Saint Geminianus (also known as Saint Geminian , or Saint Gimignano ) was a fourth-century deacon who became Bishop of Modena . He is mentioned in the year 390, when he participated in a council called by Saint Ambrose in Milan . From his name, it has been deduced that Geminianus probably belonged to the caste of Roman senators .
112-574: Nothing more is directly known about him, and all information regarding his life comes from much later biographies. It is said that when Saint Athanasius was entering exile in France, he passed through Modena and was received kindly by Geminianus. Saint John Chrysostom later received the same hospitality. Saint Geminianus opposed Arianism and Jovinianism . He probably died on 31 January 397. Traces of his veneration have always been present in Modena. As early as
224-405: A Discourse on Virginity , a short work on Love and Self-Control , and a treatise On Sickness and Health (of which only fragments remain). Constantius II Constantius II ( Latin : Flavius Julius Constantius ; Ancient Greek : Κωνστάντιος , romanized : Kōnstántios ; 7 August 317 – 3 November 361) was Roman emperor from 337 to 361. His reign saw constant warfare on
336-591: A Christian cemetery. After returning to Alexandria, Athanasius spent his final years repairing all the damage done during the earlier years of violence, dissent, and exile. He resumed writing and preaching undisturbed, and characteristically re-emphasized the view of the Incarnation which had been defined at Nicaea. On 2 May 373, having consecrated Peter II , one of his presbyters as his successor, Athanasius died peacefully in his own bed, surrounded by his clergy and faithful supporters. In Coptic literature , Athanasius
448-620: A best seller in its day and played an important role in the spreading of the ascetic ideal in Eastern and Western Christianity. It depicts Anthony as an illiterate yet holy man who continuously engages in spiritual exercises in the Egyptian desert and struggles against demonic powers. It later served as an inspiration to Christian monastics in both the East and the West. Athanasius' works on asceticism also include
560-613: A document from the new emperor, Jovian , reinstating him once more in his episcopal functions. His first act was to convene a council which reaffirmed the terms of the Nicene Creed. Early in September 363 he set out for Antioch on the Orontes , bearing a synodal letter, in which the pronouncements of this council had been embodied. At Antioch he had an interview with Jovian, who received him graciously and even asked him to prepare an exposition of
672-614: A few weeks he set out for Rome to lay his case before the Church at large. He had made his appeal to Pope Julius , who took up his cause with whole-heartedness that never wavered down to the day of that holy pontiff's death. The pope summoned a synod of bishops to meet in Rome. After a careful and detailed examination of the entire case, the primate's innocence was proclaimed to the Christian world." During this time, Gregory of Cappadocia , an Arian bishop,
784-453: A large army. The ensuing Battle of Mursa Major was one of the largest and bloodiest battles ever between two Roman armies. The result was a victory for Constantius, but a costly one. Magnentius survived the battle and, determined to fight on, withdrew into northern Italy. Rather than pursuing his opponent, however, Constantius turned his attention to securing the Danubian border, where he spent
896-452: A letter from Constantius recalling him to Milan, but which made no reference to the revolt. Ursicinus , who was meant to replace Silvanus, bribed some troops, and Silvanus was killed. Constantius realised that too many threats still faced the Empire, however, and he could not possibly handle all of them by himself. So on 6 November 355, he elevated his last remaining male relative, Julian , to
1008-523: A letter to Epictetus of Corinth, Athanasius anticipates future controversies in his defence of the humanity of Christ. In a letter addressed to the monk Dracontius, Athanasius urges him to leave the desert for the more active duties of a bishop. Athanasius also wrote several works of Biblical exegesis , primarily on Old Testament materials. The most important of these is his Epistle to Marcellinus (PG 27:12–45) on how to incorporate psalm-saying into one's spiritual practice. Perhaps his most notable letter
1120-536: A major refortification of the city, enhancing the city's circuit walls and constructing large towers. He also built a new stronghold in the hinterland nearby, naming it Antinopolis . In early 337, Constantius hurried to Constantinople after receiving news that his father was near death. After Constantine died, Constantius buried him with lavish ceremony in the Church of the Holy Apostles . Soon after his father's death,
1232-647: A member of the Egyptian aristocracy. Some Western scholars consider his command of Greek , in which he wrote most (if not all) of his surviving works, evidence that he may have been a Greek born in Alexandria . Historical evidence, however, indicates that he was fluent in Coptic as well, given the regions of Egypt where he preached. Some surviving copies of his writings are in fact in Coptic, though scholars differ as to whether he wrote them in Coptic originally (which would make him
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#17328632284341344-439: A posthumous daughter named Constantia , who later married Emperor Gratian . Emperors are shown with a rounded-corner border with their dates as Augusti , names with a thicker border appear in both sections 1: Constantine's parents and half-siblings 2: Constantine's children According to DiMaio and Frakes, “...Constantius is hard for the modern historian to fully understand both due to his own actions and due to
1456-523: A priest for Africa. Also, he remained pontifex maximus and was deified by the Roman Senate after his death. His relative moderation toward paganism is reflected by the fact that it was over twenty years after his death, during the reign of Gratian , that any pagan senator protested his treatment of their religion. Although often considered an Arian , Constantius ultimately preferred a third, compromise version that lay somewhere in between Arianism and
1568-776: A result of these reports, Constantius concluded a peace with the Alamanni and traveled to Mediolanum ( Milan ). In Mediolanum, Constantius first summoned Ursicinus , Gallus's magister equitum , for reasons that remain unclear. Constantius then summoned Gallus and Constantina. Although Gallus and Constantina complied with the order at first, when Constantina died in Bithynia , Gallus began to hesitate. However, after some convincing by one of Constantius's agents, Gallus continued his journey west, passing through Constantinople and Thrace to Poetovio ( Ptuj ) in Pannonia . In Poetovio, Gallus
1680-707: A successful counter-attack across the Danube. In the winter of 357–58, Constantius received ambassadors from Shapur II who demanded that Rome restore the lands surrendered by Narseh . Despite rejecting these terms, Constantius tried to avert war with the Sassanid Empire by sending two embassies to Shapur II. Shapur II nevertheless launched another invasion of Roman Mesopotamia. In 360, when news reached Constantius that Shapur II had destroyed Singara ( Sinjar ), and taken Kiphas ( Hasankeyf ), Amida (Diyarbakır), and Ad Tigris ( Cizre ), he decided to travel east to face
1792-506: A young man, and before reaching the episcopate, given proof to those who dwelt with him of his wisdom and acumen' ".(Soz., II, xvii) Athanasius' earliest work, Against the Heathen – On the Incarnation (written before 319), bears traces of Origenist Alexandrian thought but in an orthodox way. Athanasius was also familiar with the theories of various philosophical schools and in particular with
1904-641: Is considered one of the four great Eastern Doctors of the Church in the Catholic Church . Some argue that, in his Easter letter of 367, Athanasius was the first person to list the 27 books of the New Testament canon that are in use today. Others argue that Origen of Alexandria was the first to list the twenty-seven books of the New Testament in his Homilies on Joshua (only there is a textual variant as to whether or not he included Revelation). Athanasius
2016-571: Is the first patriarch of Alexandria to use Coptic as well as Greek in his writings. Athanasius was not a speculative theologian. As he states in his First Letters to Serapion , he held on to "the tradition, teaching, and faith proclaimed by the apostles and guarded by the fathers." He held that both the Son of God and the Holy Spirit are consubstantial with the Father, which had a great deal of influence in
2128-618: Is typically depicted as a bishop holding a model of the town of Modena; a man calming a storm at sea; or a man exorcising the daughter of the Byzantine emperor Jovian . The saint is also venerated in Tuscany , especially in the eponymous town of San Gimignano , and in Pontremoli . A Church of St Geminianus opposite St Mark's Basilica , in Venice's Piazza San Marco , was demolished in 1807 as part of
2240-678: Is venerated as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church , the Catholic Church, the Coptic Orthodox Church , the Anglican Communion , and Lutheranism . Athanasius was born to a Christian family in Alexandria , or possibly the nearby Nile Delta town of Damanhur , sometime between 293 and 298. The earlier date is sometimes assigned because of the maturity revealed in his two earliest treatises Contra Gentes ( Against
2352-597: The magister militum Claudius Silvanus revolted in Gaul. Silvanus had surrendered to Constantius after the Battle of Mursa Major . Constantius had made him magister militum in 353 with the purpose of blocking the German threats, a feat that Silvanus achieved by bribing the German tribes with the money he had collected. A plot organized by members of Constantius's court led the emperor to recall Silvanus. After Silvanus revolted, he received
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#17328632284342464-541: The Alexandrian Council elected Athanasius to succeed after the death of Alexander. Patriarch Athanasius spent over 17 years in five exiles ordered by four different Roman Emperors, not counting approximately six more incidents in which Athanasius fled Alexandria to escape people seeking to take his life. During his first years as bishop, Athanasius visited the churches of his territory, which at that time included all of Egypt and Libya . He established contacts with
2576-619: The Apology to Constantius and Apology for His Flight . Constantius' persistence in his opposition to Athanasius, combined with reports Athanasius received about the persecution of non-Arians by the Arian bishop George of Laodicea , prompted Athanasius to write his more emotional History of the Arians , in which he described Constantius as a precursor of the Antichrist . Constantius died on 4 November 361 and
2688-590: The First Council of Nicaea . Already a recognized theologian and ascetic , he was the obvious choice to replace his ageing mentor Alexander as the Pope of Alexandria , despite the opposition of the followers of Arius and Meletius of Lycopolis . At length, in the Council of Nicaea, the term "consubstantial" ( homoousion ) was adopted, and a formulary of faith embodying it was drawn up by Hosius of Córdoba . From this time to
2800-523: The Nicene Creed , retrospectively called Semi-Arianism . During his reign he attempted to mold the Christian church to follow this compromise position, convening several Christian councils. "Unfortunately for his memory the theologians whose advice he took were ultimately discredited and the malcontents whom he pressed to conform emerged victorious," writes the historian A. H. M. Jones . "The great councils of 359–60 are therefore not reckoned ecumenical in
2912-814: The Septuagint Greek translation. Only rarely did he use other Greek versions (to Aquila once in the Ecthesis , to other versions once or twice on the Psalms), and his knowledge of the Old Testament was limited to the Septuagint. Bishop (or Patriarch, the highest ecclesial rank in the Centre of the Church, in Alexandria) Alexander ordained Athanasius a deacon in 319. In 325, Athanasius served as Alexander's secretary at
3024-438: The apostate's property. However, Constantius's actions in this regard may not have been so much to do with Jewish religion as with Jewish business—apparently, privately owned Jewish businesses were often in competition with state-owned businesses. As a result, Constantius may have sought to provide an advantage to state-owned businesses by limiting the skilled workers and slaves available to Jewish businesses. On 11 August 355,
3136-533: The 17th archbishop of Alexandria, was martyred in 311 in the closing days of the Great Persecution and may have been one of Athanasius's teachers. His successor as bishop of Alexandria was Alexander of Alexandria . According to Sozomen ; "the Bishop Alexander 'invited Athanasius to be his commensal and secretary. He had been well educated, and was versed in grammar and rhetoric, and had already, while still
3248-493: The 360s, and On the Holy Spirit ), against Macedonianism and On the Incarnation . Athanasius also authored a two-part work, Against the Heathen and The Incarnation of the Word of God . Completed probably early in his life, before the Arian controversy, they constitute the first classic work of developed Orthodox theology. In the first part, Athanasius attacks several pagan practices and beliefs. The second part presents teachings on
3360-504: The Church, the case of Athanasius was taken up once more, that is, Athanasius was formally questioned over misdemeanours and even murder, (a bishop in Egypt named Arsenius had turned up missing, and they blamed his death on Athanasius, even supposedly producing Arsenius' severed hand.) The council was convoked for the purpose of inquiring into the charges against Athanasius and other bishops, on account of which they were deposed from their sees by
3472-558: The Council of Serdica, as he did for the First Council of Nicaea, which like the 341 synod found Athanasius innocent. He celebrated his last Easter in exile in Aquileia in April 345, received by Bishop Fortunatianus . The Council of Serdica sent an emissary to report their finding to Constantius. Constantius reconsidered his decision, owing to a threatening letter from his brother Constans and
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3584-694: The Emperors Constantine, Constantius II , Julian the Apostate and Valens . He was known as Athanasius Contra Mundum (Latin for 'Athanasius Against the World'). Nonetheless, within a few years of his death, Gregory of Nazianzus called him the "Pillar of the Church". His writings were well regarded by subsequent Church fathers in the West and the East, who noted their devotion to the Word-become-man , pastoral concern and interest in monasticism . Athanasius
3696-626: The Godhead." While still a deacon under Alexander's care (or early in his patriarchate as discussed below) Athanasius may have also become acquainted with some of the solitaries of the Egyptian desert, and in particular Anthony the Great , whose life he is said to have written. In about 319, when Athanasius was a deacon, a presbyter named Arius came into a direct conflict with Alexander of Alexandria. It appears that Arius reproached Alexander for what he felt were misguided or heretical teachings being taught by
3808-562: The Great had convened the council in May–August 325 to address the Arian position that the Son of God , Jesus of Nazareth , is of a distinct substance from the Father . Three years after that council, Athanasius succeeded his mentor as Patriarch of Alexandria. In addition to the conflict with the Arians (including powerful and influential Arian churchmen led by Eusebius of Nicomedia ), he struggled against
3920-516: The Great , Athanasius the Confessor , or, among Coptic Christians , Athanasius the Apostolic , was a Christian theologian and the 20th pope of Alexandria (as Athanasius I ). His intermittent episcopacy spanned 45 years ( c. 8 June 328 – 2 May 373), of which over 17 encompassed five exiles, when he was replaced on the order of four different Roman emperors . Athanasius was a Church Father ,
4032-583: The Heathens ) and De Incarnatione ( On the Incarnation ), which were likely written circa 318 before Arianism had begun to make itself felt, as those writings do not show an awareness of Arianism. However, Cornelius Clifford places his birth no earlier than 296 and no later than 298, based on the fact that Athanasius indicates no first-hand recollection of the Maximian persecution of 303, which he suggests Athanasius would have remembered if he had been ten years old at
4144-481: The Prefect of Egypt, peremptorily commanding the expulsion of the restored primate on the ground that he had not been included in the imperial act of clemency. The edict was communicated to the bishop by Pythicodorus Trico, who, though described in the "Chronicon Athanasianum" (XXXV) as a "philosopher", seems to have behaved with brutal insolence. On 23 October the people gathered about the proscribed bishop to protest against
4256-408: The action of Constantina, who had since traveled east to marry Gallus. Constantius subsequently sent Vetranio the imperial diadem and acknowledged the general's new position as augustus . However, when Constantius arrived, Vetranio willingly resigned his position and accepted Constantius's offer of a comfortable retirement in Bithynia . In 351, Constantius clashed with Magnentius in Pannonia with
4368-507: The army massacred his relatives descended from the marriage of his paternal grandfather Constantius Chlorus to Flavia Maximiana Theodora , though the details are unclear. Two of Constantius's uncles ( Julius Constantius and Flavius Dalmatius ) and seven of his cousins were killed, including Hannibalianus and Dalmatius , rulers of Pontus and Moesia respectively, leaving Constantius, his two brothers Constantine II and Constans , and three cousins Gallus , Julian and Nepotianus as
4480-487: The baptisms were genuine, as both the form and matter of the sacrament had been performed through the recitation of the correct words and the administration of water, and that he must not continue to do this as those baptized had not been properly catechized . He invited Athanasius and his playfellows to prepare for clerical careers. Alexandria was the most important trade centre in the empire during Athanasius's boyhood. Intellectually, morally, and politically—it epitomized
4592-442: The bishop. Arius embraced a subordinationist Christology which taught that Christ was the divine Son ( Logos ) of God, made, not begotten. Arius had support from a powerful bishop named Eusebius of Nicomedia (not to be confused with Eusebius of Caesarea), illustrating how Arius's subordinationist Christology was shared by other Christians in the empire. Arius was subsequently excommunicated by Alexander, and Arius began to elicit
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4704-646: The borders against the Sasanian Empire and Germanic peoples , while internally the Roman Empire went through repeated civil wars, court intrigues, and usurpations . His religious policies inflamed domestic conflicts that would continue after his death. Constantius was a son of Constantine the Great , who elevated him to the imperial rank of Caesar on 8 November 324 and after whose death Constantius became Augustus together with his brothers, Constantine II and Constans on 9 September 337. He promptly oversaw
4816-453: The brothers into open conflict. Constantine was killed in 340 near Aquileia during an ambush. As a result, Constans took control of his deceased brother's realms and became sole ruler of the Western two-thirds of the empire. This division lasted until January 350, when Constans was assassinated by forces loyal to the usurper Magnentius . Constantius was determined to march west to fight
4928-604: The charges against Athanasius could be freely investigated. To this Constantius consented, for he felt able to control the Council in Milan." In 355, three hundred bishops assembled in Milan, most from the West and only a few from the East. They met in the Church of Milan. Shortly, the emperor ordered them to a hall in the Imperial Palace, thus ending any free debate. He presented an Arian formula of faith for their acceptance. He threatened any who refused with exile and death. All, with
5040-431: The chief proponent of Trinitarianism against Arianism , and a noted Egyptian Christian leader of the fourth century. Conflict with Arius and Arianism, as well as with successive Roman emperors, shaped Athanasius' career. In 325, at age 27, Athanasius began his leading role against the Arians as a deacon and assistant to Bishop Alexander of Alexandria during the First Council of Nicaea . Roman Emperor Constantine
5152-430: The city of Nisibis under siege. Despite initial success, Shapur lifted his siege after his army missed an opportunity to exploit a collapsed wall. When Constantius learned of Shapur's withdrawal from Roman territory, he prepared his army for a counter-attack. Constantius repeatedly defended the eastern border against invasions by the Sassanid Empire under Shapur. These conflicts were mainly limited to Sassanid sieges of
5264-531: The development of later doctrines regarding the Trinity. Athanasius' "Letter Concerning the Decrees of the Council of Nicaea" ( De Decretis ), is an important historical as well as theological account of the proceedings of that council. Examples of Athanasius' polemical writings against his theological opponents include Orations Against the Arians , his defence of the divinity of the Holy Spirit ( Letters to Serapion in
5376-587: The developments of neoplatonism . Ultimately, Athanasius would modify the philosophical thought of the School of Alexandria away from the Origenist principles such as the "entirely allegorical interpretation of the text". Still, in later works, Athanasius quotes Homer more than once ( Hist. Ar. 68, Orat. iv. 29 ). Athanasius knew Greek and admitted not knowing Hebrew [see, e.g., the 39th Festal Letter of St. Athan]. The Old Testament passages he quotes frequently come from
5488-588: The dispute met with Emperor Constantine I in Constantinople . At that meeting, the Arians claimed Athanasius would try to cut off essential Egyptian grain supplies to Constantinople. He was found guilty and sent into exile to Augusta Treverorum in Gaul (now Trier in Germany). When Athanasius reached his destination in exile in 336, Maximin of Trier received him, but not as a disgraced person. Athanasius stayed with him for two years. Constantine died in 337 and
5600-619: The early months of 352 campaigning against the Sarmatians along the middle Danube . After achieving his aims, Constantius advanced on Magnentius in Italy. This action led the cities of Italy to switch their allegiance to him and eject the usurper's garrisons. Again, Magnentius withdrew, this time to southern Gaul . In 353, Constantius and Magnentius met for the final time at the Battle of Mons Seleucus in southern Gaul, and again Constantius emerged
5712-486: The east in 360 to restore stability after the loss of several border fortresses. However, Julian claimed the rank of Augustus in 360, leading to war between the two after Constantius's attempts to persuade Julian to back down failed. No battle was fought, as Constantius became ill and died of fever on 3 November 361 in Mopsuestia , allegedly naming Julian as his rightful successor before his death. Flavius Julius Constantius
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#17328632284345824-477: The emperor's decree; but Athanasius urged them to submit, consoling them with the promise that his absence would be of short duration. In 362 Julian, noted for his opposition to Christianity, ordered Athanasius to leave Alexandria once again. Athanasius left for Upper Egypt, remaining there with the Desert Fathers until Julian's death on 26 June 363. Athanasius returned in secret to Alexandria, where he received
5936-509: The end of the Arian controversies, the word "consubstantial" continued to be the test of orthodoxy. The formulary of faith drawn up by Hosius is known as the Nicene Creed . However, "he was not the originator of the famous 'homoousion' ( ACC of homoousios ). The term had been proposed in a non-obvious and illegitimate sense by Paul of Samosata to the Fathers at Antioch, and had been rejected by them as savouring of materialistic conceptions of
6048-473: The ethnically diverse Graeco-Roman world, even more than Rome or Constantinople, Antioch or Marseilles. Its famous catechetical school, while sacrificing none of its famous passion for orthodoxy since the days of Pantaenus , Clement of Alexandria , Origen , Dionysius and Theognostus , had begun to take on an almost secular character in the comprehensiveness of its interests and had counted influential pagans among its serious auditors. Peter of Alexandria ,
6160-582: The exception of Dionysius (bishop of Milan) , and the two Papal Legates, viz., Eusebius of Vercelli and Lucifer of Cagliari , consented to the Arian Creed and the condemnation of Athanasius. Those who refused were sent into exile. The decrees were forwarded to the pope for approval but were rejected because of the violence to which the bishops were subjected. Through the influence of the Eusebian faction at Constantinople, an Arian bishop, George of Cappadocia ,
6272-426: The exiled bishops of the "Galileans" to return to their "towns and provinces". Athanasius accordingly returned to Alexandria on 22 February 362. In 362 Athanasius convened a council at Alexandria and presided over it with Eusebius of Vercelli . Athanasius appealed for unity among all those who had faith in Christianity, even if they differed on matters of terminology. This prepared the groundwork for his definition of
6384-448: The fifth century a church had been erected over his tomb, contiguous with the present cathedral and outside the center of the original Roman town. In the early Middle Ages , moreover, Modena is often mentioned as Civitas Geminiana . The Relatio translationis S. Giminiani , a manuscript of the twelfth century, describes the translation and recognition of the body of Saint Geminianus on 30 April 1106 and 7 October 1106, respectively, in
6496-423: The first patriarch to do so) or whether these were translations of writings originally in Greek. Rufinus relates a story that as Bishop Alexander stood by a window, he watched boys playing on the seashore below, imitating the ritual of Christian baptism. He sent for the children and discovered that one of the boys (Athanasius) had acted as bishop. After questioning Athanasius, Bishop Alexander informed him that
6608-449: The hands of unsympathetic authors, ecclesiastical and civil alike. To orthodox churchmen he was a bigoted supporter of the Arian heresy, to Julian the Apostate and the many who have subsequently taken his part he was a murderer, a tyrant and inept as a ruler". They go on to add, "Most contemporaries seem in fact to have held him in high esteem, and he certainly inspired loyalty in a way his brother could not". Eutropius wrote of him, He
6720-440: The hermits and monks of the desert, including Pachomius , which proved very valuable to him over the years. "During the forty-eight years of his episcopate, his history is told in the history of the controversies in which he was constantly engaged with the Arians, and of the sufferings he had to endure in defence of the Nicene faith. We have seen that when Arius was allowed to return from exile in 328, Athanasius refused to remove
6832-399: The interests of the authors of primary sources for his reign.” A. H. M. Jones writes that he "appears in the pages of Ammianus as a conscientious emperor but a vain and stupid man, an easy prey to flatterers. He was timid and suspicious, and interested persons could easily play on his fears for their own advantage." However, Kent and M. and A. Hirmer suggest that the emperor "has suffered at
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#17328632284346944-411: The latter battle, leaving Constantius as sole ruler of the empire. In 351, Constantius elevated his cousin Constantius Gallus to the subordinate rank of Caesar to rule in the east, but had him executed three years later after receiving scathing reports of his violent and corrupt nature. Shortly thereafter, in 355, Constantius promoted his last surviving cousin, Gallus's younger half-brother Julian , to
7056-540: The major fortresses of Roman Mesopotamia , including Nisibis ( Nusaybin ), Singara , and Amida ( Diyarbakir ). Although Shapur seems to have been victorious in most of these confrontations, the Sassanids were able to achieve little. However, the Romans won a decisive victory at the Battle of Narasara, killing Shapur's brother, Narses. Ultimately, Constantius was able to push back the invasion, and Shapur failed to make any significant gains. Meanwhile, Constantine II desired to retain control of Constans's realm, leading
7168-595: The massacre being a planned attack rather than a spontaneous mutiny - the lack of high-profile punishments as a response, the sparing of all women, the attempted damnatio memoriae on the deceased, and the exile of the survivors Gallus and Julian. Soon after, Constantius met his brothers in Pannonia at Sirmium to formalize the partition of the empire. Constantius received the eastern provinces, including Constantinople, Thrace , Asia Minor , Syria , Egypt , and Cyrenaica ; Constantine received Britannia , Gaul , Hispania , and Mauretania ; and Constans, initially under
7280-433: The massacre of his father-in-law , an uncle , and several cousins, consolidating his hold on power. The brothers divided the empire among themselves, with Constantius receiving Greece , Thrace , the Asian provinces, and Egypt in the east. For the following decade a costly and inconclusive war against Persia took most of Constantius's time and attention. In the meantime, his brothers Constantine and Constans warred over
7392-420: The only surviving male relatives of Constantine the Great. While the “official version” was that Constantius's relatives were merely the victims of a mutinous army, Ammianus Marcellinus , Zosimus , Libanius , Athanasius and Julian all blamed Constantius for the event. Burgess considered the latter version to be “consistent with all the evidence,” pointing to multiple factors that he believed lined up with
7504-426: The orthodox doctrine of the Trinity . However, the council also was directed against those who denied the divinity of the Holy Spirit, the human soul of Christ, and Christ's divinity. Mild measures were agreed on for those heretic bishops who repented, but severe penance was decreed for the chief leaders of the major heresies. With characteristic energy he set to work to re-establish the somewhat shattered fortunes of
7616-414: The orthodox faith. In February 364 Jovian died. The accession of Emperor Valens gave a fresh lease of life to the Arian party. He issued a decree banishing the bishops who had been deposed by Constantius but who had been permitted by Jovian to return to their sees. The news created the greatest consternation in Alexandria, and the prefect, in order to prevent a serious outbreak, gave public assurance that
7728-415: The orthodox party and to purge the theological atmosphere of uncertainty. To clear up the misunderstandings that had arisen in the course of the previous years, an attempt was made to determine still further the significance of the Nicene formularies. In the meanwhile, Julian, who seems to have become suddenly jealous of the influence that Athanasius was exercising at Alexandria, addressed an order to Ecdicius,
7840-411: The orthodox party broke out with renewed vigour, and Constantius was induced to prepare drastic measures against Athanasius and the priests who were devoted to him. Orders were given that if Athanasius attempted to re-enter his see, he should be put to death. Athanasius, accordingly, withdrew from Serdica to Naissus in Mysia , where he celebrated the Easter festival of the year 344. Hosius presided over
7952-406: The people and clergy unanimous in their choice of Athanasius for patriarch, they confirmed the election about the middle of year 326. He seems, then, to have been about thirty years of age." T. Gilmartin (Professor of History, Maynooth , 1890) writes: "On the death of Alexander, five months after the termination of the Council of Nicaea, Athanasius was unanimously elected to fill the vacant see. He
8064-508: The people to Christianity . According to the report, Theophilus succeeded in establishing three churches, one of them in the capital Zafar . Judaism faced some severe restrictions under Constantius, who seems to have followed an anti-Jewish policy in line with that of his father. This included edicts to limit the ownership of slaves by Jewish people and banning marriages between Jews and Christian women. Later edicts sought to discourage conversions from Christianity to Judaism by confiscating
8176-677: The places, but you the Apostolic Faith. They are, it is true, in the places, but outside of the true Faith; while you are outside the places indeed, but the Faith, within you. Let us consider whether is the greater, the place or the Faith. Clearly the true Faith. Who then has lost more, or who possesses more? He who holds the place, or he who holds the Faith? His biography of Anthony the Great entitled Life of Antony (Βίος καὶ Πολιτεία Πατρὸς Ἀντωνίου, Vita Antonii ) became his most widely read work. Translated into several languages, it became something of
8288-453: The presence of Paschal II , Matilde di Canossa , and all of the Modenesi . A second recognition of the relics was made by Lucius III , on 12 July 1184, while on his way to Verona . The people of Modena believe his miraculous intercession saved them from the invading Huns , when he conjured up dense fog that hid the city. Geminianus rarely appears in art outside of Modena, but when shown
8400-649: The presidency of the Patriarch of Antioch and confirmed the decrees of the Synod of Antioch . Athanasius' innocence was reaffirmed at the Council of Serdica . Two conciliar letters were prepared, one to the clergy and faithful of Alexandria, the other to the bishops of Egypt and Libya, in which the will of the council was made known. Meanwhile, the Eusebians issued an anathema against Athanasius and his supporters. The persecution against
8512-579: The previous year had inflicted heavy losses on the Sassanids, however, and they did not attempt another round of campaigns that year. This temporary respite in hostilities allowed Constantius to turn his full attention to facing Julian. Constantius immediately gathered his forces and set off west. However, by the time he reached Mopsuestia in Cilicia, it was clear that he was fatally ill and would not survive to face Julian. The sources claim that realising his death
8624-634: The rank of Caesar . As emperor, Constantius promoted Arianism , banned pagan sacrifices, and issued laws against Jews . His military campaigns against Germanic tribes were successful: he defeated the Alamanni in 354 and campaigned across the Danube against the Quadi and Sarmatians in 357. The war against the Sasanians, which had been in a lull since 350, erupted with renewed intensity in 359 and Constantius travelled to
8736-461: The rank of caesar . A few days later, Julian was married to Helena , the last surviving sister of Constantius. Constantius soon sent Julian off to Gaul. Constantius spent the next few years overseeing affairs in the western part of the empire primarily from his base at Mediolanum. In April–May 357 he visited Rome for the only time in his life. The same year, he forced Sarmatian and Quadi invaders out of Pannonia and Moesia Inferior , then led
8848-544: The re-emergent threat. In the meantime, Julian had won some victories against the Alamanni , who had once again invaded Roman Gaul . However, when Constantius requested reinforcements from Julian's army for the eastern campaign, the Gallic legions revolted and proclaimed Julian augustus . On account of the immediate Sassanid threat, Constantius was unable to directly respond to his cousin's usurpation, other than by sending missives in which he tried to convince Julian to resign
8960-404: The redemption. Also in these books, Athanasius put forward the belief, referencing John 1:1–4 , that the Son of God, the eternal Word (Logos) through whom God created the world, entered that world in human form to lead men back into the harmony from which they had earlier fallen away. His other important works include his Letters to Serapion , which defends the divinity of the Holy Spirit. In
9072-506: The reorganisation of the west side of the square during the Napoleonic era. Saint Athanasius Autocephaly recognized by some autocephalous Churches de jure : Autocephaly and canonicity recognized by Constantinople and 3 other autocephalous Churches: Spiritual independence recognized by Georgian Orthodox Church: Semi-Autonomous: Athanasius I of Alexandria ( c. 296–298 – 2 May 373), also called Athanasius
9184-488: The semi-Arian Synod of Antioch in 341 and went into exile. Eusebian bishops objected to the admission of Athanasius and other deposed bishops to the council, except as accused persons to answer the charges brought against them. Their objections were overridden by the orthodox bishops. The Eusebians, seeing they had no chance of having their views carried, retired to Philippopolis in Thrace where they held an opposition council under
9296-515: The sentence of excommunication." Athanasius' first problem lay with Meletius of Lycopolis and his followers, who had failed to abide by the First Council of Nicaea. That council also anathematized Arius. Accused of mistreating Arians and Meletians, Athanasius answered those charges at a gathering of bishops at the First Synod of Tyre in 335. There, Eusebius of Nicomedia and other supporters of Arius deposed Athanasius. On 6 November, both sides of
9408-471: The sole ruler of The Roman Empire at the death of his brother Constans, the Council of Arles in 353 , was held, which was presided over by Vincent, Bishop of Capua , in the name of Pope Liberius. The fathers terrified of the threats of the Emperor, an avowed Arian, they consented to the condemnation of Athanasius. The Pope refused to accept their decision, and requested the Emperor to hold another Council, in which
9520-416: The supervision of Constantine II, received Italy , Africa , Illyricum , Pannonia , Macedonia , and Achaea . Constantius then hurried east to Antioch to resume the war with Persia . While Constantius was away from the eastern frontier in early 337, King Shapur II assembled a large army, which included war elephants, and launched an attack on Roman territory, laying waste to Mesopotamia and putting
9632-507: The support of many bishops who agreed with his position. Frances A. M. Forbes writes that when Patriarch Alexander was on his death-bed he called Athanasius, who fled fearing he would be constrained to be made bishop. "When the Bishops of the Church assembled to elect their new Patriarch, the whole Catholic population surrounded the church, holding up their hands to Heaven and crying; "Give us Athanasius!" The Bishops had nothing better. Athanasius
9744-508: The supporters of Arius strongly urging Athanasius's reinstatement, but that effort proved in vain. Julius called a synod in Rome in 340 to address the matter, which proclaimed Athanasius the rightful bishop of Alexandria. Early in 343 Athanasius met with Hosius of Córdoba, and together they set out for Serdica . A full council of the Church was summoned there in deference to the Roman pontiff's wishes. At this great gathering of prelates, leaders of
9856-506: The time. Secondly, the Festal Epistles state that the Arians had accused Athanasius, among other charges, of not having yet attained the canonical age (35) and thus could not have been properly ordained as patriarch of Alexandria in 328. The accusation must have seemed plausible. The Orthodox Church places his year of birth around 297. His parents were wealthy enough to give him a fine secular education. He was, nevertheless, clearly not
9968-472: The title of augustus and be satisfied with that of caesar . By 361, Constantius saw no alternative but to face the usurper with force, and yet the threat of the Sassanids remained. Constantius had already spent part of early 361 unsuccessfully attempting to re-take the fortress of Ad Tigris. After a time he had withdrawn to Antioch to regroup and prepare for a confrontation with Shapur II . The campaigns of
10080-615: The tradition of the church, and Constantius II is not remembered as a restorer of unity, but as a heretic who arbitrarily imposed his will on the church." According to the Greek historian Philostorgius (d. 439) in his Ecclesiastical History , Constantius sent an Arian bishop known as Theophilus the Indian (also known as "Theophilus of Yemen") to Tharan Yuhanim , then the king of the South Arabian Himyarite Kingdom to convert
10192-451: The uncertain conditions of affairs on the Persian border, and he accordingly made up his mind to yield. But three separate letters were needed to overcome the natural hesitation of Athanasius. When he finally acquiesced to meet with Constantius, he was accorded a gracious interview by the emperor and sent back to his see in triumph and began ten years of peace. Pope Julius died in April 352 and
10304-781: The usurper. However, feeling that the east still required some sort of imperial presence, he elevated his cousin Constantius Gallus to caesar of the eastern provinces. As an extra measure to ensure the loyalty of his cousin, he married the elder of his two sisters, Constantina , to him. Before facing Magnentius, Constantius first came to terms with Vetranio , a loyal general in Illyricum who had recently been acclaimed emperor by his soldiers. Vetranio immediately sent letters to Constantius pledging his loyalty, which Constantius may have accepted simply in order to stop Magnentius from gaining more support. These events may have been spurred by
10416-598: The very special case of Athanasius would be laid before the emperor. But Athanasius seems to have divined what was preparing in secret against him. He quietly withdrew from Alexandria in October 364 and took up his abode in a country house outside the city. Valens, who seems to have sincerely dreaded the possible consequences of another popular outbreak, within a few weeks issued orders allowing Athanasius to return to his episcopal see . Some early reports state that Athanasius spent this period of exile at his family's ancestral tomb in
10528-480: The victor. Magnentius, realizing the futility of continuing his position, committed suicide on 10 August 353. Constantius spent much of the rest of 353 and early 354 on campaign against the Alamanni on the Danube frontier. The campaign was successful and raiding by the Alamanni ceased temporarily. In the meantime, Constantius had been receiving disturbing reports regarding the actions of his cousin Gallus. Possibly as
10640-453: The war, Constantine fell ill and sent Constantius east to take command of the eastern frontier. Before Constantius arrived, the Persian general Narses, who was possibly the king's brother, overran Mesopotamia and captured Amida . Constantius promptly attacked Narses, and after suffering minor setbacks defeated and killed Narses at the Battle of Narasara. Constantius captured Amida and initiated
10752-477: The western provinces of the empire, leaving the former dead in 340 and the latter as sole ruler of the west. The two remaining brothers maintained an uneasy peace with each other until, in 350, Constans was overthrown and assassinated by the usurper Magnentius . Unwilling to accept Magnentius as co-ruler, Constantius waged a civil war against the usurper, defeating him at the battles of Mursa Major in 351 and Mons Seleucus in 353. Magnentius died by suicide after
10864-424: Was a man of a remarkably tranquil disposition, good-natured, trusting too much to his friends and courtiers, and at last too much in the power of his wives. He conducted himself with great moderation in the commencement of his reign; he enriched his friends, and suffered none, whose active services he had experienced, to go unrewarded. He was however somewhat inclined to severity, whenever any suspicion of an attempt on
10976-401: Was announced to the world. With his friends scattered, Hosius in exile, and Pope Liberius denounced as acquiescing in Arian formularies, Athanasius could hardly hope to escape. On the night of 8 February 356, while engaged in services in the Church of St. Thomas, a band of armed men burst in to secure his arrest. It was the beginning of his third exile. Gilmartin writes: "By Constantius' order,
11088-477: Was appointed to rule the see of Alexandria in 356. Athanasius, after remaining some days in the neighbourhood of the city, finally withdrew into the desert of Upper Egypt where he remained for a period of six years, living the life of the monks and devoting himself to the composition of a group of writings, such as his Letter to the Monks and Four Orations against the Arians . He also defended his own recent conduct in
11200-444: Was arrested by the soldiers of Constantius under the command of Barbatio . Gallus was then moved to Pola and interrogated. Gallus claimed that it was Constantina who was to blame for all the trouble while he was in charge of the eastern provinces. This angered Constantius so greatly that he immediately ordered Gallus's execution. He soon changed his mind, however, and recanted the order. Unfortunately for Gallus, this second order
11312-485: Was born in 317 at Sirmium , Pannonia , now Serbia . He was the third son of Constantine the Great , and second by his second wife Fausta , the daughter of Maximian . Constantius was made caesar by his father on 8 November 324. In 336, religious unrest in Armenia and tense relations between Constantine and king Shapur II caused war to break out between Rome and Sassanid Persia . Though he made initial preparations for
11424-590: Was delayed by Eusebius , one of Constantius's eunuchs, and Gallus was executed. Laws dating from the 350s prescribed the death penalty for those who performed or attended pagan sacrifices , and for the worshipping of idols . Pagan temples were shut down, and the Altar of Victory was removed from the Senate meeting house. There were also frequent episodes of ordinary Christians destroying, pillaging and desecrating many ancient pagan temples, tombs and monuments. Paganism
11536-529: Was his Festal Letter, written to his Church in Alexandria when he was in exile, as he could not be in their presence. This letter clearly shows his stand that accepting Jesus as the Divine Son of God is not optional but necessary: I know moreover that not only this thing saddens you, but also the fact that while others have obtained the churches by violence, you are meanwhile cast out from your places. For they hold
11648-452: Was installed as the patriarch of Alexandria, usurping the absent Athanasius. Athanasius did, however, remain in contact with his people through his annual Festal Letters , in which he also announced on which date Easter would be celebrated that year. In 339 or 340, nearly one hundred bishops met at Alexandria, declared in favour of Athanasius, and vigorously rejected the criticisms of the Eusebian faction at Tyre. Plus, Pope Julius wrote to
11760-466: Was married three times: First to a daughter of his half-uncle Julius Constantius , whose name is unknown. She was a full-sister of Gallus and a half-sister of Julian. She died c. 352/3. Second, to Eusebia , a woman of Macedonian origin, originally from the city of Thessalonica , whom Constantius married before his defeat of Magnentius in 353. She died before 361. Third and lastly, in 361, to Faustina , who gave birth to Constantius's only child,
11872-440: Was most unwilling to accept the dignity, for he clearly foresaw the difficulties in which it would involve him. The clergy and people were determined to have him as their bishop, Patriarch of Alexandria, and refused to accept any excuses. He at length consented to accept a responsibility that he sought in vain to escape, and was consecrated in 326, when he was about thirty years of age." Athanasius' episcopate began on 9 May 328 as
11984-537: Was near, Constantius had himself baptised by Euzoius, the Semi-Arian bishop of Antioch , and then declared that Julian was his rightful successor. Constantius II died of fever on 3 November 361. Like Constantine the Great, he was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles , in a porphyry sarcophagus that was described in the 10th century by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in the De Ceremoniis . Constantius II
12096-470: Was still popular among the population at the time. The emperor's policies were passively resisted by many governors and magistrates. In spite of this, Constantius never made any attempt to disband the various Roman priestly colleges or the Vestal Virgins . He never acted against the various pagan schools. At times, he actually made some effort to protect paganism. In fact, he even ordered the election of
12208-407: Was succeeded by Julian . The proclamation of the new prince's accession was the signal for a pagan outbreak against the still dominant Arian faction in Alexandria. George, the usurping bishop, was imprisoned and murdered. An obscure presbyter named Pistus was chosen by the Arians to succeed him, when news arrived that filled the orthodox party with hope. An edict had been put forth by Julian permitting
12320-430: Was succeeded by Liberius . For two years Liberius had been favourable to the cause of Athanasius; but driven at last into exile, he was induced to sign an ambiguous formula, from which the great Nicene text, the "homoousion", had been studiously omitted. In 355 a council was held at Milan , where in spite of the vigorous opposition of a handful of loyal prelates among the Western bishops, a fourth condemnation of Athanasius
12432-447: Was succeeded by his three sons, Constantine II , Constantius , and Constans . Paul I of Constantinople had cautioned Emperor Constans against the Arians, revealing their plots, and he also had been banished and found shelter with Maximin. When Emperor Constantine I died, Athanasius was allowed to return to his See of Alexandria. Shortly thereafter, however, Constantius II renewed the order for Athanasius's banishment in 338. "Within
12544-489: Was thus elected, as Gregory tells us..." ( Pope Gregory I had full access to the Vatican Archives ). Alban Butler writes on the subject: "Five months after this great Council, Nicae, St Alexander lying on his deathbed, recommended to his clergy and people the choice of Athanasius for his successor, thrice repeating his name. In consequence of his recommendation, the bishops of all Egypt assembled at Alexandria, and finding
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