Misplaced Pages

#738261

116-456: One of the highest peaks of the province is the Ubinas volcano. Other mountains are listed below: The province is divided into eleven districts , which are: The province is inhabited by indigenous citizens of Aymara and Quechua descent. Spanish , however, is the language which the majority of the population (60.36%) learnt to speak in childhood, 37.45% of the residents started speaking using

232-467: A volcano hazard map for Ubinas and regular volcanic activity reports. The historian and geographer Mariano Felipe Paz Soldán relates the name Ubinas to two terms in two different languages. In the indigenous language Quechua , uina means "to stuff" or "to fill", and uiña is translated as "to grow" or "to increase". In Aymara , hupi means "weep" or "murmur"; hupina is the genitive of hupi . Local inhabitants believed that Ubinas

348-449: A 65-square-kilometre (25 sq mi) circular surface at the margin of a high plateau . Volcanic ash and some lava flows cover the terrain north and east of Ubinas. Four lava domes crop out around the volcano and may be related to it. The Ubinas and Para valleys border the volcano in its southeastern sector; the difference in elevation between the floor of the Ubinas valley and

464-700: A broad trend of very gradual cooling known as Neoglaciation , which lasted from the end of the HCO to before the Industrial Revolution . From the 10th-14th century, the climate was similar to that of modern times during a period known as the Mediaeval Warm Period (MWP), also known as the Mediaeval Climatic Optimum (MCO). It was found that the warming that is taking place in current years is both more frequent and more spatially homogeneous than what

580-425: A deposit with five separate layers of pumice, ash and lapilli. More eruptions identified by tephrochronology took place 1,890 ± 70, 7,480 ± 40, 11,280 ± 70, 11,480 ± 220 and 14,690 ± 200 years ago, yielding scoria and pyroclastic flows. The various explosive eruptions of Ubinas have deposited material as far as 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) away from the volcano. Landslides also took place in this time, including

696-593: A larger effect on the mid-to-low latitudes and mid-to-high latitudes after ~5600 B.P. Human activity through land use changes already by the Mesolithic had major ecological impacts; it was an important influence on Holocene climatic changes, and is believed to be why the Holocene is an atypical interglacial that has not experienced significant cooling over its course. From the start of the Industrial Revolution onwards, large-scale anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions caused

812-552: A marine transgression occurred in southeastern Africa; in the Lake Lungué basin, this sea level highstand occurred from 740 to 910 AD, or from 1,210 to 1,040 BP, as evidenced by the lake's connection to the Indian Ocean at this time. This transgression was followed by a period of transition that lasted until 590 BP, when the region experienced significant aridification and began to be extensively used by humans for livestock herding. In

928-643: A more sustainable sedentary lifestyle . This form of lifestyle change allowed humans to develop towns and villages in centralized locations, which gave rise to the world known today. It is believed that the domestication of plants and animals began in the early part of the Holocene in the tropical areas of the planet. Because these areas had warm, moist temperatures, the climate was perfect for effective farming. Culture development and human population change, specifically in South America, has also been linked to spikes in hydroclimate resulting in climate variability in

1044-567: A much wetter climate from 11,400 to 11,100 BP due to intensification of the ISM. Over the Early Holocene, the region was very wet, but during the Middle Holocene from 6,200 to 3,900 BP, aridification occurred, with the subsequent Late Holocene being relatively arid as a whole. Coastal southwestern India experienced a stronger ISM from 9,690 to 7,560 BP, during the HCO. From 3,510 to 2,550 BP, during

1160-596: A negative excursion in the δ O record lasting 400 years, is the most prominent climatic event occurring in the Holocene Epoch, and may have marked a resurgence of ice cover. It has been suggested that this event was caused by the final drainage of Lake Agassiz , which had been confined by the glaciers, disrupting the thermohaline circulation of the Atlantic . This disruption was the result of an ice dam over Hudson Bay collapsing sending cold lake Agassiz water into

1276-419: A report on the activity of Ubinas. When there are indications of increased volcanic activity, it can recommend that the local government raise the volcano hazard level . Hazard maps were created during the 2006 eruptive event to show the relative risk in various locations around the volcano, which is graded in a three-zone scheme with one high-risk, one intermediate-risk and one low-risk zone. A contingency map

SECTION 10

#1732868925739

1392-467: A role. Drangajökull, Iceland's northernmost glacier, melted shortly after 9,200 BP. In Northern Germany , the Middle Holocene saw a drastic increase in the amount of raised bogs, most likely related to sea level rise. Although human activity affected geomorphology and landscape evolution in Northern Germany throughout the Holocene, it only became a dominant influence in the last four centuries. In

1508-482: A small size. An underground magmatic connection between Ubinas and Huaynaputina was postulated already by Antonio Vázquez de Espinosa after the 1600 eruption of the latter volcano, which was the largest historical eruption in the Andes and had an enormous impact, including causing a cold summer in the northern hemisphere. The basement of Ubinas consists of volcanic and sedimentary rocks. The sedimentary rocks include

1624-501: A variety of methods, with a view toward further verifying and refining the Blytt–Sernander sequence . This is a classification of climatic periods initially defined by plant remains in peat mosses . Though the method was once thought to be of little interest, based on C dating of peats that was inconsistent with the claimed chronozones, investigators have found a general correspondence across Eurasia and North America . The scheme

1740-423: A vegetation form called pajonal , which consists of creeping plants, grasses and shrubs made up of high Andean vegetation. Small lakes and areas of waterlogged soil form wetlands called bofedales , in which aquatic plants and rosette-forming plants grow; both bofedales and pajonal also feature cushion plants . The upper sector of Ubinas is vegetation-free. Animal species have been described mainly in

1856-525: Is arid overall, but during the summer wet-season rainfall can cause landslides at lower elevation, and the upper parts of the volcano including the caldera can receive a snow cover. Weather data are available for the town of Ubinas at 3,200 metres (10,500 ft) elevation: the average temperature is 9–11 °C (48–52 °F) and the average annual precipitation is about 300–360 millimetres per year (12–14 in/year). The present-day snow line exceeds 5,400 metres (17,700 ft) elevation, but during

1972-422: Is a conical, truncated stratovolcano with upper slopes that reach angles of up to 45 degrees, and more gently sloping lower flanks. The more gently sloping lower part of the volcano is also known as Ubinas I and the steeper upper part as Ubinas II. The southern flank is cut by a noticeable notch, which is probably not an eruption vent and may have been formed by mudflows and rockslides . Due to weathering ,

2088-530: Is likely that the summit caldera formed during this time period, before 9,700 years ago. Over the last 7,500 years, volcanic activity has been characterized mainly by various kinds of explosive eruptions. These eruptions have expelled less than 0.1 cubic kilometres (0.024 cu mi) of material each time and left widespread deposits of ash, volcanic blocks and lapilli . A Plinian eruption occurred 980 ± 60 years BP and expelled 2.8 cubic kilometres (0.67 cu mi) of pumice and tephra, which has formed

2204-433: Is steeper and rises 900 metres (3,000 ft) above the Ubinas I shield. It consists mainly of 20–40-metre-thick (66–131 ft) lava flows but also several lava domes with accompanying block-and-ash flows, all of which formed between 261,000 ± 10,000 and 142,000 ± 30,000 years ago. A lack of more recent volcanic outcrops suggests a period of dormancy lasting until 25,000–14,700 years ago during which glaciation took place on

2320-644: Is the current geological epoch , beginning approximately 11,700 years ago. It follows the Last Glacial Period , which concluded with the Holocene glacial retreat . The Holocene and the preceding Pleistocene together form the Quaternary period. The Holocene is an interglacial period within the ongoing glacial cycles of the Quaternary, and is equivalent to Marine Isotope Stage 1 . The Holocene correlates with

2436-545: Is the major product of historical eruptions. There is a trend for more recent volcanic events to produce more diverse rocks than the early eruptions, probably owing to a change in the magma supply regime; after 25,000–14,700 years ago magma supply increased and became more irregular. Otherwise, the magma supply rate at Ubinas amounts to about 0.18–0.13 cubic kilometres per millennium (0.043–0.031 cu mi/ka), with an average rate of 0.15 cubic kilometres per millennium (0.036 cu mi/ka). Ubinas started to develop in

SECTION 20

#1732868925739

2552-522: The 2014 Iquique earthquake , culminating in an explosive eruption on April 19, 2014. Volcanic activity decreased afterwards until September 2014. The eruptions were accompanied by earthquakes, rumbling noises from the volcano, ash fall and the forceful ejection of large blocks. In light of the volcanic activity, Peru declared a state of emergency in August 2013 and evacuated the village of Querapi at Ubinas, whose population returned in 2016; The evacuation of

2668-457: The Andes , it rises 5,672 metres (18,609 ft) above sea level. The volcano's summit is cut by a 1.4-kilometre-wide (0.87 mi) and 150-metre-deep (490 ft) caldera , which itself contains a smaller crater . Below the summit, Ubinas has the shape of an upwards-steepening cone with a prominent notch on the southern side. The gently sloping lower part of the volcano is also known as Ubinas I and

2784-547: The French Alps , geochemistry and lithium isotope signatures in lake sediments have suggested gradual soil formation from the Last Glacial Period to the Holocene climatic optimum , and this soil development was altered by the settlement of human societies. Early anthropogenic activities such as deforestation and agriculture reinforced soil erosion, which peaked in the Middle Ages at an unprecedented level, marking human forcing as

2900-603: The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) produced increased monsoon rainfall over North Africa. The lush vegetation of the Sahara brought an increase in pastoralism . The AHP ended around 5,500 BP, after which the Sahara began to dry and become the desert it is today. A stronger East African Monsoon during the Middle Holocene increased precipitation in East Africa and raised lake levels. Around 800 AD, or 1,150 BP,

3016-730: The Jurassic Chocholate Formation , the Socosani Formation and the Yura Group . The oldest volcanic rocks of the Matalaque Volcanics date to the Late Cretaceous and crop out east and southeast of Ubinas, far away from the volcano. Most of the volcanics in proximity to Ubinas are the younger, Eocene -to- Oligocene Tacaza Group and the more restricted Miocene - Pliocene Barroso Group , which directly underlies

3132-717: The Kalahari Desert , Holocene climate was overall very stable and environmental change was of low amplitude. Relatively cool conditions have prevailed since 4,000 BP. In the Middle East, the Holocene brought a warmer and wetter climate, in contrast to the preceding cold, dry Younger Dryas . The Early Holocene saw the advent and spread of agriculture in the Fertile Crescent — sheep , goat , cattle , and later pig were domesticated, as well as cereals, like wheat and barley , and legumes —which would later disperse into much of

3248-664: The Mesolithic , Neolithic , and Bronze Age , are usually used. However, the time periods referenced by these terms vary with the emergence of those technologies in different parts of the world. Some scholars have argued that a third epoch of the Quaternary, the Anthropocene , has now begun. This term has been used to denote the present time-interval in which many geologically significant conditions and processes have been profoundly altered by human activities. The 'Anthropocene' (a term coined by Paul J. Crutzen and Eugene Stoermer in 2000)

3364-628: The North Atlantic ocean . Furthermore, studies show that the melting of Lake Agassiz led to sea-level rise which flooded the North American coastal landscape. The basal peat plant was then used to determine the resulting local sea-level rise of 0.20-0.56m in the Mississippi Delta . Subsequent research, however, suggested that the discharge was probably superimposed upon a longer episode of cooler climate lasting up to 600 years and observed that

3480-461: The Pleistocene epoch it descended to about 4,900 metres (16,100 ft). Vegetation at 3,400–4,200 metres (11,200–13,800 ft) elevation consists of grassland, bushes and low trees such as Buddleja coriacea , Escallonia myrtilloides , Polylepis besseri and Ribes brachybotrys forming a shrub vegetation in valleys. Farther up, between 4,200–4,700 metres (13,800–15,400 ft) lies

3596-464: The Puno and Tacna Regions , as well as Bolivia and Argentina . Since then the volcano has been active with ash and steam emissions, earthquakes and lahars. In May 2023, an increase of seismic activity preceded a new eruption that commenced on 22 June 2023. This eruption petered out at the end of the year, while lahars descended its slopes. Hazards stemming from volcanic activity at Ubinas are mainly

General Sánchez Cerro Province - Misplaced Pages Continue

3712-570: The Quechua language and 1.98% using Aymara ( 2007 Peru Census ). 16°40′27″S 70°58′13″W  /  16.67417°S 70.97028°W  / -16.67417; -70.97028 Ubinas Ubinas is an active stratovolcano in the Moquegua Region of southern Peru , approximately 60 kilometres (37 mi) east of the city of Arequipa . Part of the Central Volcanic Zone of

3828-565: The Tien Shan , sedimentological evidence from Swan Lake suggests the period between 8,500 and 6,900 BP was relatively warm, with steppe meadow vegetation being predominant. An increase in Cyperaceae from 6,900 to 2,600 BP indicates cooling and humidification of the Tian Shan climate that was interrupted by a warm period between 5,500 and 4,500 BP. After 2,600 BP, an alpine steppe climate prevailed across

3944-965: The last glacial period . Local names for the last glacial period include the Wisconsinan in North America , the Weichselian in Europe, the Devensian in Britain, the Llanquihue in Chile and the Otiran in New Zealand. The Holocene can be subdivided into five time intervals, or chronozones , based on climatic fluctuations: Geologists working in different regions are studying sea levels, peat bogs, and ice-core samples, using

4060-535: The sixth mass extinction or Anthropocene extinction , is an ongoing extinction event of species during the present Holocene epoch (with the more recent time sometimes called Anthropocene) as a result of human activity . The included extinctions span numerous families of fungi , plants , and animals , including mammals , birds , reptiles , amphibians , fish and invertebrates . With widespread degradation of highly biodiverse habitats such as coral reefs and rainforests , as well as other areas,

4176-881: The 1 cubic kilometre (0.24 cu mi) collapse more than 3,670 ± 60 years ago. Ubinas is the most active volcano in Peru and one of the most active in the Central Volcanic Zone; as of 2023 at least 27 explosive eruptions have occurred since the 16th century at an average rate of one eruption every twenty to thirty-three years. Events are recorded from 1550, 1599, 1600, 1662, 1667, 1677, 1778, 1784, 1826, 1830, 1862, 1865, 1867, 1869, 1906, 1907, 1912, 1923, 1936, 1937, 1951, 1956, 1969, 1996, 2006–2009, 2013–2016, 2016–2017 and 2019. Most of these eruptions consisted of emissions of ash and gas, sometimes accompanied by explosions, while more intense events such as in 1667 also produced scoria falls and pyroclastic flows. The 1667 eruption

4292-466: The 2006–2007 eruption sequence involved the ejection of large volcanic bombs at high speed and the emission of small quantities of ash. Gas and ash columns were emitted between April and October 2006 and reached heights of about 3–4 kilometres (1.9–2.5 mi). Volcanically induced melting of snow that had fallen on the summit during the 2006–2007 summer induced a mudflow in January 2007 that descended into

4408-1004: The Andes. The Central Volcanic Zone is one of four volcanic belts in the Andes; the others are the Northern Volcanic Zone , the Southern Volcanic Zone , and the Austral Volcanic Zone . The Central Volcanic Zone is 1,500 kilometres (930 mi) long, and 69 of its volcanoes have been active in the Holocene epoch. Peruvian volcanoes include stratovolcanoes , which are typically active for less than 500,000 years, long-lived clusters of lava domes, and monogenetic volcanic fields . Historical eruptions have been recorded at seven Peruvian volcanoes: El Misti , Huaynaputina , Sabancaya , Ticsani , Tutupaca , Ubinas, and Yucamane . The volcanoes Ampato , Casiri , Chachani , Coropuna , and Sara Sara are dormant . Reaching an elevation of 5,672 metres (18,609 ft), Ubinas

4524-648: The Earth to warm. Likewise, climatic changes have induced substantial changes in human civilisation over the course of the Holocene. During the transition from the last glacial to the Holocene, the Huelmo–Mascardi Cold Reversal in the Southern Hemisphere began before the Younger Dryas, and the maximum warmth flowed south to north from 11,000 to 7,000 years ago. It appears that this was influenced by

4640-576: The Holocene Epoch. A 1,500-year cycle corresponding to the North Atlantic oceanic circulation may have had widespread global distribution in the Late Holocene. From 8,500 BP to 6,700 BP, North Atlantic climate oscillations were highly irregular and erratic because of perturbations from substantial ice discharge into the ocean from the collapsing Laurentide Ice Sheet. The Greenland ice core records indicate that climate changes became more regional and had

4756-474: The Holocene has shown significant variability despite ice core records from Greenland suggesting a more stable climate following the preceding ice age. Marine chemical fluxes during the Holocene were lower than during the Younger Dryas, but were still considerable enough to imply notable changes in the climate. The temporal and spatial extent of climate change during the Holocene is an area of considerable uncertainty, with radiative forcing recently proposed to be

General Sánchez Cerro Province - Misplaced Pages Continue

4872-480: The Holocene, however, the domestication of plants and animals allowed humans to develop villages and towns in centralized locations. Archaeological data shows that between 10,000 and 7,000 BP rapid domestication of plants and animals took place in tropical and subtropical parts of Asia , Africa , and Central America . The development of farming allowed humans to transition away from hunter-gatherer nomadic cultures, which did not establish permanent settlements, to

4988-658: The International Union of Geological Sciences later formally confirmed, by a near unanimous vote, the rejection of the working group's Anthropocene Epoch proposal for inclusion in the Geologic Time Scale. The Holocene is a geologic epoch that follows directly after the Pleistocene . Continental motions due to plate tectonics are less than a kilometre over a span of only 10,000 years. However, ice melt caused world sea levels to rise about 35 m (115 ft) in

5104-437: The Late Holocene, the ISM became weaker, although this weakening was interrupted by an interval of unusually high ISM strength from 3,400 to 3,200 BP. Southwestern China experienced long-term warming during the Early Holocene up until ~7,000 BP. Northern China experienced an abrupt aridification event approximately 4,000 BP. From around 3,500 to 3,000 BP, northeastern China underwent a prolonged cooling, manifesting itself with

5220-476: The Late Holocene. Animal and plant life have not evolved much during the relatively short Holocene, but there have been major shifts in the richness and abundance of plants and animals. A number of large animals including mammoths and mastodons , saber-toothed cats like Smilodon and Homotherium , and giant sloths went extinct in the late Pleistocene and early Holocene. These extinctions can be mostly attributed to people. In America, it coincided with

5336-454: The Middle Holocene was notable for its warmth, with rhythmic temperature fluctuations every 400-500 and 1,000 years. Before 7,500 BP, the Gulf of Thailand was exposed above sea level and was very arid. A marine transgression occurred from 7,500 to 6,200 BP amidst global warming. During the Middle Holocene, western North America was drier than present, with wetter winters and drier summers. After

5452-625: The Middle to Late Holocene, the coastline of the Levant and Persian Gulf receded, prompting a shift in human settlement patterns following this marine regression. Central Asia experienced glacial-like temperatures until about 8,000 BP, when the Laurentide Ice Sheet collapsed. In Xinjiang , long-term Holocene warming increased meltwater supply during summers, creating large lakes and oases at low altitudes and inducing enhanced moisture recycling. In

5568-580: The Toquepala arc 91 – c. 45 million years ago over the Andahuaylas-Anta c. 45–30 million years ago, the Huaylillas 24–10 million years ago, the two Barroso arcs 10–1 million years ago, to the recent arc in the last million years. The switching between the volcanic arcs was accompanied by northeastward or southwestward shifts of the zone of main volcanic activity. Furthermore, there was little relief in

5684-557: The Ubinas River valley. Volcanic activity— degassing and of Vulcanian eruptions —decreased until late 2009. This eruption was probably triggered by the entry of fresh magma in the magma plumbing system and the subsequent interaction of ascending magmas with the hydrothermal system of Ubinas. Beginning in July 2009, eruptive activity decreased considerably, being replaced with steady fumarolic emissions. Despite its record of activity, Ubinas

5800-439: The Ubinas mountain. Even older basement rocks include Paleoproterozoic plutons and the sedimentary Yura Group of Jurassic to Cretaceous age. A depression, whose margin is cut by landslide scars, cuts into the basement southeast of Ubinas and contains the Ubinas valley. Faults cut across the volcano and create unstable areas, especially in its southern sector, and NNW-SSE trending geological lineaments have influenced

5916-520: The arrival of the Clovis people; this culture was known for " Clovis points " which were fashioned on spears for hunting animals. Shrubs, herbs, and mosses had also changed in relative abundance from the Pleistocene to Holocene, identified by permafrost core samples. Throughout the world, ecosystems in cooler climates that were previously regional have been isolated in higher altitude ecological "islands". The 8.2-ka event , an abrupt cold spell recorded as

SECTION 50

#1732868925739

6032-401: The caldera floor is covered by lava flows and pyroclastic debris from explosive eruptions. It contains one or two ash cones with a triangle-shaped crater 400 metres (1,300 ft) wide and 300 metres (980 ft) deep; its walls are fractured and hydrothermally altered. Geophysical surveys have indicated the presence of an even larger buried caldera in Ubinas. A debris avalanche on

6148-432: The closest town to it. Agriculture and animal husbandry are the most important economic activities in these towns, agriculture prevailing at lower elevations. Water reservoirs and mining projects also exist in the wider region. Paved roads run along the northern and southern-southwestern foot of Ubinas, connecting towns close to the volcano to Arequipa and allowing access to the volcano over its western flank. Off

6264-617: The context of the National Reserve; they include various birds and camelids such as alpacas , guanacos , llamas and vicuñas . Sulfur deposits in the crater of Ubinas were considered among the most important sulfur deposits in Peru and were mined in the 19th century. Ubinas has been considered a potential place for geothermal energy production. Its eruptions between 2006–2017 have stimulated research on this volcano. Holocene The Holocene ( / ˈ h ɒ l . ə s iː n , - oʊ -, ˈ h oʊ . l ə -, - l oʊ -/ )

6380-557: The crater after wet seasons; another lake formed in 2016 after the crater floor was covered by the ongoing eruptions with impermeable material. Acid springs occur in the crater, and their water is capable of corroding silicon after a few hours' exposure. Lake Piscococha is located on the volcano's western foot and during December–April receives meltwater from its slopes, while the Para River and Sacuaya River flow past its eastern and southern slopes, respectively. Other rivers on

6496-456: The crater. Ubinas persistently emanates smoke, and lahars which have damaged fields , irrigation canals and paths have been recorded, such as the 2016 lahars caused by early 2016 precipitation events which mobilized ash that had fallen over the previous years. These lahars destroyed local water supplies and left the Matalaque and Ubinas districts temporarily isolated. The first episode of

6612-450: The disruption of Bronze Age civilisations in the region. Eastern and southern China, the monsoonal regions of China, were wetter than present in the Early and Middle Holocene. Lake Huguangyan's TOC, δ C wax , δ C org , δ N values suggest the period of peak moisture lasted from 9,200 to 1,800 BP and was attributable to a strong East Asian Summer Monsoon (EASM). Late Holocene cooling events in

6728-632: The districts surrounding the volcano, then in September of the same year an eruption generated a 4-kilometre-high (2.5 mi) eruption column that produced ash fall in the region, leading to evacuations. On 18 June 2019, earthquake activity increased and a new eruption commenced on 24 June, with eruption columns rising 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) above the summit crater. The most energetic eruption episode took place on 19 July 2019 with three major explosions. The explosions and ash emissions triggered evacuations and impacted 29,703 people in various districts of

6844-473: The early part of the Holocene and another 30 m in the later part of the Holocene. In addition, many areas above about 40 degrees north latitude had been depressed by the weight of the Pleistocene glaciers and rose as much as 180 m (590 ft) due to post-glacial rebound over the late Pleistocene and Holocene, and are still rising today. The sea-level rise and temporary land depression allowed temporary marine incursions into areas that are now far from

6960-427: The end of the last strong phase. Ice core measurements imply that the sea surface temperature (SST) gradient east of New Zealand, across the subtropical front (STF), was around 2 degrees Celsius during the HCO. This temperature gradient is significantly less than modern times, which is around 6 degrees Celsius. A study utilizing five SST proxies from 37°S to 60°S latitude confirmed that the strong temperature gradient

7076-601: The end of the thermal maximum of the HCO around 4,500 BP, the East Greenland Current underwent strengthening. A massive megadrought occurred from 2,800 to 1,850 BP in the Great Basin . Eastern North America underwent abrupt warming and humidification around 10,500 BP and then declined from 9,300 to 9,100 BP. The region has undergone a long term wettening since 5,500 BP occasionally interrupted by intervals of high aridity. A major cool event lasting from 5,500 to 4,700 BP

SECTION 60

#1732868925739

7192-527: The extent of the area affected was unclear. The beginning of the Holocene corresponds with the beginning of the Mesolithic age in most of Europe . In regions such as the Middle East and Anatolia , the term Epipaleolithic is preferred in place of Mesolithic, as they refer to approximately the same time period. Cultures in this period include Hamburgian , Federmesser , and the Natufian culture , during which

7308-410: The fallout from explosive eruptions, lahars of different origins, large landslides that can generate debris flows and pyroclastic flows. Small explosive eruptions are the most likely occurrences at Ubinas, while large Plinian eruptions are considerably less likely. The area of the cone itself is the area most likely to be affected by volcanic phenomena, while pyroclastic flows and lahars are a danger for

7424-495: The foot of the volcano and debris and ignimbrite deposits in the south and southeast of Ubinas, and it forms a 600-metre-high (2,000 ft) shield . It was later cut on its southern side by a debris avalanche that probably occurred over 376,000 years ago. The last activity of Ubinas I generated more than four units of pyroclastic flows , with a total volume of about 1.8 cubic kilometres (0.43 cu mi), and possibly an old caldera 269,000 ± 16,000 years ago. Ubinas II

7540-522: The future evolution of living species, including approximately synchronous lithospheric evidence, or more recently hydrospheric and atmospheric evidence of the human impact. In July 2018, the International Union of Geological Sciences split the Holocene Epoch into three distinct ages based on the climate, Greenlandian (11,700 years ago to 8,200 years ago), Northgrippian (8,200 years ago to 4,200 years ago) and Meghalayan (4,200 years ago to

7656-454: The genesis of this magma suite. Lava composition has changed over time, dacites being represented mainly during the Ubinas II stage while stage I yielded mostly andesites. Silica content has decreased over time, with two phases of more silicic eruptions in the mid- and late Holocene. Holocene explosive eruptions were fed by silicic magma chambers that are now inactive as basaltic andesite

7772-489: The last maximum axial tilt of the Earth towards the Sun, and corresponds with the rapid proliferation, growth, and impacts of the human species worldwide, including all of its written history , technological revolutions , development of major civilizations , and overall significant transition towards urban living in the present. The human impact on modern-era Earth and its ecosystems may be considered of global significance for

7888-522: The mid-19th century. The LIA was the coldest interval of time of the past two millennia. Following the Industrial Revolution, warm decadal intervals became more common relative to before as a consequence of anthropogenic greenhouse gases, resulting in progressive global warming. In the late 20th century, anthropogenic forcing superseded variations in solar activity as the dominant driver of climate change, though solar activity has continued to play

8004-698: The mid-Holocene (8.2 - 4.2 k cal BP). Climate change on seasonality and available moisture also allowed for favorable agricultural conditions which promoted human development for Maya and Tiwanaku regions. In the Korean Peninsula , climatic changes fostered a population boom during the Middle Chulmun period from 5,500 to 5,000 BP, but contributed to a subsequent bust during the Late and Final Chulmun periods, from 5,000 to 4,000 BP and from 4,000 to 3,500 BP respectively. The Holocene extinction , otherwise referred to as

8120-427: The middle and late Pleistocene epoch. The oldest pre-Ubinas volcanics crop out north and south of the volcano and include the volcanoes Parhuane Grande and Parhuane Chico directly to the north. Volcanic activity started after a change in regional tectonics, which may have triggered the formation of magma chambers. The volcano developed in two phases, Ubinas I and Ubinas II: Ubinas I is represented by lava flows at

8236-453: The most powerful factor affecting surface processes. The sedimentary record from Aitoliko Lagoon indicates that wet winters locally predominated from 210 to 160 BP, followed by dry winter dominance from 160 to 20 BP. North Africa, dominated by the Sahara Desert in the present, was instead a savanna dotted with large lakes during the Early and Middle Holocene, regionally known as the African Humid Period (AHP). The northward migration of

8352-438: The nights. Fumarolic activity and degassing is limited to the crater; there is no evidence of such gas exhalations elsewhere on the volcano. Ubinas is a major source of volcanic carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere of Earth, producing SO 2 at a rate of about 11.4 ± 3.9 kilograms per second (1,510 ± 520 lb/min). The sulfur dioxide output changes with volcanic activity. Reportedly,

8468-518: The oldest inhabited places still existing on Earth were first settled, such as Tell es-Sultan (Jericho) in the Middle East . There is also evolving archeological evidence of proto-religion at locations such as Göbekli Tepe , as long ago as the 9th millennium BC . The preceding period of the Late Pleistocene had already brought advancements such as the bow and arrow , creating more efficient forms of hunting and replacing spear throwers . In

8584-539: The origin of cycles identified in the North Atlantic region. Climate cyclicity through the Holocene ( Bond events ) has been observed in or near marine settings and is strongly controlled by glacial input to the North Atlantic. Periodicities of ≈2500, ≈1500, and ≈1000 years are generally observed in the North Atlantic. At the same time spectral analyses of the continental record, which is remote from oceanic influence, reveal persistent periodicities of 1,000 and 500 years that may correspond to solar activity variations during

8700-553: The period exceeds any likely tectonic uplift of non-glacial origin. Post-glacial rebound in the Scandinavia region resulted in a shrinking Baltic Sea . The region continues to rise, still causing weak earthquakes across Northern Europe. An equivalent event in North America was the rebound of Hudson Bay , as it shrank from its larger, immediate post-glacial Tyrrell Sea phase, to its present boundaries. The climate throughout

8816-423: The plateau is about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi). The total volume of the mountain is estimated to be about 56 cubic kilometres (13 cu mi). The summit of the volcano is an elliptical caldera 1.4 kilometres (0.87 mi) wide and 150 metres (490 ft) deep, formed by collapses of the summit and explosive eruptions . The caldera walls are made of lava flows bearing traces of hydrothermal alteration;

8932-508: The present), as proposed by International Commission on Stratigraphy . The oldest age, the Greenlandian, was characterized by a warming following the preceding ice age. The Northgrippian Age is known for vast cooling due to a disruption in ocean circulations that was caused by the melting of glaciers. The most recent age of the Holocene is the present Meghalayan, which began with extreme drought that lasted around 200 years. The word Holocene

9048-459: The recent eruptions was the 2006–2007 event, which produced eruption columns and led to ash fall in the region, resulting in health issues and evacuations. During the most recent activity, from 2013 to 2017, a lava flow formed inside the crater, and further ash falls led to renewed evacuations of surrounding towns. Ubinas is monitored by the Peruvian geological service INGEMMET , which has published

9164-497: The region are considered to be part of a geothermal province known as "Ubinas" which also includes El Misti, and which deliver large amounts of dissolved minerals including arsenic to the local rivers. The climate of the area changes with elevation. The summit of Ubinas has a cold climate with temperatures frequently falling below 0 °C (32 °F); at lower elevations temperatures can exceed 18 °C (64 °F) during daytime, but night frosts are still possible. The region

9280-480: The region around the volcano, resulting in about US$ 1,000,000 of damage and the flight of local residents to Arequipa and Moquegua . The village of Querapi on the southern flank was temporarily evacuated to a location with shelters farther south, and two shelters were designated in low-risk areas around the volcano, one at Anascapa and the other at Chacchagen, 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) away from Matalaque. Furthermore, Lake Salinas , an important source of water in

9396-485: The region before about 45 million years ago when major uplift commenced. Ubinas, Ticsani and Huaynaputina form a group of volcanoes that extend in north-south direction north of the chain of volcanoes that make up the rest of the Central Volcanic Zone. These volcanoes have erupted rocks with similar geochemical traits and they are located around a graben occupied by the Rio Tambo; the marginal faults of this graben are

9512-500: The region were dominantly influenced by solar forcing, with many individual cold snaps linked to solar minima such as the Oort, Wolf , Spörer , and Maunder Minima . A notable cooling event in southeastern China occurred 3,200 BP. Strengthening of the winter monsoon occurred around 5,500, 4,000, and 2,500 BP. Monsoonal regions of China became more arid in the Late Holocene. In the Sea of Japan,

9628-413: The region, was threatened by the eruption. A new eruption period started on 2 September 2013 with a phreatic explosion , which was followed by more events in the next few days. Strong but variable seismic activity, the observation of thermal anomalies in satellite images and the exhalation of gases characterized this eruption period. Lava effusion began in the summit crater in 2014 and increased after

9744-597: The region. Sand dune evolution in the Bayanbulak Basin shows that the region was very dry from the Holocene's beginning until around 6,500 BP, when a wet interval began. In the Tibetan Plateau, the moisture optimum spanned from around 7,500 to 5,500 BP. The Tarim Basin records the onset of significant aridification around 3,000-2,000 BP. After 11,800 BP, and especially between 10,800 and 9,200 BP, Ladakh experienced tremendous moisture increase most likely related to

9860-628: The residual glacial ice remaining in the Northern Hemisphere until the later date. The first major phase of Holocene climate was the Preboreal . At the start of the Preboreal occurred the Preboreal Oscillation (PBO). The Holocene Climatic Optimum (HCO) was a period of warming throughout the globe but was not globally synchronous and uniform. Following the HCO, the global climate entered

9976-400: The sea. For example, marine fossils from the Holocene epoch have been found in locations such as Vermont and Michigan . Other than higher-latitude temporary marine incursions associated with glacial depression, Holocene fossils are found primarily in lakebed, floodplain , and cave deposits. Holocene marine deposits along low-latitude coastlines are rare because the rise in sea levels during

10092-409: The sites of the volcanic vents and probably acted as magma conduits. The magmas erupted by all three volcanoes appear to originate in a common magma chamber at 20–35 kilometres (12–22 mi) depth, with seismic activity localized along the margins of the chamber. Aside from this deep reservoir, Ubinas also has a shallower magma chamber at 4–7 kilometres (2.5–4.3 mi) depth which appears to have

10208-702: The slopes of Ubinas are the Quebrada Infiernillo on the southeastern, Volcanmayo River on the southern and Quebrada Postcone on the southwestern flank. The Sacuaya River becomes the Ubinas River and after confluence with the Para ends in the Tambo River which eventually flows into the Pacific Ocean ; the Ubinas River valley is densely inhabited. Ubinas lies in the Salinas y Aguada Blanca National Reserve of Peru, which

10324-472: The sound of the fumaroles can be heard from the village of Ubinas. The fumaroles along with the spontaneous potential of Ubinas indicate that the volcano hosts an active hydrothermal system 1–3 kilometres (0.62–1.86 mi) below the caldera. About 41 springs occur in the area; of these two are hot springs , are found on the southeastern slopes of Ubinas and are known as Ubinas Termal and Ubinas Fria. Both lie at 3,267 metres (10,719 ft) elevation,

10440-464: The southeastern flank reached a distance of 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) from the volcano, and left a collapse scar that is drained by the Volcanmayo River . This collapse took place early in the history of the volcano and removed a volume of about 2.8 cubic kilometres (0.67 cu mi) of rock from the mountain and underlying basement. Further collapses have occurred throughout the history of

10556-578: The stability and the hydrothermal system of Ubinas. Andesite and dacite are the dominant components of the volcano, though its rocks have compositions ranging from basaltic andesite to rhyolite . The volcanic rocks form a potassium -rich calc-alkaline suite. Phenocryst minerals vary between volcanic rocks of different composition and include amphibole , apatite , biotite , clinopyroxene , iron - titanium oxides , olivine , orthopyroxene , plagioclase and zircon . Assimilation of crustal material and fractional crystallization are involved in

10672-436: The steeper upper part as Ubinas II; they represent different stages in the volcano's geological history. The most active volcano in Peru, Ubinas has a history of small to moderate explosive eruptions as well as a few larger eruptions, such as in 1667, along with persistent degassing and ash emissions . Activity at the volcano began in the Pleistocene epoch, and led to the growth of the current mountain in two phases. Among

10788-721: The strengthening of the Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM). From 9,200 to 6,900 BP, relative aridity persisted in Ladakh. A second major humid phase occurred in Ladakh from 6,900 to 4,800 BP, after which the region was again arid. From 900 to 1,200 AD, during the MWP, the ISM was again strong as evidenced by low δ O values from the Ganga Plain. The sediments of Lonar Lake in Maharashtra record dry conditions around 11,400 BP that transitioned into

10904-400: The term 'recent' as an incorrect way of referring to the Holocene, preferring the term 'modern' instead to describe current processes. It also observes that the term 'Flandrian' may be used as a synonym for Holocene, although it is becoming outdated. The International Commission on Stratigraphy, however, considers the Holocene to be an epoch following the Pleistocene and specifically following

11020-418: The town of Ubinas was also considered. The 2006 and 2013–2017 activity induced the Peruvian government to invest additional resources in volcano monitoring. After these events, in 2015–2017 the volcano often persistently released ash and gas, accompanied by earthquakes as well as occasional explosions and eruption columns . In April 2015, for example, activity at Ubinas led to a declaration of emergency for

11136-427: The upper sector of the volcano has a worn appearance. Glacial valleys such as the Ubinas and Para valleys, as well as cirques and moraines down to 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) and at the foot of the volcano, indicate that glaciers developed on Ubinas during the last glacial maximum . Other volcanic cones in the region all show heavy erosion by glaciation. The volcano rises 1.4 kilometres (0.87 mi) from

11252-465: The valleys that drain Ubinas in southeastern direction and landslides are hazardous for an area of the southern flank. The town closest to the volcano is only 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) away from Ubinas. Large Plinian eruptions could have effects on the city of Arequipa. The Volcano Observatory of INGEMMET monitors the seismic activity, any deformation and emissions of the mountain, and hot spring and gas composition at Ubinas. It regularly publishes

11368-447: The volcano and into the Holocene epoch, including one 1-cubic-kilometre (0.24 cu mi) collapse that left a hummocky deposit on the southern flank. The sloping terrain that Ubinas is built upon predisposes the mountain to south-directed landslides; future collapses in that direction are possible, with the heavily fractured southern flank of the caldera particularly at risk. In the 1970s, an ephemeral crater lake appeared in

11484-506: The volcano. Reactivated volcanic activity started between 25,000 and 14,700 years ago and led to the emplacement of ash flows, pumice layers and tephra from phreatomagmatic and explosive eruptions, with deposits having thicknesses ranging from 2–4 metres (6 ft 7 in – 13 ft 1 in) in many places. The total volume of each eruption deposit ranges from 1–2 cubic kilometres (0.24–0.48 cu mi) and they crop out as far as 35 kilometres (22 mi) from Ubinas. It

11600-670: The volcanoes is formed by the partial melting of the mantle after fluids originating in the downgoing slab have altered the mantle; the magmas often undergo fractional crystallization and absorb crustal material. Southern Peru has been affected by volcanic activity since the Ordovician and the Permian - Jurassic period, subduction -related volcanism becoming important from the Cretaceous onwards. Beginning 91 million years ago, several volcanic arcs have been active in southern Peru: from

11716-410: The waters flowing out of the springs have temperatures of 29.1 °C (84.4 °F) and 13.6 °C (56.5 °F), respectively. The composition of the waters in these springs indicate that they originate from the mixing of deep saline water, fresh water and volcanic fluids. Additional springs associated with the volcano are Baños de Cura, Exchaje, Huarina and Lucca; these hot springs and others in

11832-625: The western coast of South America, the Nazca Plate subducts beneath the South American Plate at a rate of 7–9 centimetres per year (2.8–3.5 in/year) in the Peru-Chile Trench . This subduction process is responsible for the formation of the Andes and the Altiplano - Puna plateau within the last 25 million years, as well as for volcanism and earthquakes . The magma erupted by

11948-563: The world. This ' Neolithic Revolution ', likely influenced by Holocene climatic changes, included an increase in sedentism and population, eventually resulting in the world's first large-scale state societies in Mesopotamia and Egypt . During the Middle Holocene, the Intertropical Convergence Zone , which governs the incursion of monsoon precipitation through the Arabian Peninsula, shifted southwards, resulting in increased aridity. In

12064-417: Was around 2.1 metres above present and occurred about 5,800 to 5,000 BP. Sea levels at Rocas Atoll were likewise higher than present for much of the Late Holocene. The Northwest Australian Summer Monsoon was in a strong phase from 8,500 to 6,400 BP, from 5,000 to 4,000 BP (possibly until 3,000 BP), and from 1,300 to 900 BP, with weak phases in between and the current weak phase beginning around 900 BP after

12180-513: Was coeval with a major humidification before being terminated by a major drought and warming at the end of that interval. During the Early Holocene, relative sea level rose in the Bahia region, causing a landward expansion of mangroves. During the Late Holocene, the mangroves declined as sea level dropped and freshwater supply increased. In the Santa Catarina region, the maximum sea level highstand

12296-592: Was confined to the area immediately south of the STF, and is correlated with reduced westerly winds near New Zealand. Since 7,100 BP, New Zealand experienced 53 cyclones similar in magnitude to Cyclone Bola . Evidence from the Galápagos Islands shows that the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) was significantly weaker during the Middle Holocene, but that the strength of ENSO became moderate to high over

12412-422: Was created to show and explain the procedures to follow in case of various eruption scenarios. Both maps were widely disseminated after publication to aid in the response to future eruptions. Fumaroles are active at the bottom of the inner crater, with about five separate fumarole areas identified within the crater before the 2006 eruption. In 1997, a gas cloud from the fumaroles filled the entire caldera during

12528-414: Was defined for Northern Europe , but the climate changes were claimed to occur more widely. The periods of the scheme include a few of the final pre-Holocene oscillations of the last glacial period and then classify climates of more recent prehistory . Paleontologists have not defined any faunal stages for the Holocene. If subdivision is necessary, periods of human technological development, such as

12644-464: Was essentially unmonitored before the 2006 event: the inhabitants of the area were largely unaware of volcanic hazards, and there were no emergency plans for future eruptions available. A "Scientific Committee" was formed on March 30, 2006 to remedy these issues. A region of about 100 square kilometres (39 sq mi) was hit by the effects of the eruption. The ash fall from the eruption caused health problems and disrupted pastures and agriculture in

12760-460: Was experienced during the MWP. A warming of +1 degree Celsius occurs 5–40 times more frequently in modern years than during the MWP. The major forcing during the MWP was due to greater solar activity, which led to heterogeneity compared to the greenhouse gas forcing of modern years that leads to more homogeneous warming. This was followed by the Little Ice Age (LIA) from the 13th or 14th century to

12876-626: Was formed from two Ancient Greek words. Hólos ( ὅλος ) is the Greek word for "whole". "Cene" comes from the Greek word kainós ( καινός ), meaning "new". The concept is that this epoch is "entirely new". The suffix '-cene' is used for all the seven epochs of the Cenozoic Era. The International Commission on Stratigraphy has defined the Holocene as starting approximately 11,700 years before 2000 CE (11,650 cal years BP , or 9,700 BCE). The Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy (SQS) regards

12992-462: Was founded in 1979. The town of Ubinas and the villages of Querapi , Tonohaya , Ubinas and Viscachani lie southeast, south, southeast and northwest of the volcano, respectively, and other villages in the area include Anascapa, Escacha, Huarina, Huatahua, Sacuaya, San Miguel and Tonohaya. In total about 5,000 people live within 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) from the volcano, with Querapi being only 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) away from Ubinas and thus

13108-601: Was infested by demons and the souls of people who had fallen from God. The volcano is also known as Uvillas or Uvinas. Ubinas lies in the Ubinas District of the General Sánchez Cerro Province , Moquegua Region of Peru , 60 kilometres (37 mi) east of Arequipa in the Peruvian Western Cordillera . Like other Peruvian volcanoes, Ubinas belongs to the Central Volcanic Zone of

13224-550: Was never a formally defined geological unit. The Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy (SQS) of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) had a working group to determine whether it should be. In May 2019, members of the working group voted in favour of recognizing the Anthropocene as formal chrono-stratigraphic unit, with stratigraphic signals around the mid-twentieth century CE as its base. The exact criteria

13340-538: Was still to be determined, after which the recommendation also had to be approved by the working group's parent bodies (ultimately the International Union of Geological Sciences ). In March 2024, after 15 years of deliberation, the Anthropocene Epoch proposal of the working group was voted down by a wide margin by the SQS, owing largely to its shallow sedimentary record and extremely recent proposed start date. The ICS and

13456-581: Was the largest in historical time, producing about 0.1 cubic kilometres (0.024 cu mi) of scoria and reaching a volcanic explosivity index of 3. These eruptions have damaged communities around the volcano, and occasionally caused epidemics and human and cattle fatalities resulting from the ingestion of ash. Aside from regular eruptions, there are fumarolic -seismic events such as in 1995–1996 when sulfur dioxide and water vapour , emitted at temperatures of up to 440 °C (824 °F), formed clouds that rose over 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) above

#738261