Open-pit mining , also known as open-cast or open-cut mining and in larger contexts mega-mining , is a surface mining technique that extracts rock or minerals from the earth.
46-616: Gawthorpe Hall is an Elizabethan country house on the banks of the River Calder , in Ightenhill , a civil parish in the Borough of Burnley , Lancashire , England. Its estate extends into Padiham , with the Stockbridge Drive entrance situated there. The house is traditionally attributed to Robert Smythson . In the mid-19th century, the hall was rebuilt by Charles Barry , the architect of
92-640: A certain medieval style constructed during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I of England and Ireland from 1558 to 1603. Historically, the era sits between the long era of the dominant architectural style of religious buildings by the Catholic Church , which ended abruptly at the Dissolution of the Monasteries from c. 1536 , and the advent of a court culture of pan-European artistic ambition under James I (1603–1625). Stylistically, Elizabethan architecture
138-447: A mine that contribute to this load: drilling , blasting, loading, and hauling . Waste rock is hauled to a waste dump. Waste dumps can be piled at the surface of the active pit, or in previously mined pits. Leftover waste from processing the ore is called tailings , and is generally in the form of a slurry . This is pumped to a tailings dam or settling pond, where the water is reused or evaporated. Tailings dams can be toxic due to
184-429: A number of worked-out mines. After mining ends at a location, the mine area may undergo land rehabilitation . Waste dumps are contoured to flatten them out, to further stabilize them. If the ore contains sulfides it is usually covered with a layer of clay to prevent ingress of rain and oxygen from the air, which can oxidize the sulfides to produce sulfuric acid , a phenomenon known as acid mine drainage . This
230-477: A result of room and pillar mining . Untopping removes the overburden from above this, opens up the mine from above, and then allows the previously 'trapped' minerals to be won. Untopping was a feature of Welsh slate workings in the 1930s and 2000s, where Martyn Williams-Ellis, manager at Llechwedd found that earlier Victorian workings could be kept profitable with the newly mechanised techniques for bulk excavation to extract their pillars, and more recently across
276-450: Is a crucial aspect of determining whether or not a geotechnical engineering design for open-pit slopes is attainable. Groundwater control systems, which include dewatering and depressurization wells, may also have a large impact on local groundwater. Because of this, an optimization-based version of the control system is required to ensure that local and regional hydro-geological impacts are within acceptable ranges. Open Pit depressurization
322-505: Is notably pluralistic. It came at the end of insular traditions in design and construction called the Perpendicular style in church building, the fenestration, vaulting techniques, and open truss designs of which often affected the detail of larger domestic buildings. However, English design had become open to the influence of early printed architectural texts (namely Vitruvius and Leon Battista Alberti ) imported to England by members of
368-508: Is often widely spread around the country. Important examples of Elizabethan architecture include: In England, the Renaissance first manifested itself mainly in the distinct form of the prodigy house , large, square, and tall houses such as Longleat House , built by courtiers who hoped to attract the queen for a ruinously expensive stay, and so advance their careers. Often these buildings have an elaborate and fanciful roofline , hinting at
414-401: Is the process of removing tensions or pressure from different areas of a mine. Depressurization helps to make open-pit mines more stable and secure. By using an integrated mine slope depressurization program the likelihood that mine plans can be achieved, and at an acceptable level of risk increase drastically. Depressurization allows considerable expansions of a mine, and can extend the life of
460-559: Is then generally covered with soil , and vegetation is planted to help consolidate the material. Eventually this layer will erode, but it is generally hoped that the rate of leaching or acid will be slowed by the cover such that the environment can handle the load of acid and associated heavy metals. There are no long term studies on the success of these covers due to the relatively short time in which large-scale open-pit mining has existed. It may take hundreds to thousands of years for some waste dumps to become "acid neutral" and stop leaching to
506-567: The Houses of Parliament . Since 1953 it has been designated a Grade I listed building . In 1970 the 4th Lord Shuttleworth gave the hall to the National Trust , with a 99-year lease to Lancashire County Council . Both bodies jointly administer the hall and in 2015 the council provided £500,000 funding for restoration work on the south and west sides of the house. Gawthorpe Hall's origins are somewhat disputed (see Champness (2008).). Pevsner suggests
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#1733084764882552-634: The Lusatian Lake District , the Central German Lake District or the Upper Palatinate Lake District. A particular concern in the formation of these lakes is acid mine drainage . Open-pit mines create a significant amount of waste. Almost one million tons of ore and waste rock can move from the largest mines per day, and a couple thousand tons moved from small mines per day. There are generally four main operations in
598-501: The Pevsner Buildings of England , notes the traditional attribution to Robert Smythson and suggests that, if not by him, "the design must have been influenced by his work". By the middle of the 19th century, the house was "near ruin" and Sir James Phillips Kay-Shuttleworth, 1st Baronet engaged Charles Barry to undertake an extensive rebuilding. Gawthorpe Hall is a Grade I listed building . Other listed buildings associated with
644-574: The Philippines and Indonesia . In 2024, nickel mining and processing was one of the main causes of deforestation in Indonesia . Open-pit cobalt mining has led to deforestation and habitat destruction in the Democratic Republic of Congo . Open-pit mines operating in an area with heavy groundwater features may eventually face hydrology-related problems. This includes heaving and bursting of
690-682: The Plateresque style in Spain . In contrast to her father Henry VIII , Elizabeth commissioned no new royal palaces, and very few new churches were built, but there was a great boom in building domestic houses for the well-off, largely due to the redistribution of ecclesiastical lands after the Dissolution. The most characteristic type, for the very well-off, is the showy prodigy house , using styles and decoration derived from Northern Mannerism , but with elements retaining signifies of medieval castles, such as
736-573: The River Calder at the rear of the house by Barry. The course of the river was diverted away from Gawthorpe Hall in the 19th century because of pollution and again diverted to accommodate an open cast coal scheme north of the river in Padiham in the 1960s. Following the Second World War , during which Richard Kay-Shuttleworth, 2nd Baron Shuttleworth , was killed as a fighter pilot in the Battle of Britain,
782-418: The mineral resource is exhausted, or an increasing ratio of overburden to ore makes further mining uneconomic. After open-pit mines are closed, they are sometimes converted to landfills for disposal of solid waste. Some form of water control is usually required to keep the mine pit from becoming a lake. Several former open-pit mines have been deliberately converted into artificial lakes, forming areas such as
828-507: The tithe barn at Hoole until they were needed. Mottoes are found in the front porch and around the top of the tower. The initials KS , Kay-Shuttleworth occur in decoration throughout the house, on the front door and plaster roundels on the ceiling in the main dining room. Miss Rachel, as the Honourable Rachel Kay-Shuttleworth was known locally, lived at the hall from 1953 until her death in 1967. In 1970, her nephew gave
874-402: The areas surrounding open-pit mines. Open-pit gold mining is one of the highest potential mining threats on the environment as it affects the air and water chemistry. The exposed dust may be toxic or radioactive, making it a health concern for the workers and the surrounding communities. Open-pit nickel mining has led to environmental degradation and pollution in developing countries such as
920-478: The church as early as the 1480s. Into the 16th century, illustrated continental pattern-books introduced a wide range of architectural exemplars, fueled by the archaeology of Ancient Rome which inspired myriad printed designs of increasing elaboration and abstraction. As church building turned to the construction of great houses for courtiers and merchants, these novelties accompanied a nostalgia for native history as well as huge divisions in religious identity, plus
966-409: The deposit being mined, the mineral being mined, and the size of the machinery that is being used. Generally, large mine benches are 12 to 15 metres thick. In contrast, many quarries do not use benches, as they are usually shallow. Mining can be conducted on more than one bench at a time, and access to different benches is done with a system of ramps. The width of each bench is determined by the size of
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#17330847648821012-424: The ecological land and water. Open-pit mining causes changes to vegetation, soil, and bedrock, which ultimately contributes to changes in surface hydrology, groundwater levels, and flow paths. Additionally, open-pit produces harmful pollutants depending on the type of mineral being mined, and the type of mining process being used. Miners typically drill a series of test holes to locate an underground ore body. From
1058-472: The environment. The dumps are usually fenced off to prevent livestock denuding them of vegetation. The open pit is then surrounded with a fence , to prevent access, and it generally eventually fills up with ground water . In arid areas it may not fill due to deep groundwater levels. In Germany, the world's largest producer of lignite (virtually all of which these days is mined open-pit), the former mines are usually converted to artificial lakes . To mitigate
1104-480: The equipment being used, generally 20–40 metres wide. Downward ramps are created to allow mining on a new level to begin. This new level will become progressively wider to form the new pit bottom. Most walls of the pit are generally mined on an angle less than vertical. Waste rock is stripped when the pit becomes deeper, therefore this angle is a safety precaution to prevent and minimize damage and danger from rock falls. However, this depends on how weathered and eroded
1150-534: The evolution from medieval fortified architecture. It was also at this time that the long gallery became popular (for the Aristocracy) in English houses. This was apparently mainly used for walking in, and a growing range of parlours and withdrawing rooms supplemented the main living room for the family, the great chamber . The great hall was now mostly used by the servants, and as an impressive point of entry to
1196-402: The extracted samples, they can determine the extent of the ore. This helps them determine the likely location of the veins or benches of ore and its commercial value. Open-pit mines that produce building materials and dimension stone are commonly referred to as quarries . Open-cast mines are dug on benches , which describe vertical levels of the hole. The interval of the benches depends on
1242-667: The family had the formal garden dug up, as maintenance costs had become prohibitively expensive. The layout of the garden is still visible, especially during dry summer months. Gawthorpe is a trailhead on the Brontë Way , a 43-mile (69 km) long-distance footpath that crosses the South Pennines to Haworth before continuing to Oakwell Hall , Birstall, West Yorkshire . In 1955, the Burnley F.C. chairman Bob Lord purchased 80 acres (32 ha) of Gawthorpe land, making Burnley one of
1288-479: The first clubs to set up a purpose-built training centre . By the 21st century, Burnley's three-decade absence from top flight football had left the facilities dated, with the old groundsman ’s bungalow used for media meetings and the pitches prone to flooding. In spring 2017, the club opened a new £10.6-million training complex as the base for the senior squad and the club's academy . Elizabethan architecture Elizabethan architecture refers to buildings of
1334-452: The hall include the Great Barn (built 1602–04), also listed at Grade I, and the old farmhouse (1605–06, now used as the estate offices), the game larder , the coach house (1870), a terrace wall, and the lodges and gateways on Habergham and Stockbridge drives (both c.1849), all listed at Grade II. The small ornamental garden, created in the early 1850s, was laid out on a terrace overlooking
1380-409: The hall to the National Trust , to be managed in association with Lancashire County Council , on a 99-year lease to the latter. In 2015 the council provided funding of £500,000 to enable urgent repairs. The original house, which Pevsner suggests began as a pele tower, was developed into an Elizabethan mansion in the very early 1600s. Clare Hartwell, in her 2009 revised Lancashire: North edition of
1426-425: The house. Open cast mining Open-pit mines are used when deposits of commercially useful ore or rocks are found near the surface where the overburden is relatively thin. In contrast, deeper mineral deposits can be reached using underground mining. Open-pit mining is considered one of the most dangerous sectors in the industrial world . It causes significant effects to miners' health, as well as damage to
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1472-560: The influence of continental mercantile and civic buildings. Insular traditions of construction, detail and materials never entirely disappeared. These varied influences on patrons who could favor conservatism or great originality confound attempts to neatly classify Elizabethan architecture. This era of cultural upheaval and fusions corresponds to what is often termed Mannerism and Late Cinquecento in Italy, French Renaissance architecture in France, and
1518-454: The mine by 10 to 15 years. One technique used in depressurization is annealing. Annealing is the slow heating and cooling of a metal, alloy or glass. This slow heating and cooling relieves the internal stress of surrounding areas. Annealing will increase a material's workability and durability, which overall increases open-pit mine safety. When groundwater pressures cause problems in open-pit mines, horizontal drains are used to aid in accelerating
1564-450: The mine floor due to excessive uplift pressure. A groundwater control system must be installed to fix problems caused by hydrology. The formation of an appropriate open-pit slope design, changes throughout the life of a mine. It is based mainly on an ever-increasing understanding of the rock mass conditions, including groundwater and associated pressures that may be acting within the slopes. The reduction of groundwater related to pore pressures
1610-631: The normally busy roof-line. The Elizabethan era saw growing prosperity, and contemporaries remarked on the pace of secular building among the well-off. The somewhat tentative influence of Renaissance architecture is mainly seen in the great houses of courtiers, but lower down the social scale large numbers of sizeable and increasingly comfortable houses were built in developing vernacular styles by farmers and townspeople. Civic and institutional buildings were also becoming increasingly common. Renaissance architecture had achieved some influence in England during
1656-542: The origins lie in a pele tower , a strong fortification built by the Shuttleworths in the 14th century as a defence against invading Scots. The Shuttleworths occupied Shuttleworth Hall near Hapton from the 12th century. The diet of the family in Elizabethan times is known from their household books. The Shuttleworths bought glasses for rose water in 1589 and a " stillatory " for distillation in 1590. Most of their food
1702-446: The presence of unextracted sulfide minerals , some forms of toxic minerals in the gangue , and often cyanide which is used to treat gold ore via the cyanide leach process . If proper environmental protections are not in place, this toxicity can harm the surrounding environment. Open-pit mining involves the process of disrupting the ground, which leads to the creation of air pollutants. The main source of air pollutants comes from
1748-407: The problem of acid mine drainage mentioned above, flooding is often done with the water of nearby rivers instead of using groundwater alone. In some cases, calcium oxide or other basic chemicals have to be added to the water to neutralize the pH -value. Gold is generally extracted in open-pit mines at 1 to 5 ppm (parts per million) but in certain cases, 0.75 ppm gold is economical. This
1794-649: The reign of, and mainly in the palaces of, Henry VIII , who imported a number of Italian artists. Unlike Henry, Elizabeth built no new palaces, instead encouraging her courtiers to build extravagantly and house her on her summer progresses. The style they adopted was more influenced by the Northern Mannerism of the Low countries than Italy, among other features it used versions of the Dutch gable , and Flemish strapwork in geometric designs. Both of these features can be seen on
1840-404: The rocks are, and the type of rocks involved. It also depends on the amount of structural weaknesses occur within the rocks, such as a faults , shears , joints or foliations . The walls are stepped. The inclined section of the wall is known as the batter, and the flat part of the step is known as the bench or berm. The steps in the walls help prevent rock falls continuing down the entire face of
1886-412: The slope depressurization process. Which helps to prevent large scale slope failure in the mine. Horizontal drains are used to lower pore pressure by reducing groundwater head, which enhances slope stability. A form of open-cast quarrying may be carried out as 'untopping'. This is done where a previous underground mine is becoming uneconomic or worked-out, but still leaves valuable rock in place, often as
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1932-520: The towers of Wollaton Hall and again at Montacute House . Flemish craftsmen succeeded the Italians that had influenced Tudor architecture; the original Royal Exchange, London (1566–1570) is one of the first important buildings designed by Henri de Paschen , an architect from Antwerp . However, most continental influences came from books, and there were a number of English "master masons" who were in effect architects and in great demand, so that their work
1978-416: The transportation of minerals, but there are various other factors including drilling, blasting and the loading and unloading of overburden. These type of pollutants cause significant damage to public health and safety in addition to damaging the air quality. The inhalation of these pollutants can cause issues to the lungs and ultimately increase mortality. Furthermore, the pollutants affect flora and fauna in
2024-466: The wall. In some instances additional ground support is required and rock bolts , cable bolts and shotcrete are used. De-watering bores may be used to relieve water pressure by drilling horizontally into the wall, which is often enough to cause failures in the wall by itself. A haul road is usually situated at the side of the pit, forming a ramp up which trucks can drive, carrying ore and waste rock. Open-pit mines are typically worked until either
2070-515: Was achieved by bulk heap leaching at the Peak Hill mine in western New South Wales , near Dubbo , Australia . Nickel , generally as laterite, is extracted via open-pit down to 0.2%. Copper can be extracted at grades as low as 0.11% to 0.2%. Open-pit mining is a common method to extract minerals and samples from the Earth. Due to being cost-effective, this method is very popular and is used all over
2116-584: Was bought locally or came from their own farms, but spices were bought from London. The Elizabethan house at Gawthorpe was dovetailed around the pele tower from plans drawn up by Richard Shuttleworth but carried out after his death by his brother the Reverend Lawrence Shuttleworth. The foundation stone was laid on 26 August 1600. In 1604 Richard Stone of Carr House in Bretherton , imported Irish panel boards and timber and stored 1,000 pieces in
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