170-644: General of the Armies John Joseph Pershing GCB (September 13, 1860 – July 15, 1948), nicknamed " Black Jack ", was a senior American United States Army officer. He served most famously as the commander of the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) during World War I from 1917 to 1920. In addition to leading the AEF to victory in World War I, Pershing notably served as a mentor to many in
340-509: A brigadier general , a move of which Congress approved. In skipping three ranks and more than 835 officers senior to him, the promotion gave rise to accusations that Pershing's appointment was the result of political connections and not military abilities. However, several other junior officers were similarly advanced to brigadier general ahead of their peers and seniors, including Albert L. Mills (captain), Tasker H. Bliss (major), and Leonard Wood (captain). Pershing's promotion, while unusual,
510-529: A 3000-mile circuit through the American Midwest and industrial cities such as Pittsburgh and then on to Washington, D.C., which included ceremonies at Arlington National Cemetery for what was then called Armistice Day. During the tour, he received numerous honorary degrees from American Universities. In 1923, Foch retired from the French Army, having served a total of 55 years in uniform. His career began as
680-620: A General of the Army. Pershing himself never wore more than four stars. Army regulations let the General of the Armies design his own uniform, but by the time the five-star grade was created in 1944, Pershing was too infirm to consider updating his insignia. When Pershing died on July 15, 1948, a proposal to bury him in a uniform bearing six stars was rejected in favor of the four stars he had always worn. In January 1955, Congressional supporters of General of
850-480: A Philippine stronghold at Macajambo. Pershing wrote in his autobiography that "The bodies [of some Moro outlaws] were publicly buried in the same grave with a dead pig." This treatment was used against captured juramentado so that the superstitious Moro would believe they would be going to hell. Pershing added that "it was not pleasant [for the Army] to have to take such measures". Historians do not believe that Pershing
1020-638: A bill in April 1954 to appoint Washington posthumously as General of the Armies. Twenty-two years later, a veterans group in the district of Representative Mario Biaggi observed that Washington had still not been promoted, prompting Biaggi to sponsor a joint resolution to elevate Washington to General of the Armies as part of the United States Bicentennial celebration in 1976. When the House Armed Services Committee met to consider
1190-678: A calculated gesture of disdain to the French delegates, left the carriage, as Foch had done in 1918. Foch's pre-war contributions as a military theorist and lecturer have also been recognised, and he has been credited as "the most original and subtle mind in the French Army " of the early 20th century. In January 1919, at the Paris Peace Conference Foch presented a memorandum to the Allied plenipotentiaries in which he stated: Henceforward
1360-680: A champion of the African-American soldier, he did not advocate their full participation on the battlefield, understanding the general racial attitudes of white Americans. George C. Marshall served as one of Pershing's top assistants during and after the war. Pershing's initial chief of staff was James Harbord , who later took a combat command but worked as Pershing's closest assistant for many years and remained extremely loyal to him. After departing from Fort Jay at Governors Island in New York Harbor under top secrecy on May 28, 1917, aboard
1530-400: A close relationship with Pershing Rifles for the remainder of his life. On October 20, 1892, Pershing was promoted to first lieutenant and in 1895 took command of a troop of the 10th Cavalry Regiment , one of the original Buffalo Soldier regiments composed of African-American soldiers under white officers. From Fort Assinniboine in north central Montana , he commanded an expedition to
1700-649: A decisive role in halting a renewed German advance on Paris in the Second Battle of the Marne , after which he was promoted to Marshal of France . Author Larry H. Addington says, "to a large extent the final Allied strategy which won the war on land in Western Europe in 1918 was Foch's alone." On 11 November 1918, Foch accepted the German request for an armistice. Foch advocated peace terms that would make Germany unable to pose
1870-546: A farm near Laclede, Missouri , on September 13, 1860, the son of farmer and store owner John Fletcher Pershing and homemaker Ann Elizabeth Thompson. Pershing's great-grandfather, Frederick Pfoerschin emigrated from Alsace and arrived in Philadelphia in 1749. He had five siblings who lived to adulthood: brothers James F. (1862–1933) and Ward (1874–1909), and sisters Mary Elizabeth (1864–1928), Anna May (1867–1955) and Grace (1867–1903); three other children died in infancy. When
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#17330847042112040-739: A further review of this event resulted in Pershing being recommended for the Distinguished Service Cross , but as the Army Chief of Staff Pershing disapproved the action. In 1940 Pershing received the Distinguished Service Cross for his heroism at Bud Bagsak, with President Franklin D. Roosevelt presenting it in a ceremony timed to coincide with Pershing's 80th birthday. During this period Pershing's reputation for both stern discipline and effective leadership continued to grow, with one experienced old soldier under his command later saying Pershing
2210-421: A general in 1917, when Army regulations authorized generals to prescribe their own shoulder and collar insignia. Pershing and Generals Tasker H. Bliss and Peyton C. March all chose to wear four silver stars on their shoulders, instead of the previous insignia of two silver stars and a gold eagle. Pershing and Bliss also replaced the regulation bronze "U.S." insignia on their collars with a gold eagle representing
2380-486: A highly dignified bearing. Foch was a quiet man, known for saying little and when he did speak, it was a volley of words accompanied by much gesturing of his hands that required some knowledge of him to understand properly. One of Foch's favourite phrases was " Pas de protocole! " as he preferred to be approachable by all officers. Foch's only rigidity was always taking his meals at noon and at 7:30; otherwise, he would work all sorts of irregular hours from dawn until well into
2550-402: A memorandum to the secretary of the Army to posthumously advance Grant to General of the Armies on April 19, 2024. No insignia was ever officially specified for the General of the Armies, who was allowed to define it for himself. Upon being appointed General of the Armies in 1919, Pershing continued to wear the four silver stars and gold collar eagle that he had selected for his insignia as
2720-541: A modest, devout, middle-class Catholic family. His last name reflects the ancestry of his father, a civil servant from Valentine , a village in Haute-Garonne , whose lineage may trace back to 16th-century Alsace . From a young age, he loved to study and work, showed great interest in military history and strategy, and was an avid reader of military literature. He attended school in Tarbes, Rodez , Gourdan-Polignan and at
2890-627: A new intergovernmental agency was necessary to coordinate transportation and storage of military supplies in France. Pershing took the recommendation to French Premier Georges Clemenceau. The British were hesitant at first but finally the key players were in agreement and the Board was established in May 1918. It involved coordinating the entirely different supply systems for the American, British, and French armies, as well as
3060-410: A personal accolade for his command of the American Expeditionary Forces during World War I ; to George Washington in 1976, as a posthumous honor during the United States Bicentennial celebrations; and posthumously to Ulysses S. Grant in 2024. The grade is sometimes described as a six-star general , as being senior to the five-star grade of General of the Army , but no six-star insignia
3230-457: A program, a tactic, a will. We find ourselves in the presence of an England that has all it wants for the present: the German colonies and the German fleet. We lack future security because [Britain] is not interested. In the presence of an America which seeks its own peace, we must have what we need... It is on the Rhine and nowhere else that we shall find it. He later wrote: In a word, the occupation
3400-542: A symbol both of Foch's leadership and of French determination to resist the invader at any cost, although there is little evidence that the signal was sent. Accordingly, on 4 October 1914, Foch was made the Assistant Commander-in-Chief of the Northern Zone under Joseph Joffre. Foch's counterattack was an implementation of the theories he had developed during his staff college days and succeeded in stopping
3570-611: A teacher of local African American children. While pursuing his teaching career, Pershing also studied at the State Normal School (now Truman State University ) in Kirksville, Missouri , from which he graduated in 1880 with a Bachelor of Science degree in scientific didactics . Two years later, he competed for appointment to the United States Military Academy . He performed well on the examination, and received
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#17330847042113740-520: A third forming as the war ended, totaling over two million soldiers. Pershing was keenly aware of logistics, and worked closely with AEF's Services of Supply (SOS). The new agency performed poorly under generals Richard M. Blatchford and Francis Joseph Kernan ; finally in 1918 James Harbord took control and got the job done. Pershing also worked with Colonel Charles G. Dawes —whom he had befriended in Nebraska and who had convinced him not to give up
3910-573: A threat to France ever again. He considered the Treaty of Versailles too lenient on Germany. Winston Churchill attributed this famous quote about the Peace Treaty of Versailles to Foch: "This is not Peace. It is an Armistice for twenty years." Indeed, the next war sprung out 20 years later. Ferdinand Foch was born in Tarbes , a municipality in the department of Hautes-Pyrénées , in southwestern France, into
4080-531: A way that gave Pershing precedence over March. Six weeks later, the House Military Affairs Committee reported out two bills authorizing Pershing and March to each be appointed General of the Armies. To ensure that Pershing would outrank March, Pershing's bill also repealed the 1917 law that gave the Army chief of staff precedence over all other Army officers. Congress and Pershing both opposed March's promotion, having clashed with him during
4250-646: Is a lever that we have in our hand and with which we can call the tune. However, the British Prime Minister David Lloyd George and the American President Woodrow Wilson objected to the detachment of the Rhineland from Germany so that the balance of power would not be too much in favour of France, but agreed to Allied military occupation for fifteen years, which Foch thought insufficient to protect France. Foch considered
4420-572: Is the only American to be promoted in his own lifetime to General of the Armies , the highest possible rank in the United States Army. Allowed to select his own insignia, Pershing chose to continue using four silver stars. Some of his tactics have been criticized both by other commanders at the time and by modern historians. His reliance on costly frontal assaults , long after other Allied armies had abandoned such tactics, has been blamed for causing unnecessarily high American casualties. Pershing
4590-702: The Artois Offensive and, in 1916, the French effort at the Battle of the Somme . He was strongly criticised for his tactics and the heavy casualties that were suffered by the Allied armies during these battles, and in December 1916 was removed from command by Joffre and sent to command Allied units on the Italian front ; Joffre was himself sacked days later. Just a few months later, after
4760-544: The Battle of Las Guasimas that was fought that same day but arrived at the battle site late in the afternoon of 24 June. He fought on Kettle and San Juan Hills in Cuba , and was cited for gallantry. Theodore Roosevelt , who also participated in those battles, said that "Captain Pershing is the coolest man under fire I ever saw in my life.” In 1919, Pershing was awarded the Silver Citation Star for these actions, and in 1932
4930-799: The British and French lines. They tried again at the end of the month during the First Battle of Ypres , this time suffering terrible casualties. Foch had again succeeded in coordinating a defense and winning against the odds. Field Marshal Sir John French , C-in-C of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) had described Foch in August 1914 to J. E. B. Seely , a liaison officer, as "the sort of man with whom I know I can get on" and later in February 1915 described him to Lord Selbourne as "the best general in
5100-658: The Civil War began, his father supported the Union and was a sutler for the 18th Missouri Volunteer Infantry ; he died on March 16, 1906. Pershing's mother died during his initial assignment in the American West. Pershing attended a school in Laclede that was reserved for precocious students who were also the children of prominent citizens, and he later attended Laclede's one-room schoolhouse. After completing high school in 1878, he became
5270-429: The First Battle of the Marne with Maxime Weygand as his chief of staff. Only a week after taking command, with the whole French Army in full retreat, he was forced to fight a series of defensive actions to prevent a German breakthrough. During the advance at the marshes at St.-Gond he is said to have declared: "My centre is yielding. My right is retreating. Situation excellent. I am attacking." These words were seen as
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5440-518: The Ghost Dance campaign . In September 1891, he was assigned as the professor of military science and tactics at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln , a position he held until 1895. While carrying out this assignment, Pershing attended the university's College of Law , from which he received his LL.B. degree in 1893. He formed a drill company of chosen university cadets, Company A. In March 1892, it won
5610-712: The Great Seal of the United States . In 1937, Pershing created a custom full dress uniform to attend the coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth , denoting his rank with four gold stars embroidered on each sleeve. Full dress uniforms for other general officers used silver stars, including the custom uniform that Army chief of staff Malin Craig designed for himself the following year. Ferdinand Foch Ferdinand Foch ( / f ɒ ʃ / FOSH , French: [fɛʁdinɑ̃ fɔʃ] ; 2 October 1851 – 20 March 1929)
5780-522: The Hindenburg Line and an Anglo-Belgian offensive , led by General Sir Herbert Plumer's British Second Army , in Flanders ). Instead, the AEF was required to redeploy and aided by French tanks, launched a major offensive northward in very difficult terrain at Meuse-Argonne . Initially enjoying numerical odds of eight to one, this offensive eventually engaged 35 or 40 of the 190 or so German divisions on
5950-898: The Jesuit Collège Saint-Michel in Saint-Étienne before attending the Jesuit Collège Saint-Clément in Metz . A professor there once said of Foch, "A geometric mind, he is made for the Polytechnique." His brother, Germain Foch, became a Jesuit priest, which may have hindered Foch's rise in the French Army since the Republican government of France was anti-clerical . When the Franco-Prussian War broke out in 1870,
6120-589: The Mexican Punitive Expedition , a combined armed force of 10,000 men that penetrated 350 miles (560 km) into chaotic Mexico. They routed Villa's revolutionaries, but failed to capture him. At the start of the United States' involvement in World War I , President Woodrow Wilson considered mobilizing an army to join the fight. Frederick Funston , Pershing's superior in Mexico, was being considered for
6290-597: The New Mexico Territory . While serving in the 6th Cavalry, Pershing participated in several Indian campaigns and was cited for bravery for actions against the Apache . During his time at Fort Stanton , Pershing and close friends Lt. Julius A. Penn and Lt. Richard B. Paddock were nicknamed "The Three Green P's," spending their leisure time hunting and attending Hispanic dances. Pershing's sister Grace married Paddock in 1890. Between 1887 and 1890, Pershing served with
6460-656: The Philippine–American War began, Pershing reported to Manila on August 17, 1899, was assigned to the Department of Mindanao and Jolo , and commanded efforts to suppress the Filipino Insurrection . On November 27, 1900, Pershing was appointed adjutant general of his department and served in this posting until March 1, 1901. He was cited for bravery for actions on the Cagayan River while attempting to destroy
6630-741: The Polish–Soviet War of 1920, as well as his pressure on Germany during the Greater Poland Uprising , he was awarded the title of Marshal of Poland in 1923. On 1 November 1921 Foch was in Kansas City, Missouri , to take part in the groundbreaking ceremony for the Liberty Memorial that was being constructed there. Also present that day were Lieutenant General Baron Jacques of Belgium, Admiral David Beatty of Great Britain, General Armando Diaz of Italy and General John J. Pershing of
6800-529: The RMS ; Baltic , Pershing arrived in France in June 1917. In a show of American presence, part of the 16th Infantry Regiment marched through Paris shortly after his arrival. Pausing at the tomb of Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette , he was reputed to have uttered the famous line "Lafayette, we are here," a line spoken, in fact, by his aide, Colonel Charles E. Stanton . American forces were deployed in France in
6970-621: The Rhine ought to be the Western military frontier of the German countries. Henceforward Germany ought to be deprived of all entrance and assembling ground, that is, of all territorial sovereignty on the left bank of the river, that is, of all facilities for invading quickly, as in 1914, Belgium , Luxembourg , for reaching the coast of the North Sea and threatening the United Kingdom, for outflanking
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7140-725: The Sarrebourg – Morhange line, taking heavy casualties in the Battle of the Frontiers . The defeat of the XV Corps to its right forced Foch into retreat. Foch acquitted himself well, covering the withdrawal to Nancy and the Charmes Gap before launching a counter-attack that prevented the Germans from crossing the River Meurthe . Foch was then selected to command the newly formed Ninth Army during
7310-425: The Treaty of Versailles to be "a capitulation, a treason " because he believed that only permanent occupation of the Rhineland would grant France sufficient security against a revival of German aggression. In a remarkable moment of foresight, as the treaty was being signed Foch said: "This is not peace. It is an armistice for 20 years". Foch was made a British field marshal in 1919, and, for his advice during
7480-426: The United States Congress to authorize a diplomatic posting, and Pershing was stationed as military attaché in Tokyo after his January 1905 War College graduation. Also in 1905, Pershing married Helen Frances Warren, the daughter of powerful U.S. Senator Francis E. Warren , a Wyoming Republican who served at different times as chairman of the Military Affairs and Appropriations Committees. This union with
7650-409: The War Department finally gave its blessing to a five-star grade on condition that it not be called General of the Armies, a title reserved for the higher rank held by Pershing. In a press conference on September 14, 1944, Stimson said: I have been asked by members of Congress for the War Department's view on an amendment which will provide for similar advanced army rank. I have advised Congress that
7820-431: The Wounded Knee Massacre , they did fight three days after it on January 1, 1891, when Sioux warriors attacked the 6th Cavalry's supply wagons. When the Sioux began firing at the wagons, Pershing and his troops heard the shots, and rode more than six miles to the location of the attack. The cavalry fired at the forces of Chief War Eagle , causing them to retreat. This was the only occasion on which Pershing saw action during
7990-438: The 11th Brigade was now attacking with 2,200 men instead of 3,000. There was a further last-minute call for the removal of all American troops from the attack, but Monash, who had chosen July 4 as the date of the attack out of "deference" to the US troops, protested to Rawlinson and received support from Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig , commander of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF). The four American companies that had joined
8160-458: The 131st regiment were sent. Each American platoon was attached to a First Australian Imperial Force company, but there was difficulty in integrating the American platoons (which numbered 60 men) among the Australian companies of 100 men. This difficulty was overcome by reducing the size of each American platoon by one-fifth and sending the troops thus removed, which numbered 50 officers and men, back to battalion reinforcement camps. The day before
8330-443: The 19-year-old Foch enlisted in the French 4th Infantry Regiment , which did not take part in combat. He remained in the army after the war. In 1871, he passed the entrance exams to the grandes écoles scientifiques and later entered the École Polytechnique . There, he was an excellent, hard-working, and studious student, and pursued studies in mathematics , engineering , science , history, and literature. He eventually chose
8500-460: The 317th Engineer Battalion. The American Buffalo Soldiers of the 92nd and 93rd Infantry Divisions were the first American soldiers to fight in France in 1918, but they did so under French command as Pershing had detached them from the AEF to get them into action. Most regiments of the 92nd and all of the 93rd would continue to fight under French command for the duration of the war. When General Pershing met General Pétain at Compiègne at 10:45pm on
8670-428: The 6th Cavalry at various postings in New Mexico , Arizona , and South Dakota . He also became an expert marksman and won several prizes for rifle and pistol at army shooting competitions. On December 9, 1890, Pershing and the 6th Cavalry arrived at Fort Meade , South Dakota where Pershing played a role in suppressing the last uprisings of the Lakota (Sioux) Indians . Though he and his unit did not participate in
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#17330847042118840-555: The AEF would operate as a single unit under his command, although some American units fought under British and Australian command, notably in the Battle of Hamel and the breaching of the Hindenburg Line at St Quentin Canal , precipitating the final German collapse. Pershing also allowed (at that time segregated) American all-Black units to be integrated with the French Army . Pershing's soldiers first saw serious battle at Cantigny , Chateau-Thierry , and Belleau Wood on June 1–26, 1918, and Soissons on July 18–22, 1918. To speed up
9010-423: The Allied Generalissimo. Late in 1917 Foch would have liked to have seen Haig replaced as C-in-C of the BEF by General Herbert Plumer ; however, Haig would remain in command of the BEF for the remainder of the war. In January 1918, in accordance with Lloyd George's wishes, an executive board was set up to control the planned Allied General Reserve, with Clemenceau 's agreement being obtained by having Foch on
9180-415: The Allied position. Receiving thanks from the Bishop of Châlons (Joseph-Marie Tissier), Foch piously replied, " non nobis , Domine, non nobis, sed nomini tuo da gloriam " ("Not unto us, o Lord, not unto us, but to Your name give glory", Psalm 115:1). As assistant Commander-in-Chief with responsibility for co-ordinating the activities of the northern French armies and liaising with the British forces; this
9350-420: The American troops experience and also strengthen the Australian battalions by an additional company each. On June 29, Major General George Bell Jr. , commanding the American 33rd Division , selected two companies each from the 131st and 132nd Infantry Regiments of the 66th Brigade. Monash had been promised ten companies of American troops and on June 30 the remaining companies of the 1st and 2nd battalions of
9520-552: The Armies maintained a spacious office in the old State, War, and Navy Building until it was relocated to the Pentagon in 1947, years after ill health had permanently confined Pershing to Walter Reed General Hospital . In 1939, Congress created the office of military secretary to the General of the Armies with the rank of colonel so Pershing's longtime aide, Captain George E. Adamson, could continue to manage Pershing's affairs after his own retirement. There were several attempts to appoint senior World War II officers as Generals of
9690-427: The Armies of the United States is established, such grade to have rank and precedence over all other grades of the Army, past or present. (b) The President is authorized and requested to appoint George Washington posthumously to the grade of General of the Armies of the United States, such appointment to take effect on July 4, 1976. Although President Gerald Ford signed the law on October 11, 1976, no further action
9860-404: The Armies of the United States;" that it was revived in 1866 as "General of the Army of the United States;" and that it was again revived in 1919 by the title of "General of the Armies of the United States." That it is one and the same office, that of general, is unquestioned. Pershing would inherit several of his unique perquisites as General of the Armies through this legislative continuity with
10030-406: The Armies ranked above all other grades of the Army, past or present, while the law authorizing Grant's promotion made his rank in parity with Pershing's rank. The General of the Armies enjoyed several privileges not afforded to other generals, including a much higher salary and the right to retire at full pay and allowances. Even in retirement, Pershing—the only-ever living person with the rank—was
10200-411: The Armies while his mentor was still alive. Stimson did ask President Franklin D. Roosevelt to appoint Marshall as General of the Armies in September 1943 so he could command the planned invasion of France while remaining chief of staff, but Roosevelt ultimately gave the command to Dwight D. Eisenhower instead. In February 1944, King's lobbying led both houses of Congress to submit bills reviving
10370-723: The Armies, but none came to fruition. In August 1943, Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) Ernest J. King increased his efforts to create a grade higher than four stars after being outranked by his British counterpart at the First Quebec Conference . The Navy could even be outranked by the Army if Pershing died and Army chief of staff George C. Marshall inherited his title of General of the Armies with its de facto five-star rank, as retired CNO William V. Pratt warned King in January 1944. Marshall opposed any higher grade, saying he did not need one. King and Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson both suspected that as Pershing's longtime protégé, Marshall would resist any rank equivalent to General of
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#173308470421110540-435: The Army Douglas MacArthur introduced legislation to appoint him General of the Armies, backdated to his 75th birthday on January 26. The proposal stalled in the House Armed Services Committee after the Defense Department opposed it on the grounds that promoting only MacArthur would downgrade all other five-star officers and "arouse interservice, intraservice and popular misunderstanding and controversies." Another attempt
10710-415: The Army , preserving Pershing's status as the only General of the Armies and further stating that nothing would change about the 1919 law that had promoted him: Nothing in this Act shall affect the provisions of the Act of September 3, 1919...or any other law relating to the office of General of the Armies of the United States. By specifying that nothing about the General of the Armies would be changed by
10880-461: The Army General Staff to promote Pershing to colonel . At the time, Army officer promotions were based primarily on seniority rather than merit, and although there was widespread acknowledgment that Pershing should serve as a colonel, the Army General Staff declined to change their seniority-based promotion tradition just to accommodate Pershing. They would not consider a promotion to lieutenant colonel or even major . This angered Roosevelt, but since
11050-442: The Army to let him study law and delay the start of his mandatory military service. He also considered joining several classmates in a partnership that would pursue development of an irrigation project in Oregon . He ultimately decided against both courses of action in favor of active Army duty. Pershing reported for active duty on September 30, 1887, and was assigned to Troop L of the 6th U.S. Cavalry stationed at Fort Bayard , in
11220-408: The Army" instead of "General of the Armies", the Comptroller General of the United States would rule in 1924 that the grade revived in 1866 for Grant (and later William T. Sherman and Philip H. Sheridan ) was the same grade that had been created for Washington in 1799 and revived for Pershing in 1919. It thus appears that the office of general was first created in 1799 by the title of "General of
11390-429: The Australians during the assault were withdrawn from the line after the battle and returned to their regiments, having gained valuable experience. Monash sent the 33rd Division's commander, Bell, his personal thanks, praising the Americans' gallantry, while Pershing set out explicit instructions to ensure that US troops would not be employed in a similar manner again (except as described below). Under civilian control of
11560-579: The British Fourth Army under General Rawlinson until the end of the war, taking part in the breach of the Hindenburg Line in October. By May 1918, Pershing had become discontented with Air Service of the American Expeditionary Force , believing staff planning had been inefficient with considerable internal dissension, as well as conflict between its members and those of Pershing's General Staff. Further, aircraft and unit totals lagged far behind those expected. Pershing appointed his former West Point classmate and non-aviator, Major General Mason Patrick as
11730-424: The Central Personnel Service Depot of the artillery. In 1885 Foch undertook a course at the École Supérieure de Guerre where he was later an instructor from 1895 to 1901. He was promoted lieutenant-colonel in 1898, and colonel in 1903. As a colonel he became regimental commander of the 35th Artillery Regiment (35 R.A) at Vannes. Foch was known for his physical strength and his sharp mind who always maintained
11900-443: The Conduct of War") in 1904. Both "thought" and "will" were the key words of these teachings. While Foch advised "qualification and discernment" in military strategy and cautioned that "recklessness in attack could lead to prohibitive losses and ultimate failure", his concepts, distorted and misunderstood by contemporaries, became associated with the extreme offensive doctrines ( l' offensive à outrance ) of his successors. The cult of
12070-429: The French Army". His thinking on military doctrine was shaped by the Clausewitzian philosophy, then uncommon in France, that "the will to conquer is the first condition of victory." Collections of his lectures, which reintroduced the concept of the offensive to French military theory, were published in the volumes "Des Principes de la Guerre" ("On the Principles of War") in 1903, and "De la Conduite de la Guerre" ("On
12240-450: The French army on the left of Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig , C-in-C of the BEF, rather than the 300 which Lloyd George wanted. As the guns reached Italy, Cadorna called off his offensive (21 September). Until the end of 1916, the French under Joffre had been the dominant allied army; after 1917 this was no longer the case, due to the vast number of casualties France's armies had suffered in
12410-467: The French, British and American efforts, deftly handling his strategic reserves. He stopped the German offensive and launched a war-winning counterattack . In November 1918, Marshal Foch accepted the German cessation of hostilities and was present at the Armistice of 11 November 1918 . At the outbreak of war in August 1914, Foch's XX Corps participated in the brief invasion of Germany before retreating in
12580-419: The General of the Armies outranked all other Army officers, but merely repealed a 1917 law that would have let the Army chief of staff outrank him. For the rest of Pershing's life, official publications consistently treated the General of the Armies as being one grade higher than a five-star general. As late as 1951, Army regulations specified 19 guns to salute the General of the Armies, and only 17 guns for
12750-471: The German advance. Foch received further reinforcements from the Fifth Army and, following another attack on his forces, counter-attacked again on the Marne. The Germans dug in before eventually retreating. On 12 September, Foch regained the Marne at Châlons and liberated the city. The people of Châlons greeted as a hero the man widely believed to have been instrumental in stopping the retreat and stabilising
12920-450: The German negotiators' immediate request to declare a ceasefire or truce so that there would be no more useless waste of lives among the common soldiers. By not declaring a truce even between the signing of the documents for the Armistice at 5:45 a.m. and its entry into force, "at the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month", about 11,000 additional men were needlessly wounded or killed – far more than usual, according to
13090-501: The German school, but also since about 1911 by a new French school inspired by General Loiseau de Grandmaison, which criticised them as lacking in vigour and offensive spirit and contributing to needless dispersion of force. The French Army fought under the new doctrines, but they failed in the first battles of August 1914, and it remained to be seen whether the Napoleonic doctrine would hold its own, would give way to doctrines evolved during
13260-464: The Grant, Sherman, and Sheridan grade, including a much higher salary than other generals and the right to retire at full pay instead of three-quarters pay. During World War I , Congress authorized the ex officio grade of general for the chief of staff of the Army and the commander of the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) in France, but only during the wartime emergency. Unlike the 1866 grade, which
13430-612: The Généralissime's resolve to keep the Allied armies intact, even at the risk of losing the capital. The British general Sir Henry Rawlinson , commanding the British Fourth Army , commented after meeting Foch: "I am overjoyed at his methods and far-sighted strategy. I was in close touch with him in 1916. He is a better man now than he was then, for his fiery enthusiasm has been tempered by adversity." Rawlinson also noted Foch's intense Frenchness: "He knew nothing of Britain. The Rhine
13600-574: The House bills inserted a five-star fleet admiral below a six-star Admiral of the Navy, which the Army was expected to match with its own five-star grade and a six-star General of the Armies. Even King thought six stars was too much, and public opposition convinced supporters of higher grades to defer legislation until after a successful landing in Europe . With the invasion of Europe well underway by September 1944,
13770-499: The Italian and Belgian armies. It started operation from its base in Paris at the end of June. The president of the board was French general Jean-Marie Charles Payot (1868–1931), assisted by an international staff. Board decisions had to be unanimous, and once made were binding on all of the armies. However each army continued to be responsible for its own logistical system and procedures. Foch
13940-693: The Maiden Prize competition of the National Competitive Drills in Omaha, Nebraska . The Citizens of Omaha presented the company with a large silver cup, the "Omaha Cup". On October 2, 1894, former members of Company A established a fraternal military drill organization named the Varsity Rifles. The group renamed itself the Pershing Rifles in 1895 in honor of its mentor and patron. Pershing maintained
14110-665: The Marne . Along with the British Fourth Army's victory at Amiens on August 8, the Allied victory at the Second Battle of the Marne marked the turning point of World War I on the Western Front . In August 1918 the U.S. First Army had been formed, first under Pershing's direct command (while still in command of the AEF) and then by Lieutenant General Hunter Liggett , when the U.S. Second Army under Lieutenant General Robert Bullard
14280-634: The Philippines. He later was assigned to the 15th Cavalry Regiment , serving as an intelligence officer and participating in actions against the Moros . He was cited for bravery at Lake Lanao . In June 1901, he served as commander of Camp Vicars in Lanao, Philippines, after the previous camp commander was promoted to brigadier general . In June 1903, Pershing was ordered to return to the United States. President Theodore Roosevelt , taken by Pershing's ability, petitioned
14450-723: The President could only name and promote army officers in the generals' ranks, his options for recognizing Pershing through promotion were limited. In 1904, Pershing was assigned as the Assistant Chief of Staff of the Southwest Army Division stationed at Oklahoma City, Oklahoma . In October 1904, he began attendance at the Army War College , and then was ordered to Washington, D.C. , for "general duties unassigned." Since Roosevelt could not yet promote Pershing, he petitioned
14620-573: The Supreme War Council, Foch was given authority over the Italian Front. Foch controlled the Military Board of Allied Supply (MBAS), an Allied agency for the coordination of logistical support of the Allied forces. In March 1918 Colonel Charles G. Dawes , the general purchasing agent for the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) recommended to his commanding general John J. Pershing that
14790-523: The United States MPs. Because of the effects of trench warfare on soldiers' feet, in January 1918, Pershing oversaw the creation of an improved combat boot , the " 1918 Trench Boot ," which became known as the "Pershing Boot" upon its introduction. American forces first saw serious action during the summer of 1918, contributing eight large divisions, alongside 24 French ones, at the Second Battle of
14960-469: The United States. One of the main speakers was Vice President Calvin Coolidge of the United States. The local veteran chosen to present flags to the commanders was a Kansas City haberdasher, Harry S. Truman , who would later serve as 33rd President of the United States from 1945 to 1953. In 1935, bas-reliefs of Foch, Jacques, Diaz and Pershing by sculptor Walker Hancock were added to the memorial. Foch made
15130-459: The War Department concurs in such proposed action. This concurrence, however, is contingent on the understanding that a distinction will be made between the title conferred by the new advanced rank and the title now accompanying the higher rank of 'The General of the Armies' held by General John J. Pershing. On December 14, 1944, Public Law 78-482 established the five-star grade of General of
15300-652: The Western Front (by contrast, Cadorna was disgraced after the recent Battle of Caporetto ) and Wilson, a personal friend of Foch, was deliberately appointed as a rival to General Robertson, the British Chief of the Imperial General Staff , an ally of Haig's, who had lost 250,000 men at the battle of Ypres the same year. Clemenceau was eventually persuaded to appoint Foch's protégé Weygand instead, although many already suspected that Foch would eventually become
15470-485: The Western Front, although to put this in perspective, around half the German divisions were engaged on the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) sector at the time. General of the Armies General of the Armies of the United States , more commonly referred to as General of the Armies , is the highest military rank in the United States . The rank has been conferred three times: to John J. Pershing in 1919, as
15640-462: The annual defense policy bill used different language to authorize Grant's appointment to the grade of General of the Armies, adding a clause that tied his rank and precedence to that of Pershing. Section 583 of the James M. Inhofe National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2023 , signed into law on December 23, 2022, states: The President is authorized to appoint Ulysses S. Grant posthumously to
15810-486: The appointment from Congressman Joseph Henry Burrows . He later admitted that he had applied not because he was interested in a military career, but because the education was free and better than what he could obtain in rural Missouri. Pershing was sworn in as a West Point cadet in July 1882. He was selected early for leadership positions and became successively First Corporal, First Sergeant, First Lieutenant, and First Captain ,
15980-643: The army for a legal career—to establish an Interallied coordination Board, the Military Board of Allied Supply . Pershing exercised significant control over his command, with a full delegation of authority from Wilson and Secretary of War Newton D. Baker . Baker, cognizant of the endless problems of domestic and allied political involvement in military decision making in wartime, gave Pershing unmatched authority to run his command as he saw fit. In turn, Pershing exercised his prerogative carefully, not engaging in politics or disputes over government policy that might distract him from his military mission. While earlier
16150-638: The arrival of American troops, they embarked for France leaving heavy equipment behind, and used British and French tanks, artillery, airplanes and other munitions. In September 1918 at St. Mihiel , the First Army was directly under Pershing's command; it overwhelmed the salient – the encroachment into Allied territory – that the German Army had held for three years. For the Meuse-Argonne Offensive , Pershing shifted roughly 600,000 American soldiers to
16320-416: The attack was scheduled to commence, Pershing learned of the plan and ordered the withdrawal of six American companies. While a few Americans, such as those attached to the 42nd Battalion, disobeyed the order, the majority, although disappointed, moved back to the rear. This meant that battalions had to rearrange their attack formations and caused a serious reduction in the size of the Allied force. For example,
16490-480: The autumn of 1917. In September 1917, the French government commissioned a portrait of Pershing by 23-year-old Romanian artist Micheline Resco . Pershing removed the stars and flag from his car and sat up front with his chauffeur while traveling from his AEF headquarters to visit her by night in her apartment on the rue Descombes. Their friendship continued for the rest of his life. In 1946, at 85, Pershing secretly wed Resco in his Walter Reed Hospital apartment. Resco
16660-512: The award was upgraded to the Silver Star decoration. A commanding officer here commented on Pershing's calm demeanor under fire, saying he was "cool as a bowl of cracked ice." Pershing also served with the 10th Cavalry during the siege and surrender of Santiago de Cuba . Pershing was commissioned as a major of United States Volunteers on August 26, 1898, and assigned as an ordnance officer . In March 1899, after suffering from malaria , Pershing
16830-461: The board rather than Maxime Weygand . Pétain agreed to release only eight French divisions and made a bilateral agreement with Haig, who was reluctant to release any divisions at all, to assist one another. The situation was worsened by Clemenceau's and Pétain's dislike of Foch. At a Supreme War Council meeting in London (14–15 March), with a German offensive clearly imminent, Foch protested to no avail for
17000-402: The chief of staff of the Army after 1929. In 1928, Secretary of War Dwight F. Davis even increased the 17-gun salute authorized for a General of the Armies to the 19 guns of a European field marshal . Pershing transferred to the retired list on September 12, 1924, but continued to draw full pay and allowances, a privilege not granted to other generals. Even after retiring, the General of
17170-460: The college, Foch was a professor of military history, strategy, and general tactics while becoming the French theorist on offensive strategies. He also employed mathematical terms in his lectures. During his time as an instructor, Foch created renewed interest in French military history , inspired confidence in a new class of French officers, and brought about "the intellectual and moral regeneration of
17340-590: The course of his tour at the Academy , this epithet softened to "Black Jack," although, according to Vandiver, "the intent remained hostile." Still, this nickname stuck with Pershing for the rest of his life, and was known to the public as early as 1917. At the start of the Spanish–American War , First Lieutenant Pershing was the regimental quartermaster for the 10th Cavalry. His duties as quartermaster had him unloading supplies at Daiquiri Cuba on 24 June. He missed
17510-705: The daughter of a powerful politician who had also received the Medal of Honor during the American Civil War continued to aid Pershing's career even after his wife died in 1915. After serving as an observer in the Russo-Japanese War attached to General Kuroki Tamemoto 's Japanese First Army in Manchuria from March to September, Pershing returned to the United States in the fall of 1905. President Roosevelt employed his presidential prerogative and nominated Pershing as
17680-548: The evening of March 25, 1918, Pétain told him he had few reserves left to stop the German Spring Offensive on the Western Front. In response, Pershing said he would waive the idea of forming a separate American I Corps, and put all available American divisions at Pétain's disposal. The message was repeated to General Foch on March 28, after Foch assumed command of all allied armies. Most of these divisions were sent south to relieve French divisions, which were transported to
17850-504: The face of a German counter-attack and successfully blocking the Germans short of Nancy . Ordered west to defend Paris, Foch's prestige soared as a result of the victory at the Marne , for which he was widely credited as a chief protagonist while commanding the French Ninth Army . He was then promoted again to assistant commander-in-chief for the Northern Zone, a role which evolved into command of Army Group North , and in which role he
18020-510: The fact that, because of Pershing's conscious effort to interact with and understand them, "he could negotiate with the Moros without the intervention of an interpreter." On June 30, 1901, Pershing was honorably discharged from the Volunteers and he reverted to the rank of captain in the Regular Army , to which he had been promoted on February 2, 1901. He served with the 1st Cavalry Regiment in
18190-586: The failure of General Robert Nivelle 's offensive , General Philippe Pétain , the hero of Verdun , was appointed Chief of the General Staff; Foch hoped to succeed Pétain in command of Army Group Centre , but this job was instead given to General Fayolle. The following month Pétain was appointed C-in-C in place of Nivelle, and Foch was recalled and promoted to chief of the general staff. Like Pétain, Foch favoured only limited attacks (he had told Lieutenant General Sir Henry Wilson , another British Army officer, that
18360-525: The field of battle and the scene of the consequent devastation. This makes it impossible for the yet unstable German Government to reject any demand on our part if it is clearly formulated. The Entente , in its present favourable military situation, can obtain acceptance of any peace conditions it may put forward provided that they are presented without much delay. All it has to do is to decide what they shall be. Upon returning home. Foch wrote in his diary: Watch out: suspect peace, English peace... We must have
18530-486: The fight in Flanders. By early 1918, entire divisions were beginning to serve on the front lines alongside French troops. Although Pershing desired that the AEF fight as units under American command rather than being split up by battalions to augment British and French regiments and brigades, the 27th and 30th Divisions , grouped under II Corps command, were loaned during the desperate days of spring 1918 , and fought with
18700-498: The final day of the war, which exceeded the D-Day casualty counts of June 1944. For instance, allied casualties on the first day of the D-Day invasion were 4,414 confirmed dead. Pershing and several subordinates were later questioned by Congress; Pershing maintained that he had followed the orders of his superior, Ferdinand Foch ; Congress found that no one was culpable. Pershing was born on
18870-500: The following lunchtime. Pétain had sent a dozen divisions to plug the gap and it is unclear that a committee would actually have acted any faster during the immediate crisis. At the Doullens Conference (26 March) and at Beauvais (3 April), Foch was given the job of coordinating the activities of the Allied armies, forming a common reserve and using these divisions to guard the junction of the French and British armies and to plug
19040-626: The formation of the Allied Reserve. On the evening of 24 March, after the German spring offensive was threatening to split apart the British and French forces, Foch telegraphed Wilson (who by now had replaced Robertson as Chief of the Imperial General Staff) "asking what [he] thought of situation & we are of one mind that someone must catch a hold or we shall be beaten". Wilson reached France
19210-405: The generation of generals who led the United States Army during World War II , including George C. Marshall , Dwight D. Eisenhower , Omar Bradley , Lesley J. McNair , George S. Patton , and Douglas MacArthur . During his command in World War I, Pershing resisted British and French demands that American forces be integrated with their armies, essentially as replacement units, and insisted that
19380-464: The grade of General of the Armies of the United States were introduced in the House and Senate by a bipartisan Congressional delegation from his home states of Ohio, Missouri, and New York. In a letter to the secretary of defense, three of the bill's sponsors argued that by reestablishing the General of the Armies grade with "precedence over all other grades of the Army, past or present," the 1976 law authorizing Washington's promotion had effectively lowered
19550-479: The grade of General of the Armies of the United States, effective from the 200th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1976. When the question was asked again in 1992, the U.S. Army Institute of Heraldry considered Pershing's rank to be equivalent to five stars and junior to Washington. In September 2021, joint resolutions authorizing the President to appoint Ulysses S. Grant posthumously to
19720-481: The grade of General of the Armies of the United States, equal to the rank and precedence held by General John J. Pershing pursuant to the Act titled "An Act Relating to the creation of the office of General of the Armies of the United States", approved September 3, 1919 (41 Stat. 283 , ch. 56). In compliance with the law signed by President Joe Biden , the secretary of defense , Lloyd Austin approved and issued
19890-423: The grade to which Grant was appointed in 1866. Supporters of Grant's promotion hoped the law would pass in time for his 200th birthday on April 27, 2022, the date of rank specified in the bill, which was titled the "Ulysses S. Grant Bicentennial Recognition Act". The joint resolutions were referred to the House Armed Services Committee and Senate Judiciary Committee , neither of which took any action. Instead,
20060-537: The grades of General of the Armies and Admiral of the Navy . King wanted the American Joint Chiefs of Staff to rank with the British field marshals on the Combined Chiefs of Staff , raising both Marshall and Army Air Forces commander Henry H. Arnold to five-star General of the Armies. However, House Naval Affairs Committee chairman Carl Vinson wanted King and Marshall to have even higher rank, so
20230-497: The growing American forces ) counterattacked at the Second Battle of the Marne in July 1918. On 6 August 1918, Foch was made a Marshal of France . Along with the British commander, Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig, Foch planned the Grand Offensive , opening on 26 September 1918, which led to the defeat of Germany. After the war, he claimed to have defeated Germany by smoking his pipe. An unintended consequence of Foch's appointment
20400-403: The haste to promote Pershing, Wilson accidentally nominated him to be a general in the Army instead of a General of the Armies, a difference that could have cost Pershing half his income when he retired. Official Army publications subsequently took care to spell out Pershing's title as General of the Armies, as distinct from the emergency generals of 1917 and the rank of general that was held by
20570-474: The heavily defended forests of the Argonne, keeping his divisions engaged in hard fighting for 47 days, alongside the French. The Allied Hundred Days Offensive , of which the Argonne fighting was part, contributed to Germany calling for an armistice . Pershing was of the opinion that the war should continue and that all of Germany should be occupied in an effort to permanently destroy German militarism. Pershing
20740-453: The higher command of military forces of the United States...and any provision of existing law that would enable any other officer of the Army to take rank and precedence over said officer is hereby repealed.... The bill had been rushed through Congress in only two days so that Secretary of War Newton D. Baker could hand Pershing his new commission as soon as he arrived from France on September 8, when his emergency grade would expire. In
20910-571: The highest possible cadet rank. Pershing also commanded, ex officio , the honor guard that saluted the funeral train of President Ulysses S. Grant as it passed West Point in August 1885. Pershing graduated in the summer of 1886 ranked 30th in his class of 77, and was commissioned a second lieutenant ; he was commended by the West Point Superintendent, General Wesley Merritt , who said Pershing gave early promise of becoming an outstanding officer. Pershing briefly considered petitioning
21080-428: The idea took root that his military doctrines had set the stage for the futile and costly offensives of 1914 in which French armies suffered devastating losses. Supporters and critics continue to debate Foch's strategy and instincts as a commander, as well as his exact contributions to the Marne "miracle": Foch's counter-attacks at the Marne generally failed, but his sector resisted determined German attacks while holding
21250-436: The law that created the five-star grades, Congress intended Pershing to remain the highest-ranking officer in the Army. This sparked a long-running debate over whether Pershing was now a six-star general; the senior five-star general; or even just a four-star general, as later argued by an influential pair of articles by Frederick Bernays Wiener , who pointed out that the 1919 law that revived his office did not actually say that
21420-468: The law that defined the peacetime military establishment. After the American Civil War , Congress honored Ulysses S. Grant for his successful command of the Union Army by authorizing his promotion to the grade of general under the Act of July 25, 1866, which stated: That the grade of "general of the army of the United States" be, and the same is hereby, revived.... Despite being titled "General of
21590-471: The military , Pershing adhered to the racial policies of President Woodrow Wilson , Secretary of War Newton D. Baker , and southern Democrats who promoted the " separate but equal " doctrine. African-American " Buffalo Soldiers " units were not allowed to participate with the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) during the war, but experienced non-commissioned officers were provided to other segregated black units for combat service – such as
21760-498: The military statistics. On the day of the armistice, 11 November 1918, he was elected to the Académie des Sciences . Ten days later, he was unanimously elected to the Académie française . He received many honours and decorations from Allied governments. In the euphoria of victory Foch was regularly compared to Napoleon and Julius Caesar . However, historians took a less favourable view of Foch's talents as commander, particularly as
21930-579: The natural defences of France, the Rhine, Meuse , conquering the Northern Provinces and entering the Parisian area. In a subsequent memorandum, Foch argued that the Allies should take full advantage of their victory by permanently weakening German power in order to prevent her from threatening France again: What the people of Germany fear the most is a renewal of hostilities since, this time, Germany would be
22100-417: The new Chief of Air Service . Considerable house-cleaning of the existing staff resulted from Patrick's appointment, bringing in experienced staff officers to administrate, and tightening up lines of communication. In October 1918, Pershing saw the need for a dedicated Military Police Corps and the first U.S. Army MP School was established at Autun, France . For this, he is considered the founding father of
22270-637: The night. In 1907 Foch was promoted to Général de Brigade , and in the same year, he assumed command of the French War College. He held this position until 1911, the year in which he was appointed Général de Division . Foch influenced General Joseph Joffre (Chief of General Staff, 28 July 1911 – 12 December 1916) when he drafted the French plan of campaign ( Plan XVII ) in 1913. In 1913 he took command of XX Corps [ fr ] at Nancy , and he had held this appointment for exactly one year when he led XX Corps into battle in August 1914. Foch
22440-571: The now three and a half-year-old struggle with Germany. The Supreme War Council was formally established on 7 November 1917, containing the Prime Minister and a Minister from each of the Western Front powers (i.e., excluding Russia), to meet at least once a month. Foch (along with Wilson and Italian general Cadorna) were appointed military representatives, to whom the general staffs of each country were to submit their plans. The French tried to have Foch as representative to increase their control over
22610-504: The offensive came to dominate military circles, and Foch's reputation was damaged when his books were cited in the development of the disastrous offensive that brought France close to ruin in August 1914. Foch was seen as a master of the Napoleonic school of military thought, but he was the only one of the Military College Commandants (Maillard, Langlois, Bonnal) still serving. Their doctrines had been challenged, not only by
22780-512: The pivot on which the neighbouring French and British forces depended in rolling back the German line. After the reading of the preamble of the November 1918 armistice , Foch left the carriage , in a move that was perceived as humiliating by the defeated Germans. In 1940, after the defeat of France by Germany early in World War II , when France signed an armistice with Germany , Adolf Hitler , in
22950-563: The planned Flanders offensive was "futile, fantastic & dangerous") until the Americans, who had joined the war in April 1917 , were able to send large numbers of troops to France. Outside of the Western Front , Foch opposed British Prime Minister David Lloyd George 's plans to send British and French troops to help Italy take Trieste , but was open to the suggestion of sending heavy guns. The Anglo-French leadership agreed in early September to send 100 heavy guns to Italy, 50 of them from
23120-540: The post until 1918. On October 6, 1917, Pershing, then a major general , was promoted to full general in the National Army . He bypassed the three star rank of lieutenant general, and was the first full general since Philip Sheridan in 1888. As AEF commander, Pershing was responsible for the organization, training, and supply of a combined professional and draft Army and National Guard force that eventually grew from 27,000 inexperienced men to two field armies , with
23290-516: The potentially fatal gap that would have followed a German breakthrough in the British Fifth Army sector. Two days later, while Foch was writing in his notebook, he allowed an interview to a group of war correspondents. At a later conference he was given the title Supreme Commander of the Allied Armies with the title of Généralissime ("Supreme General"). In May 1918, in the fifth session of
23460-534: The protests of Haig who argued that it would reduce his power to safeguard the interests of the British Army. The British were disappointed that Foch operated through his own staff rather than through the Permanent Military Representatives at Versailles , and on 11 July 1918 British ministers resolved to remind Foch that he was an Allied, and not a French, C-in-C. The Allies (mainly French and
23630-445: The resolution, a committee counsel acknowledged that it was still debatable whether Pershing was ever more than a four-star general, but Representative F. Edward Hébert asserted that the language of this resolution did make Washington a six-star general, saying, "We have three grades—general, General of the Army, and this is General of the Armies of the United States." Representative Lucien N. Nedzi objected that Washington's stature
23800-498: The school of artillery . In 1873, he received his commission as an artillery officer and served as a lieutenant in the 24th Artillery Regiment in Tarbes, despite not having completed his course, because there was a shortage of junior officers. In 1876, he attended the cavalry school of Saumur to train as a mounted artillery officer. On 30 September 1878, he became a captain and arrived in Paris on 24 September 1879 as an assistant in
23970-485: The second-highest-paid official in the federal government , after only the president of the United States. The office of "General of the Armies of the United States" was created by an Act of Congress on March 3, 1799, which stated: That a commander of the army of the United States shall be appointed and commissioned by the style of "General of the Armies of the United States," and the present office and title of Lieutenant-General shall thereafter be abolished. The law
24140-529: The smoke inhalation deaths of his wife, Frances Warren Pershing and three young daughters: Mary Margaret, age 3; Anne Orr, age 7; and Helen, age 8. Only his 6-year-old son, Warren, survived. After the funerals at Lakeview Cemetery in Cheyenne, Wyoming , Pershing returned to Fort Bliss with his son, Warren, and his sister, May, and resumed his duties as commanding officer. On March 15, 1916, Pershing led an expedition into Mexico to capture Pancho Villa . This expedition
24310-453: The south and southwest that rounded up and deported a large number of Cree Indians to Canada . In 1897, Pershing was appointed to the West Point tactical staff as an instructor, where he was assigned to Cadet Company A. Because of his strictness and rigidity, Pershing was unpopular with the cadets, who took to calling him " Nigger Jack" because of his service with the 10th Cavalry. During
24480-453: The top billet as the Commander of the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) when he died suddenly from a heart attack on February 19, 1917. Pershing was the most likely candidate other than Funston, and following America's entrance into the war in May, Wilson briefly interviewed Pershing, and then selected him for the command. He was officially installed in the position on May 10, 1917, and held
24650-516: The war, or would incorporate the new moral and technical elements into a new outward form within which the spirit of Napoleon remained unaltered. The war gave an ambiguous answer to these questions, which remains a source of controversy among experts. On the outbreak of World War I , Foch was in command of XX Corps, part of the Second Army of General de Castelnau . On 14 August the Corps advanced towards
24820-410: The war, so March's bill did not pass and he reverted to major general. He was later advanced to general on the retired list. On September 3, 1919, President Wilson signed Public Law 66-45 , providing: That the office of General of the Armies of the United States is hereby revived...[for] a general officer of the Army who, on foreign soil and during the recent war, has been especially distinguished in
24990-572: The world". By contrast, Lieutenant General William Robertson , another British officer, thought that Foch was "rather a flat-catcher, a mere professor, and very talkative" (28 September 1915). On 2 December 1914, King George V appointed him an Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath . In 1915, his responsibilities by now crystallised in command of the Northern Army Group , he conducted
25160-420: Was 35 years his junior For the first time in American history, Pershing allowed American soldiers to be under the command of a foreign power. In late June, General Sir Henry Rawlinson , commanding the British Fourth Army , suggested to Australian Lieutenant General John Monash that American involvement in a set-piece attack alongside the experienced Australians in the upcoming Battle of Hamel would both give
25330-624: Was a French general, Marshal of France and a member of the Académie Française and Académie des Sciences . He distinguished himself as Supreme Allied Commander on the Western Front during the First World War in 1918. A commander during the First Marne , Flanders and Artois campaigns of 1914–1916, Foch became Supreme Allied Commander in late March 1918 in the face of the all-out German spring offensive . He successfully coordinated
25500-408: Was a key appointment as the Race to the Sea was then in progress. General Joseph Joffre , Commander-in-Chief (C-in-C) of the French Army, had also wanted to nominate Foch as his successor "in case of accident", to make sure the job would not be given to Joseph Gallieni , but the French Government would not agree to this. When the Germans attacked on 13 October, they narrowly failed to break through
25670-549: Was a permanent personal appointment, the 1917 grade was only held while occupying a specific office. Army chief of staff Tasker H. Bliss and AEF commander John J. Pershing were commissioned emergency generals on October 8, 1917, with Peyton C. March succeeding Bliss as chief of staff and emergency general on May 20, 1918. When the war ended, Pershing and March were due to lose their emergency grades and revert to major general, so on June 18, 1919, President Woodrow Wilson asked Congress to promote both men to permanent general in
25840-420: Was already so high that giving him a modern Army rank just made Congress look ridiculous. "It's like having the Pope offer to make Christ a cardinal ." Deeming it "fitting and proper that no officer of the United States Army should outrank Lieutenant General George Washington on the Army list," Public Law 94-479 declared that: (a) for purposes of subsection (b) of this section only, the grade of General of
26010-447: Was also criticized by some historians for his actions on the day of armistice as the commander of the American Expeditionary Force. Pershing did not approve of the armistice, and despite knowing of the imminent ceasefire, he did not tell his commanders to suspend any new offensive actions or assaults in the final few hours of the war. In total, there were nearly 11,000 casualties (3,500 American), dead, missing, or injured during November 11,
26180-399: Was an " S.O.B. " and that he hated Pershing's guts, but that "as a soldier, the ones then and the ones now couldn't polish his (Pershing's) boots." On December 20, 1913, Pershing received orders to take command of the 8th Brigade at the Presidio in San Francisco . With tensions running high on the border between the United States and Mexico because of the Mexican Revolution , the brigade
26350-405: Was created in mid-October. After a relatively quick victory at Saint-Mihiel , east of Verdun , some of the more bullish AEF commanders had hoped to push on eastwards to Metz , but this did not fit in with the plans of the Allied Supreme Commander, Marshal Ferdinand Foch , for three simultaneous offensives into the "bulge" of the Western Front (the other two being the French Fourth Army's breach of
26520-399: Was deployed to Fort Bliss, Texas , on April 24, 1914, arriving there on the 27th. After a year at Fort Bliss, Pershing decided to take his family there. The arrangements were almost complete, when on the morning of August 27, 1915, he received a telegram informing him of a house fire at the Presidio in San Francisco , where a lacquered floor ignited; the flames rapidly spread, resulting in
26690-400: Was directly involved with such incidents, or that he personally gave such orders to his subordinates. Letters and memoirs from soldiers describing events similar to this do not have credible evidence of Pershing having been personally involved. Military historian B.H. Liddell Hart wrote that, on the contrary, Pershing's conduct toward the Moros was notable for its "unexpected sympathy," and for
26860-420: Was ever officially created and Pershing, the only person to be General of the Armies during his own lifetime, never wore more than four stars. Whether Pershing's grade should rank as four, five, or six stars has been a subject of debate ever since the five-star grades were created in 1944. To make Washington unambiguously the highest ranking Army officer in 1976, Congress specified that his new grade of General of
27030-420: Was for him a river of life and death." At the sixth session of the Supreme War Council on 1 June Foch complained that the BEF was still shrinking in size and infuriated Lloyd George by implying that the British government was withholding manpower. At a major Allied conference at Beauvais (7 June) Lord Milner agreed with Clemenceau that Foch should have the power to order all Allied troops as he saw fit, over
27200-472: Was ill-equipped and hampered by a lack of supplies due to the breakdown of the Quartermaster Corps . Although there had been talk of war on the border for years, no steps had been taken to provide for the handling of supplies for an expedition. Despite this and other hindrances, such as the lack of aid from the former Mexican government, and their refusal to allow American troops to transport troops and supplies over their railroads, Pershing organized and commanded
27370-441: Was intended to elevate George Washington , who was then a lieutenant general commanding the provisional army being organized to fight the Quasi-War against France, but President John Adams never made the appointment, concerned it would infringe on the president's constitutional function as "commander-in-chief of the armed forces". Washington died on December 14, 1799, and the grade lapsed on March 16, 1802, when not mentioned in
27540-409: Was later acclaimed as "the most original military thinker of his generation". He was a disciple of Napoleon, and made use of the lessons taught by Moltke . He became known for his critical analyses of the Franco-Prussian and Napoleonic campaigns and of their relevance to military operations in the new twentieth century. His re-examination of France's defeat in 1870 was among the first of its kind. At
27710-456: Was not unprecedented, and had the support of many soldiers who admired his abilities. In 1908, Pershing briefly served as a U.S. military observer in the Balkans , an assignment which was based in Paris . Upon returning to the United States at the end of 1909, Pershing was assigned once again to the Philippines, an assignment in which he served until 1913. While in the Philippines, he served as Commander of Fort McKinley , near Manila , and also
27880-443: Was put in charge of the Office of Customs and Insular Affairs which oversaw occupation forces in territories gained in the Spanish–American War, including Cuba , Puerto Rico , the Philippines , and Guam . He was honorably discharged from the volunteers and reverted to his permanent rank of first lieutenant on May 12, 1899. He was again commissioned as a major of Volunteers on June 6, 1899, this time as an assistant adjutant . When
28050-430: Was required to cooperate with the British forces at Ypres and the Somme . At the end of 1916, partly owing to the disappointing results of the latter offensive and partly owing to wartime political rivalries, Foch was transferred to Italy. Foch was appointed " Commander-in-Chief of the Allied Armies" on 26 March 1918 following being the commander-in-chief of Western Front with the title Généralissime in 1918. He played
28220-453: Was still pending in Congress when MacArthur died on April 5, 1964. Further efforts were made to grant a posthumous promotion to MacArthur following his death. In September 1953, the New York Times reported that because George Washington had never been appointed General of the Armies in 1799, he remained a lieutenant general who was now outranked by 45 other generals, living and dead. Citing this low rank, Senator Edward Martin introduced
28390-515: Was surprised by the German offensive ( "Bluecher" ) on the Chemin des Dames (27 May). Foch believed it was a diversion to draw Allied reserves away from Flanders. This was partly true, although the planned German Flanders Offensive ( "Hagen" ) never took place. The Allied armies under Foch's command ultimately held the advance of the German forces. The celebrated phrase, "I will fight in front of Paris, I will fight in Paris, I will fight behind Paris", attributed both to Foch and Clemenceau, illustrated
28560-403: Was taken to promote Washington until February 1978, when a military driver studying for a promotion board asked his passenger, General Donn A. Starry , whether Washington now outranked Pershing. The specialist five 's question to a four-star general triggered a chain of inquiries that caused the Department of the Army to issue Orders 31-3 on March 13, 1978, posthumously promoting Washington to
28730-413: Was that he sheltered Haig from British political interference. Before the armistice and after the Armistice of Villa Giusti , Foch controlled all the operations against Germany including a planned invasion from Italy into Bavaria . Foch accepted the German cessation of hostilities in November from the German delegate, Matthias Erzberger , at 5:00 a.m. local time. However, he refused to accede to
28900-475: Was the governor of the Moro Province . The last of Pershing's four children was born in the Philippines, and during this time he became an Episcopalian . In 1913, Pershing was recommended for the Medal of Honor following his actions at the Battle of Bud Bagsak . He wrote to the Adjutant General to request that the recommendation not be acted on, though the board which considered the recommendation had already voted no before receiving Pershing's letter. In 1922
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