the Spanish Civil War became a main focus for the Anti-Komintern's publications. One of the Anti-Komintern's most significant outputs was the 1936 international release Der Weltbolschewismus , in which it connected various anti-communist and anti-semitic conspiracy theories for
24486-475: Was predicated on the fact that his successor and fellow defendant, Ribbentrop, was more culpable for the atrocities committed in the Nazi state than Neurath was. The International Military Tribunal acknowledged that most of Neurath's crimes against humanity were conducted during his short tenure as nominal Protector of Bohemia and Moravia, especially in quelling the Czech resistance , and in the summary execution of several university students. The tribunal came to
24645-415: Was set free and after the failure of the movement he was forced to move to the United States' embassy in Budapest , where he lived until 1971 when the Vatican and the Marxist–Leninist government of Hungary arranged his way out to Austria. In the following years, Mindszenty travelled all over the world visiting the Hungarian colonies in Canada, United States, Germany, Austria, South Africa and Venezuela. He led
24804-428: Was sustained by his Christian faith and his hopes for China. Gao predicted that the communist rule of China would end in 2017, a revelation he reportedly received from God. Gao was " disappeared " in August 2017. As of April 2024, his family has not heard from him or about his whereabouts since his disappearance. In the Indian state of Punjab , communism was opposed by the Damdami Taksal order of Sikhs. Communism
24963-416: Was the Russian White movement , which fought in the Russian Civil War starting in 1918 against the recently established Bolshevik government . The White movement was militarily supported by several allied foreign governments which represented the first instance of anti-communism as a government policy. Nevertheless, the Red Army defeated the White movement and the Soviet Union was created in 1922. During
25122-427: Was viewed as yet another betrayal by the Western powers, after the Japanese proposals for guaranteed racial equality under the League of Nations had been rejected in 1919. This perception of national humiliation was further accelerated by the economic downturn that Japan experienced in the 1920s, exemplified by the 1927 financial panic in Japan ( Shōwa financial crisis ), which had also caused political instability and
25281-472: Was weakened after Sikh youth who had become communists were reinitiated into Sikhism and initiated into the Khalsa by the influence of Damdami Taksal Jathedar Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale . Many communist party members and supporters were assassinated by Taksalis and other Sikh militants. Falun Gong practitioners are against the Chinese Communist Party 's persecution of Falun Gong . In April 1999, over ten thousand Falun Gong practitioners gathered at
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