129-458: The Indonesian People's Movement ( Indonesian : Gerakan Rakyat Indonesia ), better known as Gerindo , was a left-wing and nationalist political party in the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia ) which existed from 1937 to 1942. It had modest goals and was largely cooperative to the colonial administration. More strongly anti-fascist than anti-colonialist , the party sought to support
258-716: A lingua franca in the Indonesian archipelago for half a millennium. It might be attributed to its ancestor , the Old Malay language (which can be traced back to the 7th century). The Kedukan Bukit Inscription is the oldest surviving specimen of Old Malay, the language used by Srivijayan empire. Since the 7th century, the Old Malay language has been used in Nusantara (archipelago) (Indonesian archipelago), evidenced by Srivijaya inscriptions and by other inscriptions from coastal areas of
387-740: A lingua franca in the multilingual Indonesian archipelago for centuries. With over 280 million inhabitants, Indonesia ranks as the fourth most populous nation globally. According to the 2020 census, over 97% of Indonesians are fluent in Indonesian, making it the largest language by number of speakers in Southeast Asia and one of the most widely spoken languages in the world. Indonesian vocabulary has been influenced by various regional languages such as Javanese , Sundanese , Minangkabau , Balinese , Banjarese , and Buginese , as well as by foreign languages such as Arabic , Dutch , Portuguese , and English . Many borrowed words have been adapted to fit
516-454: A few cases, however, coinings permanently replaced earlier Dutch terms, including pajak (earlier meaning 'monopoly') instead of belasting (tax) and senam (meaning 'exercise') instead of gimnastik (gymnastics). The Komisi Bahasa is said to have coined more than 7000 terms, although few of these gained common acceptance. The adoption of Indonesian as the country's national language was in contrast to most other post-colonial states. Neither
645-418: A former field north of Steenhouwersgracht, in which a town market was established. The first church and town hall were built c. 1622 on the east bank of the river; Batavia's first combined church and town hall (replaced during the 1630s) was at 6°07′56″S 106°48′42″E / 6.132212°S 106.811779°E / -6.132212; 106.811779 . Around 1627, the three canals were connected with
774-498: A large proportion of Indonesian, at least, use two language daily, those are Indonesian and local languages. When two languages are used by the same people in this way, they are likely to influence each other. Aside from local languages, Dutch made the highest contribution to the Indonesian vocabulary, due to the Dutch colonization over three centuries, from the 16th century until the mid-20th century. Asian languages also influenced
903-465: A lingua franca between vernacular Malay dialects, Malay creoles, and regional languages. The Indonesian name for the language ( bahasa Indonesia ) is also occasionally used in English and other languages. Bahasa Indonesia is sometimes improperly reduced to Bahasa , which refers to the Indonesian subject ( Bahasa Indonesia ) taught in schools, on the assumption that this is the name of the language. But
1032-427: A looser sense, it also encompasses the various local varieties spoken throughout the Indonesian archipelago. Standard Indonesian is confined mostly to formal situations, existing in a diglossic relationship with vernacular Malay varieties, which are commonly used for daily communication, coexisting with the aforementioned regional languages and with Malay creoles ; standard Indonesian is spoken in informal speech as
1161-573: A moat and city wall; extensions of the wall were built west of Batavia, and the city was completely enclosed. In 1656, due to a conflict with Banten, the Javanese were not allowed to live within the city walls and settled outside Batavia. The Chinese and the Mardijkers were the only non-Dutch settlers within the walled city. A 1659 truce with Banten enabled the city to grow, and more bamboo houses were built. Bamboo houses and livestock were banned in 1667, and
1290-482: A monophthong followed by an approximant, so ⟨ai⟩ represents /aj/ , ⟨au⟩ represents /aw/ , and ⟨oi⟩ represents /oj/ . On this basis, there are no phonological diphthongs in Indonesian. Diphthongs are differentiated from two vowels in two syllables, such as: Batavia, Dutch East Indies Batavia was the capital of the Dutch East Indies . The area corresponds to present-day Jakarta , Indonesia. Batavia can refer to
1419-516: A number of nationalists, including former members of the recently dissolved Partindo, to establish Gerindo (Indonesian People's Movement) on 24 May 1937. The principal leaders were Mohammad Yamin , Sartono , Amir Sjarifuddin and A.K Gani . The party had an internationalist outlook. Although it wanted a full parliament for the Dutch East Indies, its members took the view that the threat of global dominance by fascist nations, particularly Japan,
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#17330847059391548-501: A period of transition and upheaval during the Indonesian struggle for independence. During the Japanese occupation, and when the Indonesian nationalists declared independence on 17 August 1945, the city was renamed Jakarta. In 1945, it was briefly occupied by the Allies and returned to the Dutch. The Dutch name, Batavia, remained the internationally recognized name until Indonesian independence
1677-598: A result of the southward expansion of Austronesian peoples into Maritime Southeast Asia from the island of Taiwan . Indonesian, which originated from Malay, is a member of the Austronesian family of languages, which includes languages from Southeast Asia , the Pacific Ocean and Madagascar , with a smaller number in continental Asia . It has a degree of mutual intelligibility with the Malaysian standard of Malay, which
1806-613: A rift between the two standardized varieties. This has been based more upon political nuance and the history of their standardization than cultural reasons, and as a result, there are asymmetrical views regarding each other's variety among Malaysians and Indonesians. Malaysians tend to assert that Malaysian and Indonesian are merely different normative varieties of the same language, while Indonesians tend to treat them as separate, albeit closely related, languages. Consequently, Indonesians feel little need to harmonise their language with Malaysia and Brunei, whereas Malaysians are keener to coordinate
1935-461: A significant influence on the development of Malay in the colony: during the colonial era, the language that would be standardized as Indonesian absorbed a large amount of Dutch vocabulary in the form of loanwords . The nationalist movement that ultimately brought Indonesian to its national language status rejected Dutch from the outset. However, the rapid disappearance of Dutch was a very unusual case compared with other colonized countries, where
2064-560: A system which treats the open-mid vowels / ɛ / and / ɔ / as distinct phonemes. Poedjosoedarmo argued the split of the front mid vowels in Indonesian is due to Javanese influence which exhibits a difference between ⟨i⟩ [ i ], ⟨é⟩ [ e ] and è [ ɛ ]. Another example of Javanese influence in Indonesian is the split of back mid vowels into two allophones of [ o ] and [ ɔ ]. These splits (and loanwords) increase instances of doublets in Indonesian, such as ⟨ satai ⟩ and ⟨ saté ⟩. Javanese words adopted into Indonesian have greatly increased
2193-515: A total number of speakers in Indonesia of 248.5 million. It is common as a first language in urban areas, and as a second language by those residing in more rural parts of Indonesia. The VOA and BBC use Indonesian as their standard for broadcasting in Malay. In Australia , Indonesian is one of three Asian target languages, together with Japanese and Mandarin , taught in some schools as part of
2322-794: Is a standard language of "Riau Malay", which despite its common name is not based on the vernacular Malay dialects of the Riau Islands , but rather represents a form of Classical Malay as used in the 19th and early 20th centuries in the Riau-Lingga Sultanate . Classical Malay had emerged as a literary language in the royal courts along both shores of the Strait of Malacca , including the Johor Sultanate and Malacca Sultanate . Originally spoken in Northeast Sumatra , Malay has been used as
2451-565: Is amplified by the use of Indonesian slang , particularly in the cities. Unlike the relatively uniform standard variety, Vernacular Indonesian exhibits a high degree of geographical variation, though Colloquial Jakartan Indonesian functions as the de facto norm of informal language and is a popular source of influence throughout the archipelago. There is language shift of first language among Indonesian into Indonesian from other language in Indonesia caused by ethnic diversity than urbanicity. The most common and widely used colloquial Indonesian
2580-543: Is heavily influenced by the Betawi language , a Malay-based creole of Jakarta , amplified by its popularity in Indonesian popular culture in mass media and Jakarta's status as the national capital. In informal spoken Indonesian, various words are replaced with those of a less formal nature. For example, tidak (no) is often replaced with the Betawi form nggak or the even simpler gak/ga , while seperti (like, similar to)
2709-419: Is named as 'Indonesian language' is a true Malay language derived from 'Riau Malay' but which had been added, modified or subscribed according to the requirements of the new age and nature, until it was then used easily by people across Indonesia; the renewal of Malay language until it became Indonesian it had to be done by the experts of the new nature, the national nature of Indonesia" — Ki Hajar Dewantara in
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#17330847059392838-464: Is officially known there as bahasa Malaysia , despite the numerous lexical differences. However, vernacular varieties spoken in Indonesia and Malaysia share limited intelligibility, which is evidenced by the fact that Malaysians have difficulties understanding Indonesian sinetron (soap opera) aired on Malaysia TV stations, and vice versa. Malagasy , a geographic outlier spoken in Madagascar in
2967-627: Is often replaced with kayak [kajaʔ] . Sangat or amat (very), the term to express intensity, is often replaced with the Javanese-influenced banget . As for pronunciation, the diphthongs ai and au on the end of base words are typically pronounced as /e/ and /o/ . In informal writing, the spelling of words is modified to reflect the actual pronunciation in a way that can be produced with less effort. For example, capai becomes cape or capek , pakai becomes pake , kalau becomes kalo . In verbs,
3096-494: Is perhaps the only language that has achieved the status of a national language in its true sense" since it truly dominates in all spheres of Indonesian society . The ease with which Indonesia eliminated the language of its former colonial power can perhaps be explained as much by Dutch policy as by Indonesian nationalism. In marked contrast to the French , Spanish and Portuguese, who pursued an assimilation colonial policy, or even
3225-553: The British , the Dutch did not attempt to spread their language among the indigenous population. In fact, they consciously prevented the language from being spread by refusing to provide education, especially in Dutch, to the native Indonesians so they would not come to see themselves as equals. Moreover, the Dutch wished to prevent the Indonesians from elevating their perceived social status by taking on elements of Dutch culture. Thus, until
3354-536: The Ciliwung River. Private companies owned (or managed) plantations, oil fields, and mines. The island's first railway line opened in 1867, and railway stations were built in urban centers such as Batavia. Schools, hospitals, factories, offices, trading companies, and post offices were established throughout the city. Improvements in Batavia's transportation, health, and technology encouraged more Dutch people to move to
3483-685: The Dutch people . Jayakarta was called Batavia for over 300 years. There were three governmental administrations in the Batavia region. Initial authority was established in 1609 and became the colonial High Government , consisting of the Governor-General and the Council of the Indies . The urban (or civil) administration of the city of Batavia was established in 1620. On 24 June 1620, two company officials and three free citizens (or burghers) were appointed to
3612-667: The Indian Ocean , also in some parts of the Sulu area of the southern Philippines and traces of it are to be found among people of Malay descent in Sri Lanka , South Africa , and other places. Indonesian is taught as a foreign language in schools, universities and institutions around the world, especially in Australia , the Netherlands , Japan , South Korea , Timor-Leste , Vietnam , Taiwan ,
3741-544: The Indian Ocean ; the Philippines national language, Filipino ; Formosan in Taiwan's aboriginal population; and the native Māori language of New Zealand are also members of this language family. Although each language of the family is mutually unintelligible, their similarities are rather striking. Many roots have come virtually unchanged from their common ancestor, Proto-Austronesian language . There are many cognates found in
3870-706: The Indonesian Political Federation (GAPI), an umbrella organization of various different nationalist groups which called for Indonesian self-determination and an elected parliament . Following the German invasion of the Netherlands in 1940, the party's activities were severely curtailed and it, alongside GAPI, was dissolved in the wake of the invasion of the colony by the Empire of Japan in 1942. In 1931, Bonifacius Cornelis de Jonge became Governor-General of
3999-579: The Languages Other Than English programme. Indonesian has been taught in Australian schools and universities since the 1950s. In East Timor , which was occupied by Indonesia between 1975 and 1999, Indonesian is recognized by the constitution as one of the two working languages (the other being English ), alongside the official languages of Tetum and Portuguese . It is understood by the Malay people of Australia's Cocos Keeling Islands in
Gerindo - Misplaced Pages Continue
4128-459: The Luso-Sundanese padrão remained. Jayawikarta retreated to Tanara , in the interior of Banten, where he later died. The Dutch established a closer relationship with Banten and assumed control of the port, which became the regional Dutch center of power. The region which became Batavia came under Dutch control in 1619, initially as an expansion of the original Dutch fort and a new building on
4257-563: The Moluccas to seek support; the Dutch had taken over the first of the Portuguese forts there in 1605. Dutch garrison commander Pieter van den Broecke and five other men were arrested during negotiations, since Jayawikarta believed that he had been deceived by the Dutch. Jayawikarta and the English then forged an alliance. The Dutch army was on the verge of surrendering to the English when, in 1619,
4386-639: The United States , and the United Kingdom . Indonesian is the official language of Indonesia , and its use is encouraged throughout the Indonesian archipelago. It is regulated in Chapter XV, 1945 Constitution of Indonesia about the flag, official language, coat of arms, and national anthem of Indonesia. Also, in Chapter III, Section 25 to 45, Government regulation No. 24/ 2009 mentions explicitly
4515-461: The 1628–1629 siege of Batavia . East of Batavia, Sultan Agung (king of the Mataram Sultanate ) gained control of most of Java by defeating Surabaya in 1625. On 27 August 1628, Agung began the siege of Batavia. After heavy losses in his first attempt, he retreated and launched a second offensive the following year. This also failed; the Dutch fleet destroyed his supplies and ships in
4644-557: The 1930s, they maintained a minimalist regime and allowed Malay to spread quickly throughout the archipelago. Dutch dominance at that time covered nearly all aspects, with official forums requiring the use of Dutch, although since the Second Youth Congress (1928) the use of Indonesian as the national language was agreed on as one of the tools in the independence struggle. As of it, Mohammad Hoesni Thamrin inveighed actions underestimating Indonesian. After some criticism and protests,
4773-591: The 19th century, Batavia's population was 115,887 people; of these, 8,893 were Europeans, 26,817 were Chinese and 77,700 were indigenous islanders. The city's expanding commercial activity led to the immigration of large numbers of Dutch employees and rural Javanese to Batavia. The 1905 population of Batavia and its surrounding area reached 2.1 million, including 93,000 Chinese people, 14,000 Europeans, and 2,800 Arabs. This growth resulted in an increased demand for housing, and land prices soared. New houses were built close together, and kampung settlements filled spaces between
4902-447: The 2010 census showing only 19.94% of over-five-year-olds speak mainly Indonesian at home. Standard Indonesian is used in books and newspapers and on television/radio news broadcasts. The standard dialect, however, is rarely used in daily conversations, being confined mostly to formal settings. While this is a phenomenon common to most languages in the world (for example, spoken English does not always correspond to its written standards),
5031-792: The Batavia telephone exchange for one night before they were captured. The Dutch sent prisoners to Banden and to a penal colony at Boven-Digoel in West New Guinea, where many died of malaria. Sukarno and the Study Club founded the Indonesian Nationalist Association (which became the Indonesian National Party and later joined the Partai Sarekat Islam, Budi Utomo , and the Surabaya Study Club to form
5160-491: The Congress of Indonesian Language I 1938, Solo Several years prior to the congress, Swiss linguist, Renward Brandstetter wrote An Introduction to Indonesian Linguistics in 4 essays from 1910 to 1915. The essays were translated into English in 1916. By "Indonesia", he meant the name of the geographical region , and by "Indonesian languages" he meant Malayo-Polynesian languages west of New Guinea, because by that time there
5289-482: The Dutch East Indies and took a more hardline approach to Indonesian nationalist movements than his predecessor. As part of the clampdown, non-cooperative nationalist leader Sukarno was arrested in November 1934 followed by Hatta and Sjahrir three months later. All were exiled, while Sukarno's Indonesia party (Partindo) party, found itself leaderless. By 1935, as a result of legislation, detentions and police actions,
Gerindo - Misplaced Pages Continue
5418-419: The Dutch East Indies . On 20 March, the Japanese authorities ordered all political parties to be dissolved and banned political activity. Journals Books Indonesian language Indonesian ( Bahasa Indonesia ; [baˈhasa indoˈnesija] ) is the official and national language of Indonesia . It is a standardized variety of Malay , an Austronesian language that has been used as
5547-490: The Dutch East Indies was occupied by Japan during World War II . During the Japanese occupation and after Indonesian nationalists declared independence on 17 August 1945, the city was known as Jakarta. It remained internationally known by its Dutch name until Indonesia achieved full independence in 1949, when the city was renamed Jakarta. Amsterdam merchants embarked on an expedition to the East Indies archipelago in 1595 under
5676-536: The Dutch parliament rejected the petition. Gerindo held its first congress in Batavia from 20–24 July 1938, at which it was decided to establish a youth wing, and to make the anniversary of the party's establishment a national day. In May 1939, Gerindo, along with seven other nationalist organizations, including Parindra and the PSSI, formed the Indonesian Political Federation (GAPI). Prominent nationalist Mohammad Husni Thamrin
5805-574: The Indonesian language is still in debate. High Malay was the official language used in the court of the Johor Sultanate and continued by the Dutch-administered territory of Riau-Lingga , while Low Malay was commonly used in marketplaces and ports of the archipelago. Some linguists have argued that it was the more common Low Malay that formed the base of the Indonesian language. When the Dutch East India Company (VOC) first arrived in
5934-650: The Islamic Commercial Union in Batavia to support Indonesian merchants. Branches in other areas followed. In 1920, Oemar Said Tjokroaminoto and Agus Salim established a committee in Batavia to support the Ottoman Caliphate . Spies warned the Dutch about a planned revolt in 1926, and Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) leaders were arrested. Andries Cornelis Dirk de Graeff replaced Dirk Fock as governor-general, and uprisings in Batavia, Banten, and Priangan were quickly crushed. Armed Communists occupied
6063-405: The Japanese. The Dutch formally surrendered to the Japanese occupation forces on 9 March 1942, and the colony's government was transferred to Japan. Batavia was renamed Jakarta. The economic situation and the physical condition of Indonesian cities deteriorated during the occupation. Buildings were converted to internment camps for the Dutch. After the Japanese defeat in 1945, the region experienced
6192-654: The Ommelanden lived in country houses or ethnic kampungs governed by a headman. Batavia's sugar industry declined during the 1730s, with rising unemployment and social disorder. In 1739, there were 10,574 Chinese people living in the Ommelanden. Tensions grew as the colonial government attempted to restrict Chinese immigration with deportations to Ceylon and South Africa. The Chinese, afraid that they would be thrown overboard to drown, rioted. Ten thousand Chinese were killed from 9 to 22 October 1740. The few surviving Chinese inhabitants were moved to Glodok , outside
6321-617: The Sultanate of Banten sent a group of soldiers to summon Jayawikarta. Jayawikarta's agreement with the English had not been approved by the Bantenese authorities. The conflict between Banten and Jayawikarta and the tense relationship between Banten and the English provided a new opportunity for the Dutch. Coen returned from the Moluccas with reinforcements on 28 May 1619, razing Jayakarta to the ground two days later and expelling its population. Only
6450-595: The Tijgersgracht canal. The new canal was lined with coconut trees; according to a contemporary observer, "Among the Grachts, the Tygersgracht is the most stately and most pleasant, both for the goodliness of its buildings, and the ornamentation of its streets, which afford a very agreeable shadow to those who pass along the street". The Prinsestraat, originally the street leading to the castle, became an urban center connecting
6579-604: The Union of Indonesian Political Associations) on 4 July 1927. A youth congress was held in Batavia in October 1928, and the groups began referring to the city as Jakarta. They demanded Indonesian independence, displayed the red-and-white flag, and sang the Indonesian national anthem written by Wage Rudolf Supratman . The Dutch banned the flag, the national anthem, and the words "Indonesia" and "Indonesian". On 5 March 1942, Batavia fell to
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#17330847059396708-532: The archipelago at the start of the 1600s, the Malay language was a significant trading and political language due to the influence of the Malaccan Sultanate and later the Portuguese . However, the language had never been dominant among the population of the Indonesian archipelago as it was limited to mercantile activity. The VOC adopted the Malay language as the administrative language of their trading outpost in
6837-510: The archipelago to establish a colony on vacant land, triggering wars in Java and Sumatra . Large numbers of troops were brought into the Dutch Indies to suppress unrest (particularly on Sumatra) and extend Dutch government influence beyond Java. However, the Dutch never conquered the entire archipelago. The development of Weltevreden as the colony's administrative center continued, gradually shifting
6966-415: The archipelago, such as Sojomerto inscription . Trade contacts carried on by various ethnic peoples at the time were the main vehicle for spreading the Old Malay language, which was the main communications medium among the traders. Ultimately, the Old Malay language became a lingua franca and was spoken widely by most people in the archipelago. Indonesian (in its standard form) has essentially
7095-404: The capital, and Batavian society became increasingly Dutch. The city traded with Europe, and increased shipping led to the construction of a new harbor at Tanjung Priok between 1877 and 1883. Foreigners were known locally as totoks , distinguishing new Chinese arrivals from the peranakans . Many totoks adopted Indonesian culture, wearing kebayas , sarongs, and summer dresses. By the end of
7224-517: The castle's south gate with the city hall . Eastern Batavia was protected by a long canal which linked the castle moat and the Ciliwung riverbend, and ran at a slight angle to Tijgersgracht. The canal cost over 160,000 real, which was paid mostly by the Chinese instead of the company (who had strengthened the castle with slave and prison labor). The short-lived outer canal was redesigned several years after
7353-455: The center of Batavia south from Oud Batavia . A new Indies Empire style of architecture emerged; white-plastered villas with a large front porch were built, especially around the Koningsplein and at Weltevreden. This newer part of Batavia generally had a more open look than Oud Batavia's developed, canal cityscape. Unlike the first half of the 19th century, the second half of the century
7482-701: The city proper or its suburbs and hinterland , the Ommelanden , which included the much larger area of the Residency of Batavia in the present-day Indonesian provinces of Jakarta, Banten and West Java . The founding of Batavia by the Dutch in 1619, on the site of the ruins of Jayakarta , led to the establishment of a Dutch colony ; Batavia became the center of the Dutch East India Company 's trading network in Asia . Monopolies on local produce were augmented by non-indigenous cash crops . To safeguard their commercial interests,
7611-621: The city walls, the following year. In 1789, the Americans visited and were permitted through formal applications to trade. After the VOC went bankrupt and was dissolved in 1800, the Batavian Republic nationalized its debts and possessions and expanded its territorial claims into a colony known as the Dutch East Indies . Batavia evolved from a regional company headquarters into the colony's capital. In 1808, Herman Willem Daendels decided to leave
7740-533: The colonial government in opposing fascism , especially Japanese fascism . Founded as the successor to Partindo , the party's leaders were mainly left-wing nationalists who aspired to socialist ideals . Though more radical than its conservative counterpart, the Great Indonesia Party , Gerindo was tolerated by the colonial administration, becoming the only legal organization for radical nationalism. In 1939, Gerindo joined several other parties in forming
7869-427: The colonial language generally has continued to function as the language of politics, bureaucracy , education, technology , and other fields of importance for a significant time after independence. The Indonesian scholar Soenjono Dardjowidjojo [ id ] even goes so far as to say that when compared to the situation in other Asian countries such as India, Malaysia, Singapore and the Philippines, "Indonesian
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#17330847059397998-524: The command of Cornelis de Houtman . The English East India Company 's first voyage in 1602, commanded by James Lancaster , arrived in Aceh and sailed on to Bantam . There, Lancaster was allowed to build a trading post which was the center of English trade in the East Indies archipelago until 1682. The Dutch government granted the Dutch East India Company (VOC) a monopoly on Asian trade in 1602. A year later,
8127-418: The company and the colonial administration absorbed surrounding territory. Batavia is on the north coast of Java , in a sheltered bay, on a land of marshland and hills crisscrossed with canals. The city had two centers: Oud Batavia (the oldest part of the city) and Weltevreden (the relatively newer city), on higher ground to the south. It was a European colonial city for about 320 years until 1942, when
8256-431: The development of national culture, science, technology, and mass media. It also serves as a vehicle of communication among the provinces and different regional cultures in the country. According to Indonesian law, the Indonesian language was proclaimed as the unifying language during the Youth Pledge on 28 October 1928 and developed further to accommodate the dynamics of Indonesian civilization. As mentioned previously,
8385-421: The dilapidated, unhealthy Old Town . A new town center was built further south, on the Weltevreden estate. Batavia became a city with two centers; Kota was the business hub with offices and warehouses of shipping and trading companies, and Weltevreden was home to the government, military, and shops. The centers were connected by the Molenvliet Canal and a road alongside the canal. Under British rule , Daendels
8514-417: The early European traders and explorers brought to Southeast Asia. Indonesian also receives many English words as a result of globalization and modernization , especially since the 1990s, as far as the Internet's emergence and development until the present day. Some Indonesian words correspond to Malay loanwords in English, among them the common words orangutan , gong , bamboo , rattan , sarong , and
8643-452: The east. Following the bankruptcy of the VOC, the Batavian Republic took control of the colony in 1799, and it was only then that education in and promotion of Dutch began in the colony . Even then, Dutch administrators were remarkably reluctant to promote the use of Dutch compared to other colonial regimes. Dutch thus remained the language of a small elite: in 1940, only 2% of the total population could speak Dutch. Nevertheless, it did have
8772-415: The evolution of the language with Indonesians, although the 1972 Indonesian alphabet reform was seen mainly as a concession of Dutch-based Indonesian to the English-based spelling of Malaysian. In November 2023, the Indonesian language was recognised as one of the official languages of the UNESCO General Conference. Currently there are 10 official languages of the UNESCO General Conference, consisting of
8901-501: The first College of Aldermen. The local rural administration, formed in 1664, became fully functional in 1682. The Javanese people were prohibited from settling in Batavia from the time of its founding in 1619. From its founding, Batavia was planned in a well-defined layout. Three trenches were dug east of the Ciliwung River in 1619, its first Dutch-made canals. The canals were named (from south to north) Leeuwengracht, Groenegracht, and Steenhouwersgracht. The castle area begins in
9030-401: The first permanent Dutch trading post in the East Indies archipelago was established in Bantam, West Java . Prince Jayawikarta gave Dutch merchants permission to build a wooden warehouse and houses on the east bank of the Ciliwung river opposite Jayakarta in 1610, and the outpost was established the following year. As Dutch power increased, Jayawikarta allowed the English to build houses on
9159-464: The frequency of Indonesian ⟨é⟩ and ⟨o⟩. In traditional Malay, high vowels (⟨i⟩, ⟨u⟩) could not appear in a final syllable if a mid-vowel (⟨e⟩, ⟨o⟩) appeared in the previous syllable, and conversely, mid-vowels (⟨e⟩, ⟨o⟩) could not appear in the final syllable if a high vowel (⟨i⟩, ⟨u⟩) appeared in the previous syllable. Traditional Malay does not allow the mid-central schwa vowel to occur in consonant open or closed word-final syllables. The schwa vowel
9288-743: The future president and vice-president, Sukarno and Hatta. Journalists, beginning a practice that has continued to the present, did not wait for the Komisi Bahasa to provide new words, but actively participated themselves in coining terms. Many of the Komisi Bahasa's terms never found public acceptance and after the Japanese period were replaced by the original Dutch forms, including jantera (Sanskrit for 'wheel'), which temporarily replaced mesin (machine), ketua negara (literally 'chairman of state'), which had replaced presiden (president) and kilang (meaning 'mill'), which had replaced pabrik (factory). In
9417-585: The harbors of Cirebon and Tegal . Mataram troops, starving and decimated by illness, retreated again. Agung then moved east, attacking Blitar , Panarukan and the Blambangan Kingdom in eastern Java (a vassal state of the Balinese kingdom of Gelgel ). After the siege, it was decided that Batavia needed a stronger defense system. Based on the work of Flemish mathematician and military engineer Simon Stevin , Governor-General Jacques Specx designed
9546-507: The houses. Settlements, built with little regard for the region's tropical conditions, resulted in overcrowding, poor sanitation, and an absence of public amenities. Java had an outbreak of plague in 1913. Old Batavia's abandoned moats and ramparts experienced a boom during the period, as trading companies were established along the Ciliwung. The old city soon re-established itself as a commercial center, with 20th- and 17th-century buildings adjacent to one another. The Dutch Ethical Policy
9675-469: The imposition of a minimum wage and assistance for the unemployed, and confirmed Yamin's expulsion. Shortly before the May 1940 German invasion of the Netherlands , Gerindo, through GAPI, put forward a proposal that a Dutch East Indies government with wide-ranging autonomy be set up and that it be answerable to a fully elected Volksraad, which would allow Indonesian nationalists to support the Dutch government. This
9804-1346: The language and established bahasa Indonesia as the national language of the new nation. The term bahasa Indonesia itself had been proposed by Mohammad Tabrani in 1926, and Tabrani had further proposed the term over calling the language Malay language during the First Youth Congress in 1926. Indonesian language (old VOS spelling): Jang dinamakan 'Bahasa Indonesia' jaitoe bahasa Melajoe jang soenggoehpoen pokoknja berasal dari 'Melajoe Riaoe' akan tetapi jang soedah ditambah, dioebah ataoe dikoerangi menoeroet keperloean zaman dan alam baharoe, hingga bahasa itoe laloe moedah dipakai oleh rakjat diseloeroeh Indonesia; pembaharoean bahasa Melajoe hingga menjadi bahasa Indonesia itoe haroes dilakoekan oleh kaoem ahli jang beralam baharoe, ialah alam kebangsaan Indonesia Indonesian (modern EYD spelling): Yang dinamakan 'Bahasa Indonesia' yaitu bahasa Melayu yang sungguhpun pokoknya berasal dari 'Melayu Riau' akan tetapi yang sudah ditambah, diubah atau dikurangi menurut keperluan zaman dan alam baru, hingga bahasa itu lalu mudah dipakai oleh rakyat di seluruh Indonesia; pembaharuan bahasa Melayu hingga menjadi bahasa Indonesia itu harus dilakukan oleh kaum ahli yang beralam baru, ialah alam kebangsaan Indonesia English : "What
9933-412: The language of politics , education , and nation-building in general, Indonesian became one of the few success stories of an indigenous language effectively overtaking that of a country's colonisers to become the de jure and de facto official language. Today, Indonesian continues to function as the language of national identity as the Congress of Indonesian Youth envisioned, and also serves as
10062-432: The language of education, literacy , modernization , and social mobility . Despite still being a second language to most Indonesians, it is unquestionably the language of the Indonesian nation as a whole, as it has had unrivalled success as a factor in nation-building and the strengthening of Indonesian identity. Indonesian is spoken as a mother tongue and national language. Over 200 million people regularly make use of
10191-603: The language was based on Riau Malay, though linguists note that this is not the local dialect of Riau, but the Malaccan dialect that was used in the Riau court . Since its conception in 1928 and its official recognition in the 1945 Constitution, the Indonesian language has been loaded with a nationalist political agenda to unify Indonesia (former Dutch East Indies ). This status has made it relatively open to accommodate influences from other Indonesian ethnic languages, most notably Javanese as
10320-481: The language with the most native speakers (Javanese) nor the language of the former European colonial power (Dutch) was to be adopted. Instead, a local language with far fewer native speakers than the most widely spoken local language was chosen (nevertheless, Malay was the second most widely spoken language in the colony after Javanese, and had many L2 speakers using it for trade, administration, and education). In 1945, when Indonesia declared its independence, Indonesian
10449-415: The language's wordstock. The Japanese agreed to the establishment of the Komisi Bahasa (Language Commission) in October 1942, formally headed by three Japanese but with a number of prominent Indonesian intellectuals playing the major part in its activities. Soewandi, later to be Minister of Education and Culture, was appointed secretary, Alisjahbana was appointed an 'expert secretary' and other members included
10578-417: The language, with Chinese influencing Indonesian during the 15th and 16th centuries due to the spice trade ; Sanskrit , Tamil , Prakrit and Hindi contributing during the flourishing of Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms from the 2nd to the 14th century; followed by Arabic after the spread of Islam in the archipelago in the 13th century. Loanwords from Portuguese were mainly connected with articles that
10707-619: The languages' words for kinship, health, body parts and common animals. Numbers, especially, show remarkable similarities. There are more than 700 local languages in Indonesian islands, such as Javanese , Sundanese , etc. While Malay as the source of Indonesian is the mother tongue of ethnic Malay who lives along the east coast of Sumatra, in the Riau Archipelago, and on the south and west coast of Kalimantan (Borneo). There are several areas, such as Jakarta, Manado, Lesser Sunda islands, and Mollucas which has Malay-based trade languages. Thus,
10836-410: The less common words such as paddy , sago and kapok , all of which were inherited in Indonesian from Malay but borrowed from Malay in English. The phrase "to run amok" comes from the Malay verb amuk (to run out of control, to rage). Indonesian is neither a pidgin nor a creole since its characteristics do not meet any of the criteria for either. It is believed that the Indonesian language
10965-572: The likelihood of the Malay homeland being in western Borneo stretching to the Bruneian coast. A form known as Proto-Malay language was spoken in Borneo at least by 1000 BCE and was, it has been argued, the ancestral language of all subsequent Malayan languages . Its ancestor, Proto-Malayo-Polynesian , a descendant of the Proto-Austronesian language , began to break up by at least 2000 BCE, possibly as
11094-472: The line from Batavia to Buitenzorg was completed in 1873. The city's first ice house was built in 1870. The 1869 opening of the Suez Canal increased the need for a new port. The port of Tanjung Priok was completed in 1885, replacing the centuries-old, inadequate Sunda Kelapa , significantly increasing trade and tourism in Batavia and the Dutch East Indies. The Cultivation System ( cultuurstelsel )
11223-530: The majority ethnic group, and Dutch as the previous coloniser. Compared to the indigenous dialects of Malay spoken in Sumatra and Malay peninsula or the normative Malaysian standard, the Indonesian language differs profoundly by a large number of Javanese loanwords incorporated into its already-rich vocabulary. As a result, Indonesian has more extensive sources of loanwords , compared to Malaysian Malay. The disparate evolution of Indonesian and Malaysian has led to
11352-409: The majority of the population and that would not divide the nation by favouring one ethnic group, namely the Javanese, over the others. In 1945, Indonesian was already in widespread use; in fact, it had been for roughly a thousand years. Over that long period, Malay, which would later become standardized as Indonesian, was the primary language of commerce and travel . It was also the language used for
11481-458: The mid-front vowel /e/ is sometimes represented with a diacritic as ⟨é⟩ to distinguish it from the mid-central vowel ⟨ê⟩ /ə/. Since 2015, the auxiliary graphemes ⟨é⟩ and ⟨è⟩ are used respectively for phonetic [ e ] and [ ɛ ] in Indonesian, while Standard Malay has rendered both of them as ⟨é⟩. The phonetic realization of the mid vowels / e / and / o / ranges from close-mid ( [e] / [o] ) to open-mid ( [ɛ] / [ɔ] ) allophones . Some analyses set up
11610-414: The more classical School Malay and it was accused of publishing Dutch written with an Indonesian vocabulary. Alisjahbana would no doubt have taken the criticism as a demonstration of his success. To him the language of Pujangga Baru pointed the way to the future, to an elaborated, Westernised language able to express all the concepts of the modern world. As an example, among the many innovations they condemned
11739-430: The national language, with varying degrees of proficiency. In a nation that is home to more than 700 native languages and a vast array of ethnic groups, it plays an important unifying and cross-archipelagic role for the country. Use of the national language is abundant in the media, government bodies, schools , universities , workplaces , among members of the upper-class or nobility and also in formal situations, despite
11868-408: The need to develop Indonesian so that it could take its place as a fully adequate national language, able to replace Dutch as a means of entry into modern international culture. In 1933, he began the magazine Pujangga Baru (New Writer — Poedjangga Baroe in the original spelling) with co-editors Amir Hamzah and Armijn Pane. The language of Pujangga Baru came in for criticism from those associated with
11997-573: The new settlement Nieuw-Hoorn after Hoorn (his birthplace), he was prevented from doing so by the board of the VOC. Batavia was chosen as the new name of the fort and settlement, and a naming ceremony was held on 18 January 1621. It was named after the Batavi Germanic tribe, which inhabited the Batavian region during the Roman Empire ; at the time, it was believed that the tribe was the ancestors of
12126-585: The only non-cooperative party function was the small Indonesian Islamic Union Party (PSII) . In 1936, a number of members of the Volksraad , the semi-legislative body of the Dutch East Indies , introduced the Soetardjo Petition , which asked for a conference to be organized to discuss autonomy for the colony. It was passed by 26 votes to 20. The Dutch authorities responded negatively to the petition, and this, together with increasing threat from global fascism led
12255-616: The phonetic and grammatical rules of Indonesian, enriching the language and reflecting Indonesia's diverse linguistic heritage. Most Indonesians, aside from speaking the national language, are fluent in at least one of the more than 700 indigenous local languages ; examples include Javanese and Sundanese , which are commonly used at home and within the local community. However, most formal education and nearly all national mass media , governance , administration , and judiciary and other forms of communication are conducted in Indonesian. Under Indonesian rule from 1976 to 1999, Indonesian
12384-523: The prefix me- is often dropped, although an initial nasal consonant is often retained, as when mengangkat becomes ngangkat (the basic word is angkat ). The suffixes -kan and -i are often replaced by -in . For example, mencarikan becomes nyariin , menuruti becomes nurutin . The latter grammatical aspect is one often closely related to the Indonesian spoken in Jakarta and its surrounding areas. Malay historical linguists agree on
12513-417: The propagation of Islam in the 13th to 17th centuries, as well as the language of instruction used by Portuguese and Dutch missionaries attempting to convert the indigenous people to Christianity . The combination of these factors meant that the language was already known to some degree by most of the population, and it could be more easily adopted as the national language than perhaps any other. Moreover, it
12642-436: The proximity of spoken Indonesian (in terms of grammar and vocabulary) to its normative form is noticeably low. This is mostly due to Indonesians combining aspects of their own local languages (e.g., Javanese , Sundanese , and Balinese ) with Indonesian. This results in various vernacular varieties of Indonesian, the very types that a foreigner is most likely to hear upon arriving in any Indonesian city or town. This phenomenon
12771-591: The resulting disparity of views within the party led to tensions between Sjahrir and the more leftist members. In 1937, a Sutardjo petition committee was established to try to persuade the Dutch government to support the petition. Although in October that year, the Gerindo leadership stated the party would support this committee, it also banned party members from sitting on it, making its support meaningless. It also attracted very little support from other nationalist parties, which may have been due to defeatism. In November 1938,
12900-487: The ruins of the former Jayakarta. Coen decided to expand the original fort into a larger fortress on 2 July 1619, and sent plans for Batavia Castle to the Netherlands on 7 October of that year. The castle was larger than the previous one, with two northern bastions protecting it from a maritime attack. The Nassau and Mauritius warehouses were expanded with the erection of an eastern fort extension, overseen by Commander Van Raay, on 12 March 1619. Although Coen wanted to name
13029-399: The same language (mostly Portuguese and Malay). Many of these women effectively became widows; their husbands left Batavia to return to the Netherlands, and their children were often removed as well. Most of Batavia's residents were of Asian descent. Thousands of slaves were brought from India and Arakan ; later, slaves were brought from Bali and Sulawesi . To avoid an uprising, a decision
13158-543: The same material basis as the Malaysian standard of Malay and is therefore considered to be a variety of the pluricentric Malay language. However, it does differ from Malaysian Malay in several respects, with differences in pronunciation and vocabulary. These differences are due mainly to the Dutch and Javanese influences on Indonesian. Indonesian was also influenced by the Melayu pasar ( lit. ' market Malay ' ), which
13287-820: The six United Nations languages, namely English , French , Arabic , Chinese , Russian , and Spanish , as well as four other languages of UNESCO member countries, namely Hindi , Italian , Portuguese , and Indonesian. As regulated by Indonesian state law UU No 24/2009, other than state official speeches and documents between or issued to Indonesian government, Indonesian language is required by law to be used in: However, other languages may be used in dual-language setting to accompany but not to replace Indonesian language in: agreements, information regarding goods / services, scientific papers, information through mass media, geographical names, public signs, road signs, public facilities, banners, and other information of public services in public area. While there are no sanctions of
13416-430: The status of the Indonesian language. The national language is Indonesian. Indonesian functions as a symbol of national identity and pride, and is a lingua franca among the diverse ethnic groups in Indonesia and the speakers of vernacular Malay dialects and Malay creoles. The Indonesian language serves as the national and official language, the language of education, communication, transaction and trade documentation,
13545-477: The use of Indonesian was allowed since the Volksraad sessions held in July 1938. By the time they tried to counter the spread of Malay by teaching Dutch to the natives, it was too late, and in 1942, the Japanese conquered Indonesia. The Japanese mandated that all official business be conducted in Indonesian and quickly outlawed the use of the Dutch language. Three years later, the Indonesians themselves formally abolished
13674-525: The uses of other languages, in Indonesian court's point of view, any agreements made in Indonesia but not drafted in Indonesian language, is null and void. In any different interpretations in dual-language agreements setting, Indonesian language shall prevail. Indonesian has six vowel phonemes as shown in the table below. In standard Indonesian orthography, the Latin alphabet is used, and five vowels are distinguished: a, i, u, e, o . In materials for learners,
13803-483: The wealthy Dutch built tall houses and canals. The region was an important source of food crops and building materials. The VOC established a local government in 1664, which became fully functional in 1682. Chinese inhabitants began to cultivate sugarcane. Large-scale cultivation negatively impacted the environment, and Batavia's northern area experienced coastal erosion . The canals required extensive maintenance, with frequent closures for dredging . Residents of
13932-510: The west bank of the Ciliwung and a fort near his customs office to maintain a balance of power. Tensions between Prince Jayawikarta and the Dutch escalated until 1618, when Jayawikarta's soldiers besieged the Dutch fortress containing the Nassau and Mauritius warehouse. An English fleet of 15 ships arrived under Thomas Dale , former governor of the colony of Virginia . After a sea battle, newly appointed Dutch governor Jan Pieterszoon Coen escaped to
14061-422: The word bahasa only means language. For example, French language is translated as bahasa Prancis , and the same applies to other languages, such as bahasa Inggris (English), bahasa Jepang (Japanese), bahasa Arab (Arabic), bahasa Italia (Italian), and so on. Indonesians generally may not recognize the name Bahasa alone when it refers to their national language. Standard Indonesian
14190-565: Was a mid-19th-century Dutch government policy which required a portion of agricultural production to be export crops. Indonesian historians refer to it as tanam paksa (enforced planting). The 1870 abolition of the Cultivation System led to the rapid development of private enterprise in the Dutch East Indies. A number of trading companies and financial institutions were established on Java, particularly in Batavia. The Old Town's deteriorating structures were replaced with offices, usually along
14319-405: Was a more immediate concern than Indonesian independence and the party cooperated with the Dutch administration, accepting Dutch administration and taking seats. Despite its more radical stance than Parindra (Great Indonesia Party), the Dutch did not ban it, and it became the only legal organization for radical nationalists, including supporters of the banned Communist Party of Indonesia . However,
14448-617: Was a peaceful period characterized by economic and technological expansion and a stable government. In 1856, the region's first telegraph line was installed between Batavia and Buitenzorg . In 1859, Batavia was connected to Singapore with the Dutch East Indies' first international telegraph connection. The city completed its first gasworks two years later, and its streets were lit with gas by 1862. The first trams and telephones came in 1882. Horse-drawn tram , introduced to Batavia in 1869, were upgraded to steam power in 1882 and electricity in 1900. The city's first railway also began in 1869, and
14577-409: Was achieved and Jakarta proclaimed the national capital on 27 December 1949. Batavia, founded as the trade and administrative center of the VOC, was never intended to be a Dutch settlement. Jan Pieterszoon Coen founded Batavia for trade, with the city's inhabitants producing and supplying food. There was no migration of intact Dutch families, and there were few Dutch women in Batavia. A mixed society
14706-604: Was changed to Universiteit van Indonesië (UVI). After the Indonesian National Revolution the government established Universiteit Indonesia, a state university, in Jakarta in February 1950. Its name was later changed to Universitas Indonesia. Volksraad member Mohammad Husni Thamrin criticized the colonial government for ignoring the kampungs and catering to the wealthy in Menteng . In 1909, Tirto Adhi Soerjo founded
14835-470: Was designated as the official language of Timor Leste . It has the status of a working language under the country's constitution along with English . In November 2023, the Indonesian language was recognized as one of the official languages of the UNESCO General Conference. The term Indonesian is primarily associated with the national standard dialect ( bahasa baku ). However, in
14964-436: Was formally declared the national language, despite being the native language of only about 5% of the population. In contrast, Javanese and Sundanese were the mother tongues of 42–48% and 15% respectively. The combination of nationalistic , political , and practical concerns ultimately led to the successful adoption of Indonesian as a national language. In 1945, Javanese was easily the most prominent language in Indonesia. It
15093-515: Was formed; relationships between Dutchmen and Asian women did not usually result in marriage, and the women did not have the right to return to the Dutch Republic . This societal pattern created a group of mestizos in Batavia. Since the VOC preferred to maintain complete control of its business, a large number of slaves was employed. Women became an important feature of Batavia's social network; they were accustomed to dealing with slaves, and spoke
15222-569: Was introduced in 1901, expanding educational opportunities for the indigenous population of the Dutch East Indies. In 1924, a law school was founded in Batavia. The city's population in the 1930 census was 435,000. The University of Batavia was established in 1941, and later became the University of Indonesia . In 1946, the Dutch colonial government established the Nood Universiteit (Emergency University) in Jakarta. The following year, its name
15351-550: Was introduced in closed syllables under the influence of Javanese and Jakarta Malay, but Dutch borrowings made it more acceptable. Although Alisjahbana argued against it, insisting on writing ⟨a⟩ instead of an ⟨ê⟩ in final syllables such as koda (vs kodə 'code') and nasionalisma (vs nasionalismə 'nationalism'), he was unsuccessful. This spelling convention was instead survived in Balinese orthography. Indonesian has four diphthong phonemes only in open syllables. They are: Some analyses assume that these diphthongs are actually
15480-465: Was made to free the Javanese people from slavery. Chinese people made up the largest group in Batavia (most being merchants and laborers), and were the most decisive group in the city's development. Other residents included Malays and Muslim and Hindu merchants from India. Initially, these ethnic groups lived together; however, in 1688, segregation was imposed on the indigenous population. Each ethnic group
15609-456: Was one of the means to achieve independence, but it is opened to receive vocabulary from other foreign languages aside from Malay that it has made contact with since the colonialism era, such as Dutch, English and Arabic among others, as the loan words keep increasing each year. In 2020, Indonesian had 71.9 million native speakers and 176.5 million second-language speakers, who speak it alongside their local mother tongue , giving
15738-583: Was replaced by Stamford Raffles . In 1811, Raffles—who was employed by the British East India Company as secretary to the governor of Malacca—decided to take over the government in Batavia. One reason was to prevent the French from stepping in completely, since Napoleon had nominated Daendels (who worked closely with the French). In 1816, the Dutch returned to rule the region. Europeans were brought to
15867-546: Was similar to the proposals in the Sutardjpo petition. However, the Netherlands fell to Germany before any response was forthcoming. The party did not hold a congress that year, but in October elected a new party leadership, although A.K. Gani remained party leader. The third party congress was held in Batavia from 10–12 October 1941. It called for exiled Indonesian leaders to be freed as they were also enemies of fascism. On 10 January 1942, Japan invaded and subsequently occupied
15996-400: Was still no notion of Indonesian language. Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana was a great promoter of the use and development of Indonesian and he was greatly exaggerating the decline of Dutch. Higher education was still in Dutch and many educated Indonesians were writing and speaking in Dutch in many situations (and were still doing so well after independence was achieved). He believed passionately in
16125-440: Was the language of the sultanate of Brunei and of future Malaysia , on which some Indonesian nationalists had claims . Over the first 53 years of Indonesian independence , the country's first two presidents, Sukarno and Suharto constantly nurtured the sense of national unity embodied by Indonesian, and the language remains an essential component of Indonesian identity. Through a language planning program that made Indonesian
16254-407: Was the lingua franca of the archipelago in colonial times, and thus indirectly by other spoken languages of the islands. Malaysian Malay claims to be closer to the classical Malay of earlier centuries, even though modern Malaysian has been heavily influenced, in lexicon as well as in syntax, by English. The question of whether High Malay (Court Malay) or Low Malay (Bazaar Malay) was the true parent of
16383-451: Was the main driving force behind this establishment, while Gerindo had the most prominent role within the organization. That same year, Yamin was expelled from the party for breaches of discipline. At the second Gerindo congress, which was held in Palembang from 1–2 August 1939, the party agreed to open up membership to ethnic Europeans, Chinese and Arabs. It also stated that it wanted to see
16512-445: Was the native language of nearly half the population, the primary language of politics and economics , and the language of courtly , religious , and literary tradition. What it lacked, however, was the ability to unite the diverse Indonesian population as a whole. With thousands of islands and hundreds of different languages, the newly independent country of Indonesia had to find a national language that could realistically be spoken by
16641-649: Was use of the word bisa instead of dapat for 'can'. In Malay bisa meant only 'poison from an animal's bite' and the increasing use of Javanese bisa in the new meaning they regarded as one of the many threats to the language's purity. Unlike more traditional intellectuals, he did not look to Classical Malay and the past. For him, Indonesian was a new concept; a new beginning was needed and he looked to Western civilisation, with its dynamic society of individuals freed from traditional fetters, as his inspiration. The prohibition on use of Dutch led to an expansion of Indonesian language newspapers and pressure on them to increase
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