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135-575: General admiral or Admiral general was first a Dutch then Danish, German, Russian, Portuguese, Spanish and Swedish naval rank . Its historic origin is a title high military or naval dignitaries of early modern Europe sometimes held, for example the (nominal) commander-in-chief of the Dutch Republic 's navy (usually the Prince of Orange ). In Denmark, the General Admiral ( Danish : Generaladmiral )

270-460: A captain . A Greek cavalry ( hippikon ) regiment was called a hipparchia and was commanded by an epihipparch . The unit was split into two and led by two hipparchos or hipparch , but Spartan cavalry was led by a hipparmostes . A hippotoxotès was a mounted archer. A Greek cavalry company was led by a tetrarchès or tetrarch . The rank and file of the military in most of the Greek city states

405-582: A commission ; they are trained or training as leaders and hold command positions. Officers are further generally separated into four levels: Officers who typically command units or formations that are expected to operate independently for extended periods of time (i.e., brigades and larger, or flotillas or squadrons of ships), are referred to variously as general officers (in armies, marines, and some air forces), flag officers (in navies and coast guards), or air officers (in some Commonwealth air forces). General-officer ranks typically include (from

540-410: A dimoiria was a half file and a dimoirites was a half-file leader. Another name for the half file was a hèmilochion with a hèmilochitès being a half-file leader. Different types of units, however, were divided differently and therefore their leaders had different titles. For example, under a numbering system by tens, a dekas or dekania was a unit of ten led by a dekarchos , a hekatontarchia

675-419: A private . The private was a man who signed a private contract with the company commander, offering his services in return for pay. The money was raised through taxation; those yeomen ( smallholding peasants) who did not fulfill their annual 40-day militia service paid a tax that funded professional soldiers recruited from the yeomanry. This money was handed to the company commanders from the royal treasury, with

810-413: A regiment " ( syntagma ) and was therefore like a modern colonel . Below him was the tagmatarches , a commanding officer of a tagma (near to the modern battalion ). The rank was roughly equivalent to the legatus of a Roman legion . Next was the lokhagos , an officer who led an infantry unit called a lokhos that consisted of roughly a hundred men, much the same as in a modern company led by

945-635: A state funeral . His body arrived in Lisbon on 2 August 1932, on board the British cruiser HMS Concord which had made the journey from the United Kingdom and sailed into the Tagus River to deliver the coffin of the former King. The body was received at Praça do Comércio , where a crowd of people had gathered to follow the coffin to São Vicente de Fora and the roads were inundated with people interested in seeing

1080-516: A Portuguese environment, as the attempts to restore him to his throne (1911, 1912 and 1919 ) failed. He was active in the local community, attended services at the Church of St James, Twickenham , and became godfather to several children. In 1932 he donated a window to St James Church bearing the Braganza crest and depicting St Anthony to celebrate the 700th anniversary of the saint's death. His influence

1215-453: A copy of his work to his friend George V at Windsor Castle . The work was received well by critics, and the King dedicated himself to the second volume, which covered the period 1540 to 1569. But the project was terminated prematurely in 1932, when Manuel died unexpectedly: the third volume was posthumously published under the supervision of his librarian, Margery Winters . His completed works gave

1350-468: A final work that was marked by a nationalism and the exaltation of ancestral valor. His examples were limited and illustrated by facsimiled copies of the works, both written in English and Portuguese. The first volume of the work Livros Antigos Portuguezes 1489–1600, da Bibliotheca de Sua Magestade Fidelíssima Descriptos por S. M. El-Rey D. Manuel em Três volumes was published in 1929. Manuel delivered, by hand,

1485-406: A leader at the head of each column (or file) and a secondary leader in the middle so that the back rows could move off to the sides if more frontage was needed. A tetrarchia was a unit of four files and a tetrarchès or tetrarch was a commander of four files; a dilochia was a double file and a dilochitès was a double-file leader; a lochos was a single file and a lochagos was a file leader;

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1620-504: A lieutenant colonel as a commanding officer and a major as an executive officer . Modern military services recognize three broad categories of personnel. These are codified in the Geneva Conventions , which distinguish officers , non-commissioned officers , and enlisted men . Apart from conscripted personnel one can distinguish: Officers are distinguished from other military members (or an officer in training ) by holding

1755-460: A love of literature and reading, unlike his older brother who was more interested in physical activities. Manuel's upbringing included horse riding, fencing, rowing, tennis and gardening. He was a great lover of music, especially Beethoven and Wagner, and played the piano. As a child, Manuel played with the children of Count of Figueiró, Count of Galveias and with other families of the Court. In 1902, he

1890-448: A re-establishment of a regime based on universal male suffrage. His assassination allowed moderate republicans to re-establish control, but the creation of military juntas in the provinces of the north, with monarchist tendencies, created expectations of a possible monarchist restoration through a military coup d'état. Manuel continued to plead for calm at the end of the War; while not abandoning

2025-527: A strict hierarchy—a king was conceived of as first among equals , not a monarch as later or ancient societies understood the concept, and all nobles were theoretically equals (hence " peers "). A nobleman was obligated to bring a set number of troops when asked by his liege-lord, a king or merely a higher-ranked noble who had obtained his service by the gift of land . The troops' lord retained at least nominal control over them—many post-classical military planning sessions involved negotiating each lord's role in

2160-447: A title borne by the officer sent with military powers to represent the king in certain provinces. A lieutenant du roi was sometimes known as a lieutenant général to distinguish him from lieutenants subordinate to mere captains. The sergeant acting as staff officer to the captain general was known as the sergeant major general . This was eventually shortened to major general , while captain general began to be addressed, depending on

2295-485: Is a parody of leaders who appoint themselves grandiose military ranks. Military rank Uniforms denote the bearer's rank by particular insignia affixed to the uniforms of a number of countries . Ranking systems have been known for most of military history to be advantageous for military operations , in particular with regards to logistics, command, and coordination. As time went on and military operations became larger and more complex, more ranks were created and

2430-518: Is also recalled by a number of toponymic references in the area: Manuel Road, Lisbon Avenue, and Portugal Gardens. He followed political events in Portugal, and was concerned with the anarchy of the First Republic , fearing that it could provoke a Spanish intervention and risk the country's independence. While in exile, there was one case where the former King's direct intervention had an effect. After

2565-471: Is derived from the 17th-century French peloton , meaning a small ball or small detachment of men, which came from pelote , a ball. The commissioned officer carrying the (infantry) company's flag was the ensign . The word ensign was derived from the Latin word insignia . In cavalry companies the equivalent rank was cornet . In English usage, these ranks were merged into the single rank of second lieutenant in

2700-593: Is not likely that such a pact took place, it is said that in 1922, with cooling of relations between monarchists of the Integralismo Lusitano and the King, and mindful that his marriage to Augusta Victória had not produced heirs, Manuel, in a Paris meeting in April 1922, represented by his adjunct Aires de Ornelas, and Miguelist representatives Infanta Adelgundes , who was by now calling herself Duchess of Guimarães, and tutor to Duarte Nuno , agreed that owing to an heir,

2835-639: Is unclear whether his advisers motivated Manuel to change his intentions or whether he was forced to change his destination en route, but the Royal Family disembarked in Gibraltar shortly later, after they received notice that Porto had fallen to the Republicans. The coup d'état was complete, and the Royal Family departed for exile, arriving in the United Kingdom , where he was received by King George V . In

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2970-568: The Albanian People's Army 1966–1991 ), but they have had to re-establish them after encountering operational difficulties in command and control . From 501 BC, the Athenians annually elected ten individuals to the rank of strategos , one for each of the ten "tribes" that had been created with the founding of the democracy . Strategos means "army leader" and is usually translated as " general ". Originally these generals worked together with

3105-455: The Braganza dynasty by dismissing João Franco and his entire cabinet in 1908. The ambitions of various political parties made Manuel's short reign a turbulent one. In free elections held on 28 August 1910, the republicans won only 14 seats in the legislature. His first act was to meet with his Council of State and request the resignation of João Franco, whose policies may have been responsible for

3240-677: The Ducal Palace in Vila Viçosa to Lisbon . On their way to the royal palace , the carriage carrying King Carlos and his family passed through the Terreiro do Paço plaza where shots were fired by at least two Portuguese republican activist revolutionaries: Alfredo Luis da Costa and Manuel Buiça . It is unclear whether the assassins were attempting to kill the King, the Prince Royal or the prime minister, João Franco . The murderers were shot dead on

3375-633: The Order of the Garter , in November 1909. He cultivated a foreign policy that was close to Great Britain, which was not only the geo-political strategy that his father maintained, but it also reinforced his position on the throne by having a strong ally. The court also considered the marriage of a King of the House of Braganza to a British princess would secure the protection of the United Kingdom in any impending conflict. But,

3510-614: The Portuguese Army . The rank was initially introduced in 1808, to be assigned to the commander-in-chief of the navy. The almirante-general had similar functions to those of the former capitão-general da armada (captain general of the navy) which had been extinguished in 1796 and whose functions passed to the Board of the Admiralty. The rank was only given to Infante Pedro Carlos de Bragança, being extinguished when he died in 1812. In 1892,

3645-631: The Table of Ranks and equivalent to field marshal . This was purely an honorific rank and for much of its existence, it was awarded only to a person on active duty, usually for the head of the naval department, and typically a descendant of the Romanov royal family. There were only ten holders of this rank: The general admiral rank was abolished with the fall of the Empire and was not revived when rank distinctions were reintroduced during 1935–40. The rank of admiral of

3780-487: The almirante-general rank was reintroduced as a mere ceremonial rank to be held by the King of Portugal in his constitutional function of supreme commander of the navy. As supreme commander of the army, the king also held the ceremonial rank of marechal-general . The last holder of the rank was King Manuel II . Generalamiral is the highest rank of admiral that has existed in the Swedish Navy , created by Charles XI in

3915-471: The dictatorship of General Pimenta de Castro (January 1915) broke the momentum of the Democratic Party , who attempted to garner sympathies from the conservative right, by removing restrictions imposed on monarchist groups on 5 October. Between April and May 1915, 55 monarchist centres opened (33 in the north and 12 in the centre of the country), causing many republicans to close ranks and on 14 May 1915

4050-498: The military branch , as general of the infantry , general of the cavalry or general of the artillery , and these ones, over time, were shortened to simply general . This is the reason a major outranks a lieutenant, but a lieutenant general outranks a major general. In modern times recruits attending basic training, also referred to as boot camp by some branches, are instructed in the hierarchical structure of military rank. Many new enlisted civilians find it difficult to understand

4185-419: The sergeant was dropped from both titles since both ranks were used for commissioned officers. This gave rise to the modern ranks of major and major general. The full title of sergeant major fell out of use until the latter part of the 18th century, when it began to be applied to the senior non-commissioned officer of an infantry battalion or cavalry regiment. Regiments were later split into battalions with

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4320-608: The 19th century, many intellectuals and politicians were preoccupied with the growth of the urban proletariat as a consequence of the Industrial Revolution . In Portugal, owing to lower levels of industrialisation, this was not an important question, but it was exacerbated by an economic crisis and the Republican Party, who believed a republic would resolve the problems. This was the Questão Social (social question) of

4455-406: The 19th century. Not all officers received a commission from the king. Certain specialists were granted a warrant, certifying their expertise as craftsmen. These warrant officers assisted the commissioned officers but ranked above the non-commissioned officers (NCOs). They received their authority from superior officers rather than the king. The first NCOs were the armed servants ( men-at-arms ) of

4590-467: The 4th, 7th and 9th Cavalry and the 30th Infantry Battery from Belém were entrenched. Aires de Ornelas wavered in his support, which risked the possibility that Integralists would transfer their loyalty to Miguel's supporters, or assume the leadership of the monarchist movement. In a small area, and circled by Republican forces, the monarchists surrendered on 24 January. With the failure of the Restoration in

4725-589: The Allied Powers , wherever they saw use, but was disappointed when he was assigned a post in the British Red Cross. He characteristically put all his efforts into the role, participating in conferences, fund drives, visits to hospitals and the wounded soldiers on the front, which ultimately gave him a lot of gratification. The visits to the front were difficult on the French government, but his friendship with George V

4860-561: The Brazilian throne on the day of Manuel's birth, attended the ceremony. He received the traditional education of a member of the royal family, without the political preoccupations that befell his older brother, who was destined to become King. Although Manuel was raised as a member of the upper class he took a more populist tone after ascending to the throne, and abandoned many of the court protocols. He studied history and languages, learning English and French from an early age. He demonstrated

4995-561: The British and American navies. In the traditional German ranking system until World War II , an admiral was equivalent to a British or American vice admiral. The sleeve insignia for a Generaladmiral was the same as that of a regular admiral, being a thick rank stripe below three regular stripes ( Kolbenringe in German naval parlance). Generaladmiral s wore a third pip on their shoulder boards to differentiate them from regular admirals. The German Army and Air Force equivalent of Generaladmiral

5130-582: The Congresso Nacional Operário, which was boycotted by anarchists and republicans. For their part, the Socialists were enthusiastic about Royal support between Manuel and Aquiles Monteverde. Monteverde would later inform the King of the failure of the October 1909 trade union congress, but little was formalised between the socialists and the government, although they supported the work of Poinsard. During

5265-494: The Duke of Braganza's representatives: he attempted to establish himself as the rightful king and, according to the Integralismo Lusitano group, he recognised the descendants of Miguel as being in line to the throne of Portugal. There are no proof of an encounter between Manuel II and Miguel in Dover on 30 January 1912. The results of the supposed meeting remain controversial: although there

5400-532: The Garter medallion and the sash of the Three Portuguese Orders, stood on a crate containing soil brought from Portugal. The ceremony was conducted by Cardinal José Sebastião de Almeida Neto , Patriarch of Lisbon , then exiled in Seville , who had baptised Manuel as a young prince; Manuel was also assisted by the Prince of Wales ( Edward VIII ) and King Alfonso XIII of Spain, as well as representatives of

5535-614: The House of Braganza (himself), the collateral Miguelist line having been furthermore excluded from the throne by the Portuguese Cortes , in December 1834, and categorically through the Constitution of 1838 (the article 98). Still, the monarchist Integralismo Lusitano movement supported (since 1920 as miguelist ) and acclaimed Duarte Nuno, Duke of Braganza as King of Portugal in 1932, at

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5670-551: The King a respectful reputation among Portuguese historians, and his bust was added to the entrance atrium of the National Library in Lisbon. King Manuel died unexpectedly in his residence on 2 July 1932, via suffocation following an attack of "acute oedema of the glottis ", a swelling of the narrow opening at the upper end of the larynx , or tracheal oedema . The Portuguese government, at that time led by António Oliveira de Salazar , authorised his burial in Lisbon, after

5805-672: The King was able to support the Galician monarchists, who had promised to support the Constitutional Charter of 1826 . The second incursion, in 1912, although better prepared did not succeed because the Spanish government was forced to cede to Republican diplomats the illegality of monarchist encampments in Galicia and disarmed the remaining combatants within its territory. Manuel was never able to restore his kingdom by force and always defended that

5940-484: The Republic. By 1926, Manuel had abandoned the idea of a biography and concentrated on descriptions of older books in his library (itself, a complete library of older works). More than a simple list, the work allowed Manuel to write of the glories of Portugal, writing not just a bibliography but also an examination of the authors and the context of their writings. His interpretation was scientifically rigorous, and resulted in

6075-546: The Republican Party. In 1909, Manuel invited the French sociologist, Léon Poinsard , to examine the social environment and report back to him. Poinsard wrote that the only way to combat clientelism , created by the system of rotational governments, would be a reorganisation of the local administrations. Enthusiastically, the King wrote to the President of the Council of Ministers Wenceslau de Sousa Pereira de Lima , to make him aware of

6210-502: The Setúbal Congress (on 24–25 April 1909) had determined that the Republicans would take power by force. The murder of a prominent republican precipitated the coup d'état that had been so long in coming. During the waning days of King Manuel II's reign, Prior Sardo besought the monarch to bestow Gafanha da Nazaré with a parish, achieving royal recognition, marking the last town to receive such acknowledgment. This historic event

6345-513: The Socialists to promote their propaganda. Manuel II informed the government, through the Minister of Public Works, that he agreed with the establishment of the Instituto de Trabalho Nacional, but by September, it was too late for the constitutional monarchy. During his reign he visited many parts of northern Portugal, in addition to Spain, France, and the United Kingdom, where he was appointed Knight of

6480-651: The United States) or general of the army (mainly the United States because "marshal" is used as a peace officer's designation), fleet admiral ( U.S. Navy ), Marshal of the Royal Air Force , or other national air force. These ranks have often been discontinued, such as in Germany and Canada, or limited to wartime or honorific promotion, such as in the United Kingdom and the United States. In various countries, particularly

6615-431: The United States, these may be referred to as "star ranks" for the number of stars worn on some rank insignia: typically one-star for brigadier general or equivalent with the addition of a star for each subsequent rank. In the United States, five stars has been the highest rank regularly attainable (excluding the marines and coast guard , which have traditionally served as branches of the navy in times of war and thus under

6750-402: The aristocracy, assigned to command, organize and train the militia units raised for battle. After years of commanding a squad, an NCO could be promoted to sergeant , the highest NCO rank. While a sergeant might have commanded a squad upon promotion, he usually became a staff officer. While commissioned staff officers assisted their commander with personnel, intelligence, operations and logistics,

6885-459: The battle of Lützen 1632). It was introduced to overcome the normal army structure, consisting of regiments. The so-called " brigada " was a mixed unit, comprising infantry, cavalry and normally artillery , designated for a special task. The size of such brigada was a reinforced company up to two regiments. The brigada was a 17th-century form of the modern "task force". In some armies "brigadier general" has been shortened to " brigadier ". Around

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7020-430: The best way he could, but his financial resources were limited. He also faced a group of monarchists who were not clear supporters of his claim to the throne: one attack was made under a blue and white flag, but without the crown, while Paiva Couceiro himself declared at one time that his movement was "neutral" and wanted a plebiscite on the form of the new regime. It was only after he traded correspondence with Couceiro that

7155-521: The centre and south of the country, luck turned on Paiva Couceiro. On 13 February a part of the Republican National Guard deserted and restored the Republic in Porto. Those monarchists who did not escape were incarcerated and subsequently sentenced to long-term imprisonment. The King, in exile, did not hear of the failure and was informed only after reading the reports in the newspapers. Although it

7290-586: The charismatic Henrique Mitchell de Paiva Couceiro , a veteran of the African colonial campaigns. The Paladin , as the Portuguese newspapers called him, believed that demonstrating a show of force would force the rural people to rise-up and support the restoration. But he was wrong; poorly prepared and badly financed, his forces encountered apathy from the rural population and the incursions ended with retreats into Galicia. For his part, Manuel supported these incursions

7425-476: The civil war. Military command properly so-called was a political office in Rome. A commander needed to be equipped with imperium , a politico-religious concept. The king who possessed it (the rex sacrorum ) was strictly forbidden to have it to avoid a return to the monarchy. In the republic, commanding was confined to consuls or (seldom) to praetors , or in cases of necessity a dictator . Proconsuls , after

7560-494: The cohorts by one of their three manipulum's centurions; the most senior cohort-commanding centurions was called primus pilus . The ranks of centurions in the individual cohorts were, in descending order, pilus prior , pilus posterior , princeps prior , princeps posterior , hastatus prior , and hastatus posterior . Individual soldiers were referred to as soldiers ( milites ) or legionaries ( legionarii ). See Mongol military tactics and organization . There were no ranks in

7695-416: The coming battle—and each lord was allowed to leave after a predetermined amount of time had passed. The command structure of armies was generally loose and varied considerably. Typically, the king and high-ranking lords would call out for all lords to gather their troops for a campaign. They would appoint a renowned noble to organize the assembling forces, the marshal . The term field marshal came from

7830-497: The command of a fleet admiral). There also exists the specialty ranks of General of the Armies of the United States and Admiral of the Navy which at their inception were considered senior four star officers but came to be considered six-star rank after the creation of five star officers. To date only one officer has held a six star rank in his lifetime, John J. Pershing . George Washington

7965-400: The company commanders using the money to recruit the troops. As armies grew larger, composed of multiple companies, one captain was granted general (overall) authority over the field armies by the king. (National armies were the armies of the kings. Field armies were armies raised by the king to enter the battle field in preparation for major battles.) In French history, lieutenant du roi was

8100-464: The company was the lieutenant . Lieutenant was derived from the French language ; the lieu meaning "place" as in a position; and tenant meaning "holding" as in "holding a position"; thus a "lieutenant" is somebody who holds a position in the absence of their superior. When he was not assisting the captain, the lieutenant commanded a unit called a platoon , particularly a more specialized platoon. The word

8235-420: The country's instability, the assassination of the King and Prince Royal, and the drawn-out negotiations that were ended with the death of Edward VII , ended these pretensions. The old British monarch, a personal friend of Carlos, would have been the great protector of the House of Braganza, and without him, the liberal government of Britain had no interest in maintaining the Portuguese monarchy. The stability of

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8370-616: The death of Manuel II. Their justification, ironically, included the fact that both branches had met to determine the line of succession in Dover and Paris, even though those accords were both later repudiated. After King Manuel's death, the Portuguese National Assembly, under António de Oliveira Salazar 's dictatorship, authorised the return of the banned branch of the Braganzas ( ex-King Miguel 's descendants) on 27 May 1950, repealing

8505-409: The different tasks associated with running a ship were delegated to different subordinates. Specifically, the kybernètès was the helmsman, the keleustēs managed the rowing speed, and the trièraulès was the flute player who maintained the strike rate for the oarsmen. Following further specialization, the naval strategos was replaced by a nauarchos , a sea officer equating to an admiral . With

8640-493: The disfiguring effects of the war. A proof of his recognition by the British was by his friend King George V, who invited him to be with the King during the victory celebrations during the parade of soldiers in 1919. Since 1911, the Portuguese monarchists-in-exile had concentrated in Galicia , Spain in order to enter Portugal and restore the monarchy but without the tacit approval of the Spanish government. The monarchists were led by

8775-490: The district of Aveiro, but contrary to Couceiro's expectations, the rest of the country did not rise. In Lisbon, Aires de Ornelas was caught completely by surprise, but he could not escape with other monarchists to the safety of the 2nd Regimental Lancers, in Ajuda. There the number of refugees, who suffered as the republican reprisals increased, and the commander removed his forces and those civilians, marching them to Monsanto, where

8910-476: The duties of a corporal themselves. It was this second function that made armies increasingly regard their lancepesades as a grade of corporal rather than a grade of private. As a result, the rank of lance corporal was derived from combining lancepesade and corporal. As the post-classical came to an end, kings increasingly relied on professional soldiers to fill the bottom ranks of their armies instead of militiamen. Each of these professionals began their careers as

9045-569: The end of the 16th century, companies were grouped into regiments. The officers commissioned to lead these regiments were called " colonels " (column officers). They were first appointed in Spain by King Ferdinand II of Aragon where they were also known as " coronellos " (crown officers) since they were appointed by the Crown. Thus the English pronunciation of the word colonel . The first colonels were captains granted command of their regiments by commission of

9180-487: The entry of Portugal into the First World War and its active participation. He asked monarchists to desist from restoration efforts as long as the war continued. He even met with republicans, and at one time, solicited his involvement in the Portuguese army. But, contrary to his hopes, a majority of the monarchists did not follow his pleas for cooperation. Many of them backed the aspirations of Germany, and had hoped to see

9315-520: The establishment of the office, were used. In imperial times, each legion was commanded by the emperor, who was technically either consul or proconsul. The commander could appoint a deputy, a so-called legate ( legatus ). The association of " legatus " with "legion" is folk etymology , as the meaning of legatus is "proxy" or "envoy". Legates were typically drawn from the Roman Senate for three-year terms. The political nature of high military command

9450-566: The fleet of the Soviet Union can be considered as a modern equivalent. Almirante general is a rank in the Spanish Navy that is above an admiral, but subordinate to a captain general . Almirante-general was the highest rank in the Portuguese Navy , from 1808 to 1812 and again, from 1892 to 1910. It was the naval equivalent to the rank of marechal-general ("general field marshal") of

9585-633: The funeral procession. His body was interred in the Royal Pantheon of the House of Braganza in the Monastery of São Vicente de Fora . By some he was given the nickname O Patriota ('The Patriot'), for his preoccupation with the national identity; O Desventurado ('The Unfortunate'), because he lost his throne to the Republic; and O Estudioso or O Bibliófilo ('The Studious' or 'The Bibliophile') for his love for Portuguese literature. Monarchists also referred to him as O Rei-Saudade ('The Missed King'), for

9720-446: The generals determined the battle plan by majority vote. Particular assignments might have been given to individual generals; inevitably there was a regular division of responsibilities. The rank that was subordinate to a top general was a taxiarchos or taxiarhos , something akin to the modern brigadier . In Sparta , however, the title was " polemarchos ". Below this was the syntagmatarchis , which can be translated as "leader of

9855-447: The government deteriorated; seven governments were established and fell in a period of 24 months. The monarchist parties continued to fragment, while the Republican Party continued to gain ground. The legislative elections on 28 August 1910 had elected 14 new representatives (resulting in an assembly that was divided: 9% Republican, 58% Government and 33% Opposition) which helped the revolutionary cause, but which made little importance since

9990-471: The government of António Teixeira de Sousa , in July 1910, that the government created a commission to study the establishment of an Instituto de Trabalho Nacional ("Institute of National Work"), that had three socialists and included Azedo Gneco. However, Aquiles Monteverde would complain that the commission lacked the resources to be effective: specifically that permanent members and unlimited transport, in order for

10125-539: The issue of succession and there are no known documents proving them, there was no direct heir to the defunct throne. King Manuel also made it clear that the Portuguese royal family (including the Brazilian branch of the Imperial House of Orléans-Braganza and the Portuguese family branch of the descendants of the Infanta Ana de Jesus Maria of Braganza and the Duke of Loulé ) would end with the last dynastic male heir of

10260-440: The king. The lieutenants of the colonel were the lieutenant colonels . In the 17th century, the sergeant of the colonel was the sergeant major . These were field officers, third in command of their regiments (after their colonels and lieutenant colonels), with a role similar to the older, army-level sergeants major (although on a smaller scale). The older position became known as sergeant major general to distinguish it. Over time,

10395-465: The legion), each consisting of three manipula , each of them of two centuries (a rather small company in modern terms), each consisting of between 60 and 160 men. Each century was led by a centurion ( centurio , traditionally translated as captain ), who was assisted by a number of junior officers, such as an optio . Centuries were further broken into ten contubernia of eight soldiers each. The manipula were commanded by one of their two centurions,

10530-472: The longing that was felt when the monarchy was abolished. His death has been regarded as suspicious by some because he had been playing tennis on 1 July and was apparently in excellent health. An incident surrounding his sudden death was mentioned in the autobiography of Harold Brust, a member of Scotland Yard Special Branch in charge of protecting public figures. In his memoirs, Brust speaks of an incident which probably occurred in 1931 in which an intruder

10665-480: The margin, Go on. Palavras de El-Rei , and signed the document. On 19 January 1919 a thousand soldiers and some artillery, under the command of Paiva Couceiro occupied Porto, in order to restore the Constitutional Monarchy, and its King Manuel II. A provisional government was established that controlled Minho , Trás-os-Montes (with the exception of Chaves , Mirandela and Vila Real ), as well as part of

10800-431: The marshal then leading the army on the march, and being in charge of organizing camps and logistics. Tactics for an upcoming battle were often decided by councils of war among the nobles leading the largest forces. Outside of campaigns, the high constable had authority over the local constables, and commanders of the garrisons of major castles. The high constable might have authority in the army due to his role of head of

10935-419: The military were fearful that their actions would not be successful. One republican commander, Admiral Cândido dos Reis, even committed suicide when he believed that the events had not succeeded. One day later, once it was clear that the Republicans had taken the country, Manuel decided to embark from Ericeira on the royal yacht Amélia IV for Porto , with armed Republicans arriving as the ship departed. It

11070-475: The modern sense of a hierarchy of titles, although the army was organized into a hierarchical command. The organization of the army was based on the decimal system, employed by Modun Chanyu . The army was built upon a squad of ten ( aravt ) led by an appointed chief. Ten of these would then compose a company of a hundred ( zuut ), also led by an appointed chief. The next unit was a regiment of a thousand ( myangat ) led by an appointed noyan . The largest organic unit

11205-568: The monarchists should organise internally in order to reach power legally (by elections). This was not accepted by militant monarchists who, in the following years, continued their badly prepared attempts to restore the monarchy (for example on 20 October 1914), creating anarchy in the streets. His preoccupation worsened at the beginning of the Great War: Manuel was fearful that the United Kingdom would ally with Spain, in light of Portugal's instability, and that Spain would want to annex Portugal, as

11340-445: The most senior) general , lieutenant general , major general , and brigadier general , although there are many variations like division general or (air-, ground-) force general. Flag-officer ranks, named after the traditional practice of showing the presence of such an officer with a flag on a ship and often land, typically include (from the most senior) admiral , vice admiral and rear admiral . In some navies, such as Canada's ,

11475-519: The name of Admiral General ( Amiralgeneral ). Gustav III revived the rank in 1780, and the same year issued instructions for the General Admiral, which alone was the King in Council 's responsible for naval existence and betterment. The rank has been held by Henrik af Trolle (1780–84), Carl August Ehrensvärd (1792–94), Johan af Puke (1812), Victor von Stedingk (1818) and Rudolf Cederström (1823–28). "Admiral General" Aladeen from The Dictator (2012)

11610-471: The old polemarchos ("warlord") but over time the latter figure was absorbed into the generalship: each of the ten generals would rotate as polemarch for one day, and during this day his vote would serve as tie-breaker if necessary. The ten generals were equal to one another; there was no hierarchy among them. However, a basic form of democracy was in effect: for example, at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC,

11745-437: The overthrow of the government of Gomes da Costa , by General Óscar Fragoso Carmona , in 1926, Costa was appointed Ambassador to London. Given the rapid succession of ambassadors during this period, the British government refused to recognise the new official's credentials. As the ambassador was to negotiate the liquidation of the Portuguese debt to the United Kingdom, the Minister of Foreign Affairs asked Manuel to straighten out

11880-410: The people"; in addition, they must not either be confused with the "military tribunes with consular authority", who in early republican times could replace the consuls. The third highest officer of a legion, above the angusticlavian tribunes, was the praefectus castrorum . He, too, would have a colonel's rank in modern armies, yet he differed much from the tribunes in that his office was not part of

12015-538: The possibility of taking action in the future, he insisted on waiting to the end of peace negotiations in Paris: he was fearful that continued anarchy in Portugal would prejudice its negotiating position. But, for Paiva Couceiro and the other Integralists, this was the moment: they awaited the royal authorisation of the King's adjunct Aires de Ornelas. Receiving a memorandum that requested this authorisation, and convinced that this action would not occur immediately, Ornelas wrote on

12150-467: The post-classical army was the company , a band of soldiers assigned (or raised) by a vassal lord on behalf of his lord (in later times the king himself). The vassal lord in command of the company was a commissioned officer with the rank of captain . Captain was derived from the Late Latin word capitaneus (meaning "head man" or chief ). The commissioned officer assisting the captain with command of

12285-424: The price for Spain's entry into the War. After the failure of the first monarchist incursion, and with Manuel appearing relatively unenthusiastic for a restoration of the monarchy (and entirely against armed counter-revolution), another group of royalists attempted to legitimise the claims of the descendants of Miguel I to the throne. In order to counter this, the King allegedly entered into direct negotiations with

12420-483: The rank of commodore is a flag rank . In the United Kingdom and most other Commonwealth air forces, air-officer ranks usually include air chief marshal , air marshal , air vice-marshal and air commodore . For some air forces, however, such as those of Canada , United States and many other air forces, general officer rank titles are used. In the case of the United States Air Force , that service

12555-433: The rather administrative cursus , but normally filled by former centurions. (Modern armies have a similar distinction on a lower scale—i.e., between commissioned and non-commissioned officers.) The fighting men in the legion were formed into "ranks", rows of men who fought as a unit. Under Marius's new system, legions were divided into ten cohorts ( cohortes ) (roughly equivalent to battalions and immediately subject to

12690-456: The reforms by Marius . Comparisons to modern ranks, however, can only be loose because the Roman army's command structure was very different from the organizational structure of its modern counterparts, which arose from the early modern, Thirty Years' War mercenary companies, rather than from the writings of fourth-century Roman writer Vegetius and Caesar 's commentaries on his conquest of Gaul and

12825-472: The regular cavalry. As the European and Asian Middle Ages came to an end, the rank structure of post-classical armies became more formalized. The top officers were known as commissioned officers because their rank came from a royal commission. Army commissions were usually reserved for those of high stature—the aristocracy of mainland Europe and the aristocracy and gentry of Great Britain. The basic unit of

12960-566: The reorganisation of the Socialist Party (under Alfredo Aquiles Monteverde ) and to remind him of the importance of working with the Socialists, "...so that, we will empty their supporters from the Republican Party, and orient them into a useful and productive force." Notwithstanding the contacts made by the government of Artur Alberto de Campos Henriques with the Socialist Azedo Gneco, Venceslau de Lima considered this difficult after

13095-590: The revolution returned to the streets, when 15,000 armed civilians and the soldiers from the Navy tried to maintain the loyalty of the Army to the government. After three days of combat 500 deaths and more than 1,000 wounded, the Democratic Party retained control and the monarchist groups were once again declared illegal. During the Sidónio Pais government, Pais cultivated support from conservative factions and incorporated

13230-616: The rights of succession would pass to Duarte Nuno. Integralists disagreed because, in their view, the agreement failed to make reference to the reestablishment of a traditional monarchy, which was fundamental to their assertions. Integralismo Lusitano withheld their support, and in September 1925, Aldegundes, in a letter to Manuel, repudiated the agreement owing the continue operation of the Constitutional Newspaper (the Integralist paper

13365-472: The rise of Macedonia under Philip II of Macedon and Alexander the Great , the Greek military became professional, tactics became more sophisticated and additional levels of ranking developed. Foot soldiers were organized into heavy infantry phalanxes called phalangites . These were among the first troops ever to be drilled, and they fought packed in a close rectangular formation, typically eight men deep, with

13500-705: The royal houses of Europe (including Spain , Germany , Italy , France and Romania , in addition to the principalities and German kingdoms). After festivities which lasted two days, the couple went on their honeymoon to Munich, where the Princess fell ill and withdrew from the public. The marriage, a calm and serene union, lasted until the death of the former king; the couple had no children. In exile, Manuel resided in Fulwell Park , Twickenham now in London (where his mother had been born). At Fulwell Park he tried to recreate

13635-522: The royal yacht Amélia . According to R. Benton, the trip "may have been decisive in Manuel's decision to enter the Portuguese navy and make it a career." In the summer of 1904, the prince became a cadet in the Portuguese Navy . He began his training in the Escola Naval in 1907. Manuel's future in the Portuguese Navy was abruptly shelved on 1 February 1908 . On that day, the royal family returned from

13770-474: The sergeant was a jack of all trades, concerning himself with all aspects of administration to maintain the enlisted men serving under his commander. Over time, sergeants were differentiated into many ranks as various levels of sergeants were used by the commanders of various levels of units. A corporal commanded a squad . Squad derived from the Italian word for a "square" or "block" of soldiers. In fact, corporal

13905-496: The shoulder board when engaged in duties befitting a field marshal . The rank of Generaladmiral was first given to the future grand admiral Erich Raeder on 20 April 1936. Other holders of the rank were: Notably, Karl Dönitz was promoted to grand admiral without becoming a Generaladmiral first. General-admiral ( Russian : генера́л-адмира́л ) was the highest rank of the Imperial Russian Navy as established by

14040-533: The situation. The former monarch was delighted by the opportunity to help his homeland and communicated with many of his British contacts (including, probably, King George V ) in order to resolve the dispute. Even in exile Manuel continued to be a patriot, going as far as declaring in his 1915 testament his intention to transfer his possessions to the Portuguese State for the creation of a museum, and showing his interest in being buried in Portugal. Manuel defended

14175-409: The spot by the royal bodyguard. The King was killed; Prince Luís Filipe was mortally wounded; Prince Manuel was hit in the arm; Queen Amélie was unharmed. It was Amélie's quick thinking that saved her younger son. About 20 minutes later, Prince Luis Filipe died. Days later, Manuel II was proclaimed King of Portugal. The young King, who had not been groomed to rule, sought to save the fragile position of

14310-552: The spring of 1912, Manuel visited Switzerland, where he met Princess Augusta Victoria of Hohenzollern (1890–1966), daughter of William, Prince of Hohenzollern , and was deeply impressed by her. They were second cousins, both being great-grandchildren of Maria II . In the following year, on 4 September 1913, Manuel married Augusta Victoria. During the Mass, which was celebrated in the Chapel of Sigmaringen Castle , Manuel, wearing his Order of

14445-450: The structure of general staff ranks as stated before, it becomes somewhat complicated to understand when applying basic rationale. As armies grew bigger, heraldry and unit identification remained primarily a matter of the regiment. Brigades headed by brigadier generals were the units invented as a tactical unit by the Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus II ("Gustav II Adolf", who was killed at

14580-563: The systems of ranking became more complex. Rank is not only used to designate leadership, but to establish pay-grade as well. As rank increases, pay-grade follows, but so does the amount of responsibility. In modern armed forces, the use of ranks is almost universal. Communist states have, on several occasions, abolished the use of ranks (e.g., the Soviet Red Army 1918–1935, the Chinese People's Liberation Army 1965–1988, and

14715-407: The term: of ranks major , lieutenant colonel , colonel , and with administrative duties. They did not command a formation of their own. The term military tribune is even sometimes translated into English as "colonel"—most notably by the late classicist Robert Graves in his Claudius novels and his translation of Suetonius ' Twelve Caesars —to avoid confusion with the political " tribunes of

14850-541: The times. The Socialist Party had existed since 1875, but it never had representation in Parliament . This was not only because it was not popular, but also because the Republican Party was the principal channel of radical discontent within the political system. The King made some moves that did not infringe his constitutional restrictions, but which created incentives for the Socialist Party to lessen their support for

14985-495: The tragedy. He appointed a government of national unity, presided over by Admiral Francisco Joaquim Ferreira do Amaral . This quieted the republicans, but in retrospect was seen as weakness. He opened the Royal Court Assembly on 6 May 1908 in the presence of national representatives, and affirmed his support of the Constitution. The King received general public sympathy, due to the deaths of his father and older brother. He

15120-503: The victory of the Kaiser as another channel to restore the monarchy. Manuel believed that supporting Great Britain would guarantee the retention of overseas colonies, which would have been lost to German aggression even if the Germans were supported in the conflict. Of his close subordinates who offered their support to the Republic, none were accepted. Manuel attempted to make himself available to

15255-605: The young King) was bombarded, forcing Manuel to move to the Mafra National Palace , where he rendezvoused with his mother, Queen Amélia, and his grandmother, the Queen Mother Maria Pia of Savoy . There was little apparent popular reaction to these events: pictures from the square in front of the City Hall in Lisbon, where the declaration of the Republic occurred, did not show an overwhelming multitude, and even some in

15390-486: The young king, and he was received warmly. On 23 November he travelled to Espinho in open the Vale do Vouga Railway . On his journeys, he ingratiated himself with the people with his candour and pious character. However, he was not popular with republicans. One of them, João Chagas , the anti-monarchist journalist and propagandist of the Republican Party, warned the King of the problems that would develop when he declared: During

15525-511: Was a baivarabam and was commanded by a baivarapatis . The Greeks called such masses of troops a myrias or myriad . Among mounted troops, an asabam was a cavalry unit led by an asapatis . Historians have discovered the existence of the following ranks in Parthian and Sassanian armies: Post-classical militaries did not have a unified rank structure; while the feudal lords were in some ways equivalent to modern officers, they did not have

15660-436: Was a nobleman who was headed for the senate. The latter is called laticlavian tribune ( tribunus laticlavius ) and was second in command. If in modern divisions the deputy commander is a brigadier general , the laticlavian tribune can perhaps be translated with this rank, though he commanded no formation of his own. The other tribunes are called tribuni angusticlavii and are equivalent to staff officers in both senses of

15795-418: Was a ten thousand man unit ( tumen ) also led by an appointed noyan . The army of ancient Persia consisted of manageable military groupings under the individual commands. Starting at the bottom, a unit of 10 was called a dathabam and was led by a dathapatis . A unit of 100 men was a satabam led by a satapatis . A unit of 1,000 was a hazarabam and was commanded by a hazarapatis . A unit of 10,000

15930-460: Was a unit of one hundred led by a hekatontarchos and a khiliostys or khiliarchia was a unit of a thousand led by a khiliarchos . The cavalry, for which Alexander became most famous (in a military sense), grew more varied. There were heavy cavalry and wing cavalry ( ilè ) units, the latter commanded by an ilarchos . The use of formalized ranks came into widespread use with the Roman legions after

16065-404: Was an accord on challenging the republic, there remained no clear agreement on hereditary lines of succession, and Manuel still retained his claim to the throne. Some monarchists continued unsuccessful counter-revolutionary activities during the War, while the former King continued to condemn their actions and to exhort them to restore the monarchy at the ballot-box. This option seemed viable after

16200-471: Was born in the Palace of Belém, Lisbon, less than a month after his father King Carlos I ascended the Portuguese throne. He was the third child and second son of Carlos and Amélie of Orléans . A member of the House of Braganza , he was baptised a few days later, with his maternal grandfather as godfather. The former Emperor Pedro II of Brazil , Manuel II's paternal great-granduncle, who had been deposed from

16335-478: Was closed as part of the accord) and the lack of Integralist participation. Manuel was always an avid reader and, during his exile, dedicated himself to the study of literature, penning treatises on Medieval and Renaissance literature in Portugal. Following the First World War and with more free time, apart from his contacts with monarchist organisations, he dedicated himself to these studies (a tradition that

16470-493: Was composed of ordinary citizens. Heavily armed foot soldiers were called hoplitès or hoplites and a hoplomachos was a drill or weapons instructor. Once Athens became a naval power, the top generals of the land armies had authority over the naval fleets as well. Under them, each warship was commanded by a trièrarchos or trierarch , a word which originally meant " trireme officer" but persisted when other types of vessels came into use. Moreover, as in modern navies,

16605-430: Was derived from the Italian caporal de squadra (head of the squad). Corporals were assisted by lancepesades . Lancepesades were veteran soldiers; lancepesade was derived from the Italian lancia spezzata meaning broken spear—the broken spear being a metaphor for combat experience, where such an occurrence was likely. The first lancepesades were simply experienced privates; who either assisted their corporal or performed

16740-503: Was discovered in the grounds of Fulwell Park who, when arrested, the Police confirmed as being a prominent member of a Portuguese republican terrorist group known as the Carbonária and who was subsequently deported to Lisbon . To date the identity of the intruder has not been confirmed. Questions remain as to the reason for the man's intrusion. Since neither the Dover nor Paris Pacts resolved

16875-441: Was even reflected here, in that legions were always subordinate to the governor , and only the second and further legions stationed in a province had their own legatus legionis . The real commanders and the legates together were, in modern terms, the general officers . Immediately beneath the commander (or his legate) were six military tribunes ( tribuni militum ), five of whom were young men of equestrian rank and one of whom

17010-410: Was instilled in him by his father). Initially, he was interested in writing a biography, and began research on a biography of Manuel I of Portugal , who he believed was badly treated by other historians. He contracted the services of the bibliographer Maurice Ettinghausen in 1919, to find older books for his project, and was helped by the dissolution of many private collections after the implementation of

17145-571: Was officially documented in Diário do Governo nº 206 on 16 September 1910. Between 4 and 5 October 1910, the Republican Revolution erupted in the streets of Lisbon. What started as a military coup commenced by soldiers, was joined by some civilians and municipal guards attacking the loyal garrisons and the royal palace, while the guns from the cruiser NRP Adamastor added to the cannonade. The Palace of Necessidades (then official residence of

17280-408: Was once part of the U.S. Army and evolved as a separate service in 1947, carrying over its extant officer rank structure. Brazil and Argentina use a system of general officer ranks based on the term brigadier . In some forces, there may be one or more superior ranks to the common examples, above, that are given distinguishing titles, such as field marshal (most armies of the world, notably excluding

17415-511: Was posthumously promoted to the post in 1976. Additionally, Admiral George Dewey was promoted to admiral of the navy but died well before statute made it senior to an admiral of the fleet upon the latter's inception. Manuel II of Portugal Dom Manuel II (15 November 1889 – 2 July 1932), " the Patriot " ( Portuguese : "o Patriota" ) or " the Unfortunate " ( "o Desventurado" ),

17550-665: Was protected by his mother, Amélie, and sought out the support of the experienced politician José Luciano de Castro . Judging that the intervention of King Carlos was a reason for the events of 1908, he declared that he would reign, but not govern. For his part, the new King tried to increase the monarchy's connection with its subjects. The King visited several areas of the country. His trips included stops in Porto , Braga , Viana do Castelo , Oliveira de Azeméis , Santo Tirso , Vila Nova de Gaia , Aveiro , Guimarães , Coimbra and Barcelos . During these visits, his subjects were captivated by

17685-746: Was sufficient to alleviate their concerns. Regardless, most of his efforts were not credited; years later, in an interview with António Ferro , he lamented, "The operating room in the Portuguese Hospital in Paris, during the War, was constructed by me. Do you know what they put on the plaque? 'From a Portuguese in London'." The King was also responsible for the creation of the Orthopedic Department at Shepherd's Bush Hospital which, at his insistence continued to function until 1925, in order to continue to treat

17820-408: Was taught Latin and German by Franz Kerausch, later instruction was by Father João Damasceno Fiadeiro (Portuguese history); Marquês Leitão (Mathematics); M. Boeyé (French and French literature); Alfredo King (English and English literature), Father Domingos Fructuoso (Religion and Morals) and Alexandre Rey Colaço (piano). In 1903, Manuel travelled with his mother and his brother to Egypt , on board

17955-526: Was the last King of Portugal , ascending the throne after the assassination of his father, King Carlos I , and his elder brother, Luís Filipe , the Prince Royal . Before ascending the throne, he held the title of Duke of Beja . His reign ended with the fall of the monarchy during the 5 October 1910 revolution , and Manuel lived the rest of his life in exile in Twickenham , Middlesex , England . Manuel

18090-510: Was the rank colonel general ( Generaloberst ). In 1943, a directive was issued that should the Oberbefehlshaber der Kriegsmarine ("commander of the navy") hold the rank of Generaladmiral , he would wear the sleeve insignia of a grand admiral, but the shoulder boards of a Generaladmiral . A similar practice was used in the German Army, allowing colonel generals to wear four pips on

18225-575: Was the term for the commander-in-chief of the Dano-Norwegian navy . The rank below the General Admiral was Lieutenant General Admiral ( Danish : Generaladmiralløjtnant ). In the German Kriegsmarine of the Second World War , Generaladmiral was a rank senior to an Admiral , but junior to a Großadmiral . Generaladmiral was a four-star admiral rank, equivalent to a full admiral in

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