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188-541: In Medieval England , the word gavel could refer to a tribute or rent payment made with something other than cash. These agreements were set in English land-court with the sound of a gavel , a word which may come from the Old English : gafol (meaning "tribute"). Gavel would be prefixed to any non-monetary payment given to a lord (for example: gavel-malt ) and can be found as a prefix to other terms such as gavelkind ,

376-412: A Saxon culture in the south, with local groups establishing regiones , small polities ruled over by powerful families and individuals. By the 7th century, some rulers, including those of Wessex , East Anglia , Essex , and Kent , had begun to term themselves kings, living in villae regales , royal centres, and collecting tribute from the surrounding regiones ; these kingdoms are often referred to as

564-461: A feudal approach to governing England, eradicating the practice of slavery , but creating a much wider body of unfree labourers called serfs . The position of women in society changed as laws regarding land and lordship shifted. England's population more than doubled during the 12th and 13th centuries, fueling an expansion of the towns, cities, and trade, helped by warmer temperatures across Northern Europe. A new wave of monasteries and friaries

752-454: A Crusade never actually left, often because the individual lacked sufficient funds to undertake the journey. Raising funds to travel typically involved crusaders selling or mortgaging their lands and possessions, which affected their families and, at times, considerably affected the economy as a whole. England had a diverse geography in the medieval period, from the Fenlands of East Anglia or

940-470: A Know Nothing but was now largely identified with the Republicans. The southern Know Nothings supported first Humphrey Marshall of Kentucky, and then Henry M. Fuller of Pennsylvania. The voting went on for almost two months with no candidate able to secure a majority, until it was finally agreed to elect the speaker by plurality vote, and Banks was elected. The House found itself in a similar dilemma when

1128-529: A Representative who shall not have attained to the Age of twenty-five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the United States ". The Oath or Affirmation Clause provides that "The ... Representatives before mentioned... and all executive and judicial Officers ... of the United States ... shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution". Pursuant to Article VI, the 1st United States Congress passed

1316-608: A bewildering variety of labels, including Whig, Republican , American ( Know Nothing ), and simply " Opposition ". By the time Congress actually met in December 1855, most of the northerners were concentrated together as Republicans, while most of the southerners and a few northerners used the American or Know Nothing label. Opponents of the Democrats held a majority in House, with the party makeup of

1504-486: A bid to regain these possessions. John's efforts to raise revenues, combined with his fractious relationships with many of the English barons, led to confrontation in 1215, an attempt to restore peace through the signing of Magna Carta , and finally the outbreak of the First Barons' War . John died having fought the rebel barons and their French backers to a stalemate, and royal power was re-established by barons loyal to

1692-886: A clear identity within English society, and professional groups with a distinct identity, such as lawyers, engaged in open fighting with others in cities such as London. The Jewish community played an important role in England throughout much of the period. The first Jews arrived in England in the aftermath of the Norman invasion, when William the Conqueror brought over wealthy members of the Rouen community in Normandy to settle in London. The Jewish community expanded out across England and provided essential money-lending and banking services that were otherwise banned by

1880-461: A clearly partisan cast, very different from the speakership of most Westminster-style legislatures, such as the speaker of the United Kingdom's House of Commons , which is meant to be scrupulously non-partisan. The speaker in the United States, by tradition , is the head of the majority party in the House of Representatives, outranking the majority leader. However, despite having the right to vote,

2068-503: A compromise candidate since the other Republicans in the leadership were more controversial. Hastert, who had been serving in the House since 1986, became the longest serving Republican speaker (1999-2007). Hastert led the campaign to elect Tom DeLay , with whom he developed a close and effective partnership, as House Majority Whip. The Republicans came out of the 2000 elections with a further reduced majority but made small gains in 2002 and 2004. The periods of 2001–2002 and 2003–2007 were

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2256-641: A concern. England became dominated by the Godwin family , who had taken advantage of the Danish killings to acquire huge wealth. When Edward died in 1066, Harold Godwinson claimed the throne, defeating his rival Norwegian claimant, Harald Hardrada , at the battle of Stamford Bridge . In 1066, William, Duke of Normandy , took advantage of the English succession crisis to begin the Norman Conquest . With an army of Norman followers and mercenaries, he defeated Harold at

2444-541: A consequence of inheritance arrangements, marriage settlements and church purchases. In the 11th century, the royal position worsened further, as the ealdormen rapidly built up huge new estates, making them collectively much more powerful than the king—this contributed to the political instability of the final Anglo-Saxon years. As time went by, the position of the churls deteriorated, as their rights were slowly eroded and their duties to their lords increased. The kingdom of Wessex, which eventually laid claim to England as

2632-509: A coup, led by Isabella's son Edward III , in 1330. Like his grandfather, Edward III took steps to restore royal power, but during the 1340s the Black Death arrived in England. The losses from the epidemic, and the recurring plagues that followed it, significantly affected events in England for many years to come. Meanwhile, Edward, under pressure from France in Aquitaine, made a challenge for

2820-485: A former Whig of unclear partisan loyalties, who was finally elected speaker on February 1, 1860. In December 1923, at the start of the 68th Congress , Republican Frederick H. Gillett needed nine ballots to win reelection. Progressive Republicans had refused to support Gillett in the first eight ballots. Only after winning concessions from Republican conference leaders (a seat on the House Rules Committee and

3008-455: A former province of the Roman Empire . The local economy had once been dominated by imperial Roman spending on a large military establishment, which in turn helped to support a complex network of towns, roads, and villas . At the end of the 4th century, however, Roman forces had been largely withdrawn, and this economy collapsed. Germanic settlers began to arrive in increasing numbers during

3196-553: A heated debate on nuclear energy, despite the addition of silver plates to strengthen it two years prior. The Senate was unable to obtain a piece of ivory large enough to replace the gavel, so they appealed to the Indian embassy. Later that year, India's Vice President Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan visited the Senate and presented a replica of the original gavel to Nixon. In response to widespread awareness of elephant poaching and illegal ivory trades,

3384-513: A majority, the roll call is repeated until a speaker is elected. Representatives are free to vote for someone other than the candidate nominated by their party but generally do not, as the outcome of the election effectively demonstrates which party has the majority and consequently will organize the House. Representatives who choose to vote for someone other than their party's nominee usually vote for someone else in their party or vote " present ", in which case their vote does not count in tallying

3572-412: A member makes a slight breach of the rules. Demeter's Manual of Parliamentary Law and Procedure states that, in addition to an optional light tap after a vote, there are three other uses of a gavel: Improper uses include banging the gavel in an attempt to drown out a disorderly member. In this situation, the chair should give one vigorous tap at a time at intervals. Also, the chair should not lean on

3760-427: A network of monasteries and convents were built across England. In the 8th and 9th centuries, England faced fierce Viking attacks, and the fighting lasted for many decades. Eventually, Wessex was established as the most powerful kingdom and promoted the growth of an English identity. Despite repeated crises of succession and a Danish seizure of power at the start of the 11th century, it can also be argued that by

3948-630: A non-member Speaker would cause a significant breach of the constitutional separation of powers . Schaub, Ellis, and Dubinsky also argue that permitting a non-member to serve as Speaker would effectively exempt Speakers from the eligibility requirements of the House Qualifications Clause of Article I, Section II and from being bound by an oath of office under the Oath or Affirmation Clause of Article VI as opposed to House members. The House Qualifications Clause requires that "No person shall be

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4136-494: A pantheon of gods including Odin , Thor and Ullr , combined with a belief in a final, apocalyptic battle called Ragnarok . The Norse settlers in England were converted relatively quickly, assimilating their beliefs into Christianity in the decades following the occupation of York, which the Archbishop had survived. The process was largely complete by the early 10th century and enabled England's leading Churchmen to negotiate with

4324-429: A pledge that requested House rules changes would be considered) did they agree to support him. In 1997, several Republican congressional leaders tried to force Speaker Newt Gingrich to resign. However, Gingrich refused since that would have required a new election for speaker, which could have led to Democrats along with dissenting Republicans voting for Democrat Dick Gephardt (then minority leader) as speaker. After

4512-656: A requirement. As noted by the Congressional Research Service , non-members have, on multiple occasions since 1997, received votes in speaker elections . In 1787, while the proposed Constitution was being considered, Pennsylvania Congress of the Confederation Delegate Tench Coxe publicly wrote the following: The house of representatives is not, as the Senate, to have a president chosen for them from without their body, but are to elect their speaker from their own number . . . . Noting that

4700-466: A result of intermarriage and cohabitation. By the end of the 12th century, and possibly as early as the 1150, contemporary commentators believed the two peoples to be blending, and the loss of the Duchy in 1204 reinforced this trend. The resulting society still prized wider French cultural values, however, and French remained the language of the court, business and international affairs, even if Parisians mocked

4888-466: A scarce workforce. Statute of Labourers 1351 was introduced to limit wages and to prevent the consumption of luxury goods by the lower classes, with prosecutions coming to take up most of the legal system's energy and time. A poll tax was introduced in 1377 that spread the costs of the war in France more widely across the whole population. The tensions spilled over into violence in the summer of 1381 in

5076-608: A shrine or a particular church, either to do penance for a perceived sin, or to seek relief from an illness or other condition. Some pilgrims travelled further, either to more distant sites within Britain or, in a few cases, onto the continent. During the Anglo-Saxon period, many shrines were built on former pagan sites which became popular pilgrimage destinations, while other pilgrims visited prominent monasteries and sites of learning. Senior nobles or kings would travel to Rome , which

5264-409: A speakership election with the opposite party's delegation participating. Finally, it was agreed to exclude both delegations from the election and a speaker was finally chosen on December 17. Another, more prolonged fight occurred in 1855 in the 34th United States Congress . The old Whig Party had collapsed but no single party had emerged to replace it. Candidates opposing the Democrats had run under

5452-452: A specified period of time." The list of the members with this duty (usually political allies of the speaker, or members from districts close to Washington and thus better able to hold pro forma sessions) is made public. The first speaker of the House, Frederick Muhlenberg of Pennsylvania , was elected to office on April 1, 1789, the day the House organized itself at the start of the 1st Congress . He served two non-consecutive terms in

5640-593: A standing law court in Westminster—an early Common Bench —and travelling judges conducting eyres around the country. King John extended the royal role in delivering justice, and the extent of appropriate royal intervention was one of the issues addressed in the Magna Carta of 1215. The emerging legal system reinvigorated the institution of serfdom in the 13th century by drawing an increasingly sharp distinction between freemen and villeins. Many tensions existed within

5828-443: A succession of bishops reduced the role of queens and their households in formal government. Married or widowed noblewomen remained significant cultural and religious patrons and played an important part in political and military events, even if chroniclers were uncertain if this was appropriate behaviour. As in earlier centuries, most women worked in agriculture, but here roles became more clearly gendered, with ploughing and managing

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6016-502: A system called hidage . The Anglo-Saxon kings built up a set of written laws, issued either as statutes or codes, but these laws were never written down in their entirety and were always supplemented by an extensive oral tradition of customary law. In the early part of the period local assemblies called moots were gathered to apply the laws to particular cases; in the 10th century these were replaced by hundred courts , serving local areas, and shire moots dealing with larger regions of

6204-484: A system of partible inheritance formerly found in parts of the UK and Ireland. A gavel may also have referred to a kind of mason's tool, a setting maul that came into use as a way to maintain order in meetings. A gavel may be used in meetings of a deliberative assembly . According to Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised , the gavel may be used to signify a recess or an adjournment . It may also be used to signify when

6392-485: A white marble gavel has been in use since at least 2021. The gavel of the House of Representatives, by contrast, is plain wood with a handle and is used more often and more forcefully than in the Senate. It has been broken and replaced many times. The instrument is so associated with the Speaker of the House that the word gavel itself has become a metonym for the post. In 1955, Icelandic sculptor Ríkarður Jónsson carved

6580-428: A whole, evolved a centralised royal administration. One part of this was the king's council, the witenagemot , comprising the senior clergy, ealdormen , and some of the more important thegns ; the council met to advise the king on policy and legal issues. The royal household included officials, thegns and a secretariat of clergy which travelled with the king, conducting the affairs of government as it went. Under

6768-488: Is the only speaker of the House who was later elected president of the United States. Toward the end of the 19th century, the office of speaker began to develop into a very powerful one. At the time, one of the most important sources of the speaker's power was his position as Chairman of the Committee on Rules , which, after the reorganization of the committee system in 1880, became one of the most powerful standing committees of

6956-585: The 36th Congress met in December 1859. Although the Republicans held a plurality, the Republican candidate, John Sherman , was unacceptable to southern oppositionists due to his anti-slavery views, and once again the House was unable to elect a speaker. After Democrats allied with southern oppositionists to nearly elect the North Carolina oppositionist William N. H. Smith , Sherman finally withdrew in favor of compromise candidate William Pennington of New Jersey,

7144-698: The Angevin Empire . Henry reasserted royal authority and rebuilt the royal finances, intervening to claim power in Ireland and promoting the Anglo-Norman colonisation of the country. Henry strengthened England's borders with Wales and Scotland, and used the country's wealth to fund a long-running war with his rivals in France, but arrangements for his succession once again proved problematic. Several revolts broke out, led by Henry's children who were eager to acquire power and lands, sometimes backed by France, Scotland and

7332-475: The Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066 and rapidly occupied the south of England. William used a network of castles to control the major centres of power, granting extensive lands to his main Norman followers and co-opting or eliminating the former Anglo-Saxon elite. Major revolts followed, which William suppressed before intervening in the north-east of England, establishing Norman control of York and devastating

7520-465: The Cistercians reached England, creating houses with a more austere interpretation of the monastic rules and building the great abbeys of Rievaulx and Fountains . By 1215, there were over 600 monastic communities in England, but new endowments slowed during the 13th century, creating long-term financial problems for many institutions. The Dominican and Franciscan friars arrived in England during

7708-674: The Commonwealth of Nations and the Republic of Ireland , gavels have never been used by judges, despite many American-influenced TV programs depicting them. An exception is the Inner London Crown Court , where clerks use a gavel to alert parties in court of the entrance of the judge into the courtroom, as opposed to the usual practice of the judge knocking on the door before entering. Gavels are also used for judicial purposes in some other countries. In Poland , they were originally used in

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7896-572: The Domesday Book , produced in 1086. Changes in other areas soon began to be felt. The method of government after the conquest can be described as a feudal system , in that the new nobles held their lands on behalf of the king; in return for promising to provide military support and taking an oath of allegiance, called homage , they were granted lands termed a fief or an honour . Major nobles in turn granted lands to smaller landowners in return for homage and further military support, and eventually

8084-539: The Little Ice Age ; by the 14th century spring temperatures had dropped considerably, reaching their coldest in the 1340s and 1350s. This cold end to the Middle Ages significantly affected English agriculture and living conditions. Even at the start of the Middle Ages the English landscape had been shaped by human occupation over many centuries. Much woodland was new, the result of fields being reclaimed by brush after

8272-481: The Medieval Warm Period , a prolonged period of warmer temperatures; in the early 13th century, for example, summers were around 1 °C warmer than today and the climate was slightly drier. These warmer temperatures allowed poorer land to be brought into cultivation and for grapevines to be cultivated relatively far north. The Warm Period was followed by several centuries of much cooler temperatures, termed

8460-819: The Oath Administration Act (that remains in effect) which provides that "...the oath or affirmation [required by the sixth article of the Constitution of the United States]… shall be administered ... to the Speaker". Like the U.S. Supreme Court 's ruling in NLRB v. Noel Canning (2014), Ellis and Dubinsky cite an 1819 letter written by James Madison to Virginia Supreme Court of Appeals Judge Spencer Roane where Madison stated that "difficulties and differences of opinion [arising] in expounding terms [and] phrases ... used [in

8648-631: The Order of the Garter ), grand tournaments and round table events. Society and government in England in the early 14th century were challenged by the Great Famine and the Black Death. The economic and demographic crisis created a sudden surplus of land, undermining the ability of landowners to exert their feudal rights and causing a collapse in incomes from rented lands. Wages soared, as employers competed for

8836-733: The Sergeant at Arms and the Clerk ) do not perform. Schaub and the CRS also note that the text of the Presidential Succession Act of 1947 assumes that the Speaker is a House member in requiring the Speaker's resignation upon succession to the Presidency due to the Ineligibility Clause of Article I, Section VI . The Ineligibility Clause provides that "No ... Representative shall, during

9024-493: The United States federal government shutdown of 1995 and 1996 , in which Clinton was largely seen to have prevailed. Gingrich's hold on the leadership was weakened significantly by that and several other controversies, and he faced a caucus revolt in 1997. After the Republicans lost House seats in 1998 (although retaining a majority) he did not stand for a third term as speaker. His successor, Dennis Hastert , had been chosen as

9212-460: The Vesting Clause of Article I, Section I states that "All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives", political scientist Diana Schaub has argued, "Legislative powers cannot be lodged in the hands of a non-legislative person. To do so would violate the fundamental purpose of Article [I] of

9400-446: The War of 1812 , and various laws relating to Clay's " American System " economic plan. Furthermore, when no candidate received an Electoral College majority in the 1824 presidential election , causing the president to be elected by the House, Speaker Clay threw his support to John Quincy Adams instead of Andrew Jackson , thereby ensuring Adams' victory. Following Clay's retirement in 1825,

9588-463: The economy was in tatters and many of the towns abandoned. After several centuries of Germanic immigration, new identities and cultures began to emerge, developing into kingdoms that competed for power. A rich artistic culture flourished under the Anglo-Saxons , producing epic poems such as Beowulf and sophisticated metalwork . The Anglo-Saxons converted to Christianity in the 7th century, and

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9776-554: The liturgy , combined with the abuses of wealth within the Church and the role of senior churchmen in government, distracted from that study. A loose movement that included many members of the gentry pursued these ideas after Wycliffe's death in 1384 and attempted to pass a Parliamentary bill in 1395: the movement was rapidly condemned by the authorities and was termed " Lollardy ". The English bishops were charged to control and counter this trend, disrupting Lollard preachers and to enforcing

9964-529: The pogroms carried out against Jewish communities in the reign of Richard I. After an initially peaceful start to John's reign, the king again began to extort money from the Jewish community and, with the breakdown in order in 1215, the Jews were subject to fresh attacks. Henry III restored some protection and Jewish money-lending began to recover. Despite this, the Jewish community became increasingly impoverished and

10152-580: The usury laws . During the 12th century, the Jewish financial community grew richer still, operating under royal protection and providing the king with a source of ready credit. All major towns had Jewish centres, and even the smaller towns saw visits by travelling Jewish merchants. Towards the end of Henry II's reign, however, the king ceased to borrow from the Jewish community and instead turned to extracting money from them through arbitrary taxation and fines. The Jews became vilified and accusations were made that they conducted ritual child murder , encouraging

10340-446: The 1060s England was a powerful, centralised state with a strong military and successful economy. The Norman invasion of England in 1066 led to the defeat and replacement of the Anglo-Saxon elite with Norman and French nobles and their supporters. William the Conqueror and his successors took over the existing state system, repressing local revolts and controlling the population through a network of castles . The new rulers introduced

10528-460: The 1220s, establishing 150 friaries by the end of the 13th century; these mendicant orders rapidly became popular, particularly in towns, and heavily influenced local preaching. The religious military orders that became popular across Europe from the 12th century onwards acquired possessions in England, including the Templars , Teutons and Hospitallers . The Church had a close relationship with

10716-558: The 1998 midterm elections where the Republicans lost seats, Gingrich did not stand for re-election. The next two figures in the House Republican leadership hierarchy, Majority Leader Richard Armey and Majority Whip Tom DeLay chose not to run for the office. The chairman of the House Appropriations Committee , Bob Livingston , declared his bid for the speakership, which was unopposed, making him speaker-designate. It

10904-403: The 2000, 2002, and 2004 elections. The Democrats won a majority of seats in the 2006 midterm elections. On November 16, 2006, Nancy Pelosi , who was then minority leader, was selected as speaker-designate by House Democrats. When the 110th Congress convened on January 4, 2007, she was elected as the 52nd speaker by a vote of 233–202, becoming the first woman elected speaker of the House. Pelosi

11092-420: The 234 representatives being 83 Democrats, 108 Republicans, and 43 Know Nothings (primarily southern oppositionists). The Democratic minority nominated William Alexander Richardson of Illinois as speaker, but because of sectional distrust, the various oppositionists were unable to agree on a single candidate for speaker. The Republicans supported Nathaniel Prentice Banks of Massachusetts, who had been elected as

11280-410: The 5th and 6th centuries, establishing small farms and settlements, and their language, Old English , swiftly spread as more settlers arrived and those of the previous inhabitants who had not moved west or to Brittany switched from Common Brittonic and British Latin to the migrants' language. New political and social identities emerged, including an Anglian culture in the east of England and

11468-571: The 5th century. The collapse of the Roman system in the late 5th century, however, brought about the end of formal Christian religion in the east of England, and the new Germanic immigrants arrived with their own polytheistic gods, including Woden , Thunor and Tiw , still reflected in various English place names. Despite the resurgence of paganism in England, Christian communities still survived in more western areas such as Gloucestershire and Somerset . The movement towards Christianity began again in

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11656-583: The 630s and 640s, and the wave of change carried on through the middle of the 7th century across the kingdoms of Mercia, the South Saxons and the Isle of Wight . The process was largely complete by the end of the 7th century, but left a confusing and disparate array of local practices and religious ceremonies. This new Christianity reflected the existing military culture of the Anglo-Saxons: as kings began to convert in

11844-420: The 6th and 7th centuries, conversion began to be used as a justification for war against the remaining pagan kingdoms, for example, while Christian saints were imbued with martial properties. The Viking invasions of the 8th and 9th centuries reintroduced paganism to North-East England, leading in turn to another wave of conversion. Indigenous Scandinavian beliefs were very similar to other Germanic groups, with

12032-454: The 6th century, however, these different groups began to coalesce into stratified societies across England, roughly corresponding to the later Angle and Saxon kingdoms recorded by Bede in the 8th century. By the 9th century, the term the Angelcynn was being officially used to refer to a single English people, and promoted for propaganda purposes by chroniclers and kings to inspire resistance to

12220-635: The Anarchy . Matilda's son, Henry , finally agreed to a peace settlement at Winchester and succeeded as king in 1154. Henry II was the first of the Angevin rulers of England, so-called because he was also the Count of Anjou in Northern France. Henry had also acquired the huge duchy of Aquitaine by marriage, and England became a key part of a loose-knit assemblage of lands spread across Western Europe, later termed

12408-571: The Black Prince , were heavily involved in campaigning in France and administering the new continental territories. Edward's grandson, the young Richard II , faced political and economic problems, many resulting from the Black Death, including the Peasants' Revolt that broke out across the south of England in 1381. Over the coming decades, Richard and groups of nobles vied for power and control of policy towards France until Henry of Bolingbroke seized

12596-444: The Conqueror acquired the support of the Church for the invasion of England by promising ecclesiastical reform. William promoted celibacy amongst the clergy and gave ecclesiastical courts more power, but also reduced the Church's direct links to Rome and made it more accountable to the king. Tensions arose between these practices and the reforming movement of Pope Gregory VII , which advocated greater autonomy from royal authority for

12784-527: The Constitution." Both Schaub and the CRS note that the Standing Rules and Orders of the House created by the 1st United States Congress provided that the Speaker would vote "In all cases of ballot by the [H]ouse", while former House Intelligence Committee General Counsel Michael Ellis and attorney Greg Dubinsky have argued that the Speaker must be a House member because the Speaker performs various legislative functions that other House officers (such as

12972-744: The Constitution]... might require a regular course of practice to liquidate [and] settle the meaning of some of them." In holding in NLRB v. Noel Canning that the Recess Appointments Clause of Article II, Section II does not authorize the President to make appointments while the Senate is in pro forma sessions , the Supreme Court cited Marbury v. Madison (1803) and McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) in concluding that "The longstanding 'practice of

13160-605: The Continent. A reformed network of around 40 monastic institutions across the south and east of England, under the protection of the king, helped re-establish royal control over the reconquered Danelaw. The 1066 Norman conquest brought a new set of Norman and French churchmen to power; some adopted and embraced aspects of the former Anglo-Saxon religious system, while others introduced practices from Normandy. Extensive English lands were granted to monasteries in Normandy, allowing them to create daughter priories and monastic cells across

13348-521: The Danelaw, and by the 950s and the reigns of Eadred and Edgar , York was finally permanently retaken from the Vikings. The West Saxon rulers were now kings of the Angelcynn , that is of the whole English folk. With the death of Edgar, however, the royal succession became problematic. Æthelred took power in 978 following the murder of his brother Edward , but England was then invaded by Sweyn Forkbeard ,

13536-647: The Danes at the Battle of Edington , and he exploited the fear of the Viking threat to raise large numbers of men and using a network of defended towns called burhs to defend his territory and mobilise royal resources. Suppressing internal opposition to his rule, Alfred contained the invaders within a region known as the Danelaw . Under his son, Edward the Elder , and his grandson, Æthelstan , Wessex expanded further north into Mercia and

13724-432: The Danish invasions. The Normans and French who arrived after the conquest saw themselves as different from the English. They had close family and economic links to the Duchy of Normandy, spoke Norman French and had their own distinctive culture. For many years, to be English was to be associated with military failure and serfdom. During the 12th century, the divisions between the English and Normans began to dissolve as

13912-412: The Danish kings, a bodyguard of housecarls also accompanied the court. At a regional level, ealdormen played an important part in government, defence and taxation, and the post of sheriff emerged in the 10th century, administering local shires on behalf of an ealdorman. Anglo-Saxon mints were tightly controlled by the kings, providing a high-quality currency, and the whole country was taxed using

14100-451: The English for their poor pronunciation. By the 14th century, however, French was increasingly having to be formally taught, rather than being learnt naturally in the home, although the aristocracy would typically spend many years of their lives in France and remained entirely comfortable working in French. During the 12th and 13th centuries, the English began to consider themselves superior to

14288-423: The English state throughout the Middle Ages. The bishops and major monastic leaders played an important part in national government, having key roles on the king's council. Bishops often oversaw towns and cities, managing local taxation and government . This frequently became untenable with the Viking incursions of the 9th century, and in locations such as Worcester the local bishops came to new accommodations with

14476-530: The European tradition or, uniquely to England, chapters of monks. These institutions were badly affected in the 9th century by Viking raids and predatory annexations by the nobility. By the start of the 10th century, monastic lands, financial resources and the quality of monasteries' religious work had been much diminished. Reforms followed under the kings of Wessex who promoted the Benedictine rule then popular on

14664-486: The French throne. Over the next century, English forces fought many campaigns in a long-running conflict that became known as the Hundred Years' War . Despite the challenges involved in raising the revenues to pay for the war, Edward's military successes brought an influx of plundered wealth to many parts of England and enabled substantial building work by the king. Many members of the English elite, including Edward's son

14852-595: The Heptarchy . In the 7th century, the Kingdom of Mercia rose to prominence under the leadership of King Penda . Mercia invaded neighbouring lands until it loosely controlled around 50 regiones covering much of England. Mercia and the remaining kingdoms, led by their warrior elites, continued to compete for territory throughout the 8th century. Massive earthworks, such as the defensive dyke built by Offa of Mercia , helped to defend key frontiers and towns. In 789, however,

15040-427: The House is Mike Johnson , a Republican from Louisiana . The House elects its speaker at the beginning of a new Congress, biennially , after a general election , or when a speaker dies, resigns, or is removed from the position during a congressional term. At the start of a new Congress, those voting to elect the speaker are representatives-elect, as a speaker must be selected before members are sworn in to office;

15228-443: The House of Representatives cannot organize or take other legislative actions until a speaker is elected. Since 1839, the House has elected speakers by roll call vote . In practice, each party's caucus or conference selects a candidate for the speakership from among its senior leaders prior to the roll call. To be elected speaker, a candidate must receive a majority of votes from the members present and voting. If no candidate wins

15416-432: The House on January 7, 2023, after the longest multi-ballot speaker election since 1859. McCarthy was eventually removed as speaker on October 3, 2023, after a further split in the Republican caucus, with five House Freedom Caucus members voting against McCarthy, which when combined with votes of Democrats, resulted in the ouster of McCarthy. This was the first time in the history of the House of Representatives in which

15604-466: The House, becoming the first woman to hold the position. President Bush acknowledged Pelosi as the first woman in that position in the opening of his 2007 State of the Union Address . John Boehner was elected speaker when the 112th Congress convened on January 5, 2011, and was re-elected twice, at the start of the 113th and 114th Congresses. On both of those occasions his remaining in office

15792-551: The House. Furthermore, several speakers became leading figures in their political parties; examples include Democrats Samuel J. Randall , John Griffin Carlisle , and Charles F. Crisp , and Republicans James G. Blaine , Thomas Brackett Reed , and Joseph Gurney Cannon . The power of the speaker was greatly augmented during the tenure of the Republican Thomas Brackett Reed (1889–1891, 1895–1899). "Czar Reed", as he

15980-526: The Icelandic birch gavel and striking board used at the United Nations . [REDACTED] Media related to gavels at Wikimedia Commons Medieval England England in the Middle Ages concerns the history of England during the medieval period , from the end of the 5th century through to the start of the early modern period in 1485. When England emerged from the collapse of the Roman Empire ,

16168-564: The Norman invasion, the position of women in society changed. The rights and roles of women became more sharply defined, in part as a result of the development of the feudal system and the expansion of the English legal system; some women benefited from this, while others lost out. The rights of widows were formally laid down in law by the end of the 12th century, clarifying the right of free women to own property, but this did not necessarily prevent women from being forcibly remarried against their wishes. The growth of governmental institutions under

16356-800: The Norman kings to project power across the region, including funding campaigns along the frontiers of Normandy. Norman rule, however, proved unstable; successions to the throne were contested, leading to violent conflicts between the claimants and their noble supporters. William II inherited the throne but faced revolts attempting to replace him with his older brother Robert or his cousin Stephen of Aumale . In 1100, William II died while hunting. Despite Robert's rival claims, his younger brother Henry I immediately seized power. War broke out, ending in Robert's defeat at Tinchebrai and his subsequent life imprisonment. Robert's son Clito remained free, however, and formed

16544-504: The Rules Committee, and determined which committee heard each bill. He vigorously used his powers to ensure that Republican proposals were passed by the House. In 1910, however, Democrats and several dissatisfied Republicans joined to strip Cannon of many of his powers, including the ability to name committee members and his chairmanship of the Rules Committee. Fifteen years later, Speaker Nicholas Longworth restored much, but not all, of

16732-415: The Speaker of the House was successfully removed. Following a multi-day four-ballot election, Mike Johnson was elected speaker on October 25, 2023. [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Historically, there have been several controversial elections to the speakership, such as the contest of 1839. In that case, even though the 26th United States Congress convened on December 2, the House could not begin

16920-571: The Time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the United States... and no Person holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member of [the] House during his Continuance in Office." Along with political scientist Matthew J. Franck, Schaub, Ellis, and Dubinsky argue that permitting a Senator or an executive or judicial officer of the federal government to serve as

17108-563: The United States House of Representatives , commonly known as the speaker of the House or House Speaker , is the presiding officer of the United States House of Representatives . The office was established in 1789 by Article I, Section II , of the U.S. Constitution . By custom and House rules, the speaker is the political and parliamentary leader of the House and is simultaneously its presiding officer, de facto leader of

17296-515: The Welsh princes. After a final confrontation with Henry, his son Richard I succeeded to the throne in 1189. Richard spent his reign focused on protecting his possessions in France and fighting in the Third Crusade ; his brother, John , inherited England in 1199 but lost Normandy and most of Aquitaine after several years of war with France. John fought successive, increasingly expensive, campaigns in

17484-525: The Welsh, Scots and Bretons . The English perceived themselves as civilised, economically prosperous and properly Christian, while the Celtic fringe was considered lazy, barbarous and backward. Following the invasion of Ireland in the late 12th century, similar feelings were expressed about the Irish, with the distinctions clarified and reinforced in 14th-century English legislation. The English also felt strongly about

17672-546: The agenda of the majority party, often at the expense of the minority opposition. This can be seen, most of all, in the speakership of Democratic-Republican Henry Clay , who personally ensured the presidential victory of fellow Democratic-Republican John Quincy Adams . Democrat Sam Rayburn was a key player in the passing of New Deal legislation under the presidency of fellow Democrat Franklin Delano Roosevelt . Republican Joseph Gurney Cannon (under Theodore Roosevelt )

17860-479: The appointment is approved by the House. Separately, a speaker pro tempore is designated in the event the office of the speaker is declared vacant. Under the current Rules of the House, at the start of their term, the speaker is required to create a secret ordered list of members to temporarily serve as speaker of the House if the speakership became vacant and to provide the Clerk of the United States House of Representatives this list "as soon as practicable after"

18048-512: The authority to appoint a majority of the members of the Rules Committee. Meanwhile, the power of committee chairmen was curtailed, further increasing the relative influence of the speaker. Albert's successor, Democrat Tip O'Neill , was a prominent speaker because of his public opposition to the policies of President Ronald Reagan . O'Neill is the longest continuously serving speaker, from 1977 through 1987. He challenged Reagan on domestic programs and on defense expenditures. Republicans made O'Neill

18236-427: The body's majority party , and the institution's administrative head. Speakers also perform various other administrative and procedural functions. Given these several roles and responsibilities, the speaker usually does not personally preside over debates—that duty is instead delegated to members of the House from the majority party—nor regularly participate in floor debates. The Constitution does not explicitly require

18424-405: The body's presiding officer in the speaker's absence, is separate from the speaker's designation of multiple members as speakers pro tempore for the purpose of allowing them to sign enrolled bills and joint resolutions . The House Rules state: "With the approval of the House, the Speaker may appoint a Member to act as Speaker pro tempore only to sign enrolled bills and joint resolutions for

18612-432: The chamber's longest-serving member. Additionally, it is customary for the outgoing speaker, or the minority leader, to hand the speaker's gavel to the new speaker, as a mark of the peaceful transition of power . While every speaker of the House has been a sitting House member, Article I, Section II, Clause 5, of the U.S. Constitution , concerning the choosing of a speaker, does not explicitly state House membership as

18800-594: The clergy, condemned the practice of simony and promoted greater influence for the papacy in church matters. Despite the bishops continuing to play a major part in royal government, tensions emerged between the kings of England and key leaders within the English Church. Kings and archbishops clashed over rights of appointment and religious policy, and successive archbishops including Anselm , Theobald of Bec , Thomas Becket and Stephen Langton were variously forced into exile, arrested by royal knights or even killed. By

18988-623: The collapse of the Roman Empire. Human intervention had established wood pastures , an ancient system for managing woods and animals, and coppicing , a more intensive approach to managing woodlands. Other agricultural lands included arable fields and pastorage, while in some parts of the country, such as the South-West, waste moorland remained testament to earlier over-farming in the Bronze Age . England's environment continued to be shaped throughout

19176-453: The community in their own right. An English cultural identity first emerged from the interaction of the Germanic immigrants of the 5th and 6th centuries and the indigenous Romano-British inhabitants. Although early medieval chroniclers described the immigrants as Angles and Saxons, they came from a much wider area across Northern Europe, and represented a range of different ethnic groups. Over

19364-614: The country was in crisis, facing military failure in France and an ongoing recession. More social unrest broke out, followed by the Wars of the Roses , fought between rival factions of the English nobility. Henry VII 's victory in 1485 conventionally marks the end of the Middle Ages in England and the start of the Early Modern period . At the start of the Middle Ages, England was a part of Britannia ,

19552-639: The courts of the Second Republic , a practice which was inherited from courts of partitioned Poland. Their use ceased after the Second World War , but they were returned to courts in 2008, as an optional addition to a courtroom. The unique gavel of the United States Senate has an hourglass shape and no handle. In 1954, the gavel that had been in use since at least 1834 (and possibly since 1789) broke when Vice President Richard Nixon used it during

19740-467: The crown was unable to intervene in the factional fighting between different nobles and their followers. The resulting Wars of the Roses saw a savage escalation of violence between the noble leaderships of both sides: captured enemies were executed and family lands attainted . By the time that Henry VII took the throne in 1485, England's governmental and social structures had been substantially weakened, with whole noble lines extinguished. Medieval England

19928-466: The ealdermen), sheriffs and church seniors were all drawn from their ranks. In many areas of society there was continuity, as the Normans adopted many of the Anglo-Saxon governmental institutions, including the tax system, mints and the centralisation of law-making and some judicial matters; initially sheriffs and the hundred courts continued to function as before. The existing tax liabilities were captured in

20116-461: The early 12th-century raised armies against Scottish invaders and built up extensive holdings of castles across the country. New orders began to be introduced into England. As ties to Normandy waned, the French Cluniac order became fashionable and their houses were introduced in England. The Augustinians spread quickly from the beginning of the 12th century onwards, while later in the century

20304-418: The early 13th century, however, the church had largely won its argument for independence, answering almost entirely to Rome. In the 1380s, several challenges emerged to the traditional teachings of the Church, resulting from the teachings of John Wycliffe , a member of Oxford University . Wycliffe argued that scripture was the best guide to understanding God's intentions, and that the superficial nature of

20492-416: The economy into chaos, and undermining the old political order. Social unrest followed, resulting in the Peasants' Revolt of 1381, while the changes in the economy resulted in the emergence of a new class of gentry , and the nobility began to exercise power through a system termed bastard feudalism . Nearly 1,500 villages were deserted by their inhabitants and many men and women sought new opportunities in

20680-525: The election "and whenever appropriate thereafter." The names are only revealed in the event of a vacancy (e.g., by the speaker's death, resignation, incapacitation, or removal from office). This "succession list" procedure was created in 2003, following the September 11 attacks , to promote continuity of government . Rule I, clause 8, of the House Rules states the member whose name appears first on

20868-512: The election of Representative Mike Johnson . This came after two weeks of negotiations between Republicans, including three failed votes for Speaker. In total, there have been 16 elections requiring multiple ballots to elect a speaker, with 13 before the American Civil War , one in 1923, and two in 2023. The Constitution does not spell out the political role of the speaker. As the office has developed historically, however, it has taken on

21056-404: The entire country. The road system was adequate for the needs of the period, although it was significantly cheaper to transport goods by water. The major river networks formed key transport routes, while many English towns formed navigable inland ports . For much of the Middle Ages, England's climate differed from that in the 21st century. Between the 9th and 13th centuries England went through

21244-428: The fields defined as men's work, for example, and dairy production becoming dominated by women. The years after the Black Death left many women widows; in the wider economy labour was in short supply and land was suddenly readily available. In rural areas peasant women could enjoy a better standard of living than ever before, but the amount of work being done by women may have increased. Many other women travelled to

21432-450: The first Scandinavian raids on England began; these Viking attacks grew in number and scale until in 865 the Danish micel here or Great Army , invaded England, captured York and defeated the kingdom of East Anglia. Mercia and Northumbria fell in 875 and 876, and Alfred of Wessex was driven into internal exile in 878. However, in the same year Alfred won a decisive victory against

21620-645: The first ballot, necessitating an additional round of balloting for the first time since 1923. McCarthy ultimately prevailed when the remaining six anti-McCarthy holdouts voted " present " on the 15th ballot, ending the longest multiple-ballot speaker election since before the Civil War. He was removed from office less than ten months later, the first time in American History the House voted to remove its incumbent speaker. This led to multiple rounds of voting across multiple weeks to replace him, ultimately leading to

21808-592: The first times since 1953–1955 that there was single-party Republican leadership in Washington, interrupted from 2001 to 2003 as Senator Jim Jeffords of Vermont left the Republican Party to become independent and caucused with Senate Democrats to give them a 51–49 majority. In the 2006 midterm elections, the Democratic Party regained control of the House of Representatives. Nancy Pelosi was elected Speaker of

21996-458: The first woman to hold the office, Pelosi became the first speaker to return to power since Sam Rayburn in the 1950s. Following the 2022 midterm elections which saw the election of a narrow Republican Party majority in the House, Pelosi did not seek a Democratic leadership post in the next Congress. The Democratic Caucus named her "Speaker Emerita". Kevin McCarthy then became the new Speaker of

22184-518: The focus for fresh revolts until his death in 1128. Henry's only legitimate son, William , died aboard the White Ship disaster of 1120, sparking a fresh succession crisis: Henry's nephew, Stephen of Blois , claimed the throne in 1135, but this was disputed by the Empress Matilda , Henry's daughter. Civil war broke out across England and Normandy, resulting in a long period of warfare later termed

22372-518: The foreign traders who lived in the special enclaves in London in the Late Middle Ages; the position of the Jews is described below, but Italian and Baltic traders were also regarded as aliens and were frequently the targets of violence during economic downturns. Even within England, different identities abounded, each with their own sense of status and importance. Regional identities could be important – men and women from Yorkshire , for example, had

22560-454: The form of the Peasants' Revolt; a violent retribution followed, with as many as 7,000 alleged rebels executed. A new class of gentry emerged as a result of these changes, renting land from the major nobility to farm out at a profit. The legal system continued to expand during the 14th century, dealing with an ever-wider set of complex problems. By the time that Richard II was deposed in 1399,

22748-480: The gavel, juggle or toy with it, or use it to challenge or threaten or to emphasize remarks. The chair should not be "gaveling through" a measure by cutting off members and quickly putting a question to a vote before any member can get the floor (in this connection, the chair should not use the gavel to improperly signify the end of consideration of a question). The expression passing the gavel signifies an orderly succession from one chair to another. In addition to

22936-510: The government' ... can inform [the] determination of 'what the law is ' ". Under the Rules of the House, the speaker may designate a member to serve as speaker pro tempore , acting as the body's presiding officer in the speaker's absence. In most instances, the speaker pro tempore designation lasts for no more than three legislative days, although in the case of illness of the speaker, the speaker pro tempore may serve for ten legislative days if

23124-405: The great Anglo-Saxon families, and the links with the Duchy began to weaken. By the late 12th century, mobilising the English barons to fight on the continent was proving difficult, and John's attempts to do so ended in civil war. Civil strife re-emerged under Henry III, with the rebel barons in 1258–59 demanding widespread reforms, and an early version of Parliament was summoned in 1265 to represent

23312-421: The heavily wooded Weald , through to the upland moors of Yorkshire . Despite this, medieval England broadly formed two zones, roughly divided by the rivers Exe and Tees : the south and east of England had lighter, richer soils, able to support both arable and pastoral agriculture, while the poorer soils and colder climate of the north and west produced a predominantly pastoral economy. Slightly more land

23500-490: The help of a majority of the nobility, exercising power through the exchequer , the common bench and the royal household. This government was better organised and on a larger scale than ever before, and by the 14th century the king's formerly peripatetic chancery had to take up permanent residence in Westminster . Edward used Parliament even more than his predecessors to handle general administration, to legislate and to raise

23688-451: The kingdom. Many churchmen and thegns were also given permission by the king to hold their own local courts. The legal system depended on a system of oaths in which the value of different individuals swearing on behalf of the plaintiff or defendant varied according to their social status – the word of a companion of the king, for example, was worth twelve times that of a churl . If fines were imposed, their size similarly varied accord to

23876-474: The kingdom. The monasteries were brought firmly into the web of feudal relations, with their holding of land linked to the provision of military support to the crown. The Normans adopted the Anglo-Saxon model of monastic cathedral communities, and within seventy years the majority of English cathedrals were controlled by monks; every English cathedral, however, was rebuilt to some extent by the new rulers. England's bishops remained powerful temporal figures, and in

24064-592: The late 6th and 7th centuries, helped by the conversion of the Franks in Northern France, who carried considerable influence in England. Pope Gregory I sent a team of missionaries to convert King Æthelberht of Kent and his household, starting the process of converting Kent. Augustine became the first Archbishop of Canterbury and started to build new churches across the South-East, reusing existing pagan shrines. Oswald and Oswiu , kings of Northumbria, were converted in

24252-452: The late king's council, but primogeniture rapidly became the norm for succession. The kings further bolstered their status by adopting Christian ceremonies and nomenclature, introducing ecclesiastical coronations during the 8th century and terming themselves "Christ's deputy" by the 11th century. Huge estates were initially built up by the king, bishops, monasteries and thegns , but in the 9th and 10th centuries these were slowly broken up as

24440-401: The leader of the Democratic Party in the House of Representatives and served as House minority leader for eight years before she led her party to victory in the 2018 elections. Following the 2018 midterm elections which saw the election of a Democratic Party majority in the House, Nancy Pelosi was again elected speaker when the 116th Congress convened on January 3, 2019. In addition to being

24628-517: The list "shall act as Speaker pro tempore until the election of a Speaker or a Speaker pro tempore ." The speaker pro tempore is not in the line of succession for the presidency . Following the removal of Kevin McCarthy as speaker in October 2023 on a motion to vacate (the first time in history that a speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives was successfully removed by the House), Patrick McHenry

24816-474: The local ealdormen , exchanging some authority and revenue for assistance in defence. The early English church was racked with disagreement on doctrine , which was addressed by the Synod of Whitby in 664; some issues were resolved, but arguments between the archbishops of Canterbury and York as to which had primacy across Britain began shortly afterwards and continued throughout most of the medieval period. William

25004-560: The lost influence of the position. One of the most influential speakers in history was Democrat Sam Rayburn . Rayburn had the most cumulative time as speaker in history, holding office from 1940 to 1947, 1949 to 1953, and 1955 to 1961. He helped shape many bills, working quietly in the background with House committees. He also helped ensure the passage of several domestic measures and foreign assistance programs advocated by Presidents Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry Truman . Rayburn's successor, Democrat John W. McCormack (served 1962–1971),

25192-405: The majority members of each House standing committee, including the Rules committee (although it's worth to note their appointment to the said committees must be ratified by a resolution of the full House). While the speaker is the functioning head of the House majority party, the same is not true of the president pro tempore of the Senate, whose office is primarily ceremonial and honorary. When

25380-544: The military situation in France began to unravel. A sequence of bloody civil wars, later termed the Wars of the Roses , finally broke out in 1455, spurred on by an economic crisis and a widespread perception of poor government. Edward IV , leading a faction known as the Yorkists , removed Henry from power in 1461 but by 1469 fighting recommenced as Edward, Henry, and Edward's brother George , backed by leading nobles and powerful French supporters, vied for power. By 1471 Edward

25568-434: The minority party or rejecting bills by the Senate. One famous instance came in the form of Thomas Brackett Reed (under Grover Cleveland ), a speaker notorious for his successful attempt to force the Democrats to vote on measures where the Republicans had clear majorities, which ensured that Cleveland's Democrats were in no position to challenge the Republicans in the House. Joseph Cannon was particularly unique in that he led

25756-447: The monastic reforms of the 9th century. Anglo-Saxon queens began to hold lands in their own right in the 10th century and their households contributed to the running of the kingdom. Although women could not lead military forces, in the absence of their husbands some noblewomen led the defence of manors and towns. Most Anglo-Saxon women, however, worked on the land as part of the agricultural community, or as brewers or bakers . After

25944-440: The necessary taxes to pay for the wars in France. The royal lands—and incomes from them—had diminished over the years, and increasingly frequent taxation was required to support royal initiatives. Edward held elaborate chivalric events in an effort to unite his supporters around the symbols of knighthood. The ideal of chivalry continued to develop throughout the 14th century, reflected in the growth of knightly orders (including

26132-419: The next level of society, often holding land in their own right or controlling businesses in the towns. Geburs , peasants who worked land belonging to a thegn , formed a lower class still. The very lowest class were slaves, who could be bought and sold and who held only minimal rights. The balance of power between these different groups changed over time. Early in the period, kings were elected by members of

26320-509: The oath-value of the individual. The Anglo-Saxon authorities struggled to deal with the bloodfeuds between families that emerged following violent killings, attempting to use a system of weregild , a payment of blood money, as a way of providing an alternative to long-running vendettas. Within twenty years of the Norman conquest, the former Anglo-Saxon elite were replaced by a new class of Norman nobility, with around 8,000 Normans and French settling in England. The new earls (successors to

26508-420: The other hand, when the speaker and the president belong to opposite parties, the public role and influence of the speaker tend to increase. As the highest-ranking member of the opposition party (and de facto leader of the opposition ), the speaker is normally the chief public opponent of the president's agenda. In this scenario, the speaker is known for undercutting the president's agenda by blocking measures by

26696-423: The peasantry held land in return for local labour services, creating a web of loyalties and resources enforced in part by new honorial courts. This system had been used in Normandy and concentrated more power in the king and the upper elite than the former Anglo-Saxon system of government. The practice of slavery declined in the years after the conquest, as the Normans considered the practice backward and contrary to

26884-399: The period, as women typically had more limited life-choices, access to employment and trade, and legal rights than men. In Anglo-Saxon society, noblewomen enjoyed considerable rights and status, although the society was still firmly patriarchal. Some exercised power as abbesses, exerting widespread influence across the early English Church, although their wealth and authority diminished with

27072-436: The period, through the building of dykes to drain marshes, tree clearance and the large-scale extraction of peat . Managed parks for hunting game, including deer and boars, were built as status symbols by the nobility from the 12th century onwards, but earlier versions of parks, such as hays , may have originated as early as the 7th century. Speaker of the United States House of Representatives The speaker of

27260-445: The power of the major noble magnates had grown considerably; powerful rulers such as Henry IV would contain them, but during the minority of Henry VI they controlled the country. The magnates depended upon their income from rent and trade to allow them to maintain groups of paid, armed retainers, often sporting controversial livery, and buy support amongst the wider gentry; this system has been dubbed bastard feudalism . Their influence

27448-631: The power of the speakership once again began to decline, despite speakership elections becoming increasingly bitter. As the Civil War approached, several sectional factions nominated their own candidates, often making it difficult for any candidate to attain a majority. In 1855 and again in 1859, for example, the contest for speaker lasted for two months before the House achieved a result. Speakers tended to have very short tenures during this period. For example, from 1839 to 1863 there were eleven speakers, only one of whom served for more than one term. James K. Polk

27636-517: The princes of North Wales led to Edward mobilising a huge army, defeating the native Welsh and undertaking a programme of English colonisation and castle building across the region. Further wars were conducted in Flanders and Aquitaine. Edward also fought campaigns in Scotland , but was unable to achieve strategic victory, and the costs created tensions that nearly led to civil war. Edward II inherited

27824-426: The purposes of determining a quorum. Through these and other rulings, Reed ensured that the Democrats could not block the Republican agenda. The speakership reached its apogee during the term of Republican Joseph Gurney Cannon (1903–1911). Cannon exercised extraordinary control over the legislative process. He determined the agenda of the House, appointed the members of all committees, chose committee chairmen, headed

28012-420: The rebel interests. On becoming king in 1272, Edward I reestablished royal power, overhauling the royal finances and appealing to the broader English elite by using Parliament to authorise the raising of new taxes and to hear petitions concerning abuses of local governance. This political balance collapsed under Edward II and savage civil wars broke out during the 1320s. Edward III restored order once more with

28200-413: The region . Some Norman lords used England as a launching point for attacks into South and North Wales , spreading up the valleys to create new Marcher territories. By the time of William's death in 1087, England formed the largest part of an Anglo-Norman empire, ruled over by a network of nobles with landholdings across England, Normandy, and Wales. England's growing wealth was critical in allowing

28388-451: The royal chancery, while the familia regis , the military household, emerged to act as a bodyguard and military staff. England's bishops continued to form an important part in local administration, alongside the nobility. Henry I and Henry II both implemented significant legal reforms , extending and widening the scope of centralised, royal law; by the 1180s, the basis for the future English common law had largely been established, with

28576-541: The site. Indeed, by the 12th century reports of posthumous miracles by local saints were becoming increasingly common in England, adding to the attractiveness of pilgrimages to prominent relics. Participation in the Crusades was also seen as a form of pilgrimage, and indeed the same Latin word, peregrinatio , was sometimes applied to both activities. While English participation in the First Crusade between 1095 and 1099

28764-462: The son of a Danish king. Attempts to bribe Sweyn not to attack using danegeld payments failed, and he took the throne in 1013. Swein's son, Cnut , liquidated many of the older English families following his seizure of power in 1016. Æthelred's son, Edward the Confessor , had survived in exile in Normandy and returned to claim the throne in 1042. Edward was childless, and the succession again became

28952-433: The speaker and the president belong to the same party, the speaker tends to play the role in a more ceremonial light, as seen when Dennis Hastert played a very restrained role during the presidency of fellow Republican George W. Bush . Nevertheless, when the speaker and the president belong to the same party, there are also times that the speaker plays a much larger role, and the speaker is tasked, e.g., with pushing through

29140-404: The speaker to be an incumbent member of the House of Representatives, although every speaker thus far has been, and as a member the speaker also represents their district and retains the right to vote. The speaker is second in the United States presidential line of succession , after the vice president and ahead of the president pro tempore of the Senate . The 56th and current Speaker of

29328-470: The speaker usually does not participate in debate and only votes on the most significant bills. The speaker is responsible for ensuring that the House passes legislation supported by the majority party. In pursuing this goal, the speaker may use their influence over the Rules committee , which is in charge of the business of the House . The speaker chairs the majority party's House steering committee, which selects

29516-410: The speaker's chair, 1789–1791 (1st Congress) and 1793–1795 ( 3rd Congress ). As the Constitution does not state the duties of the speaker, the speaker's role has largely been shaped by rules and customs that evolved over time. Scholars are divided as to whether early speakers played largely ceremonial and impartial roles or whether they were more active partisan actors. From early in its existence,

29704-402: The speaker's primary function had been to keep order and enforce rules. The speakership was transformed into a position with power over the legislative process under Henry Clay (1811–1814, 1815–1820, and 1823–1825). In contrast to many of his predecessors, Clay participated in several debates and used his influence to procure the passage of measures he supported—for instance, the declaration of

29892-586: The speakership election until December 14 because of an election dispute in New Jersey known as the " Broad Seal War ". Two rival delegations, one Whig and the other Democrat, had been certified as elected by different branches of the New Jersey government. The problem was compounded by the fact that the result of the dispute would determine whether the Whigs or the Democrats held the majority. Neither party agreed to permit

30080-416: The system of government. Royal landownings and wealth stretched across England, and placed the king in a privileged position above even the most powerful of the noble elite. Successive kings, though, still needed more resources to pay for military campaigns, conduct building programmes or to reward their followers, and this meant exercising their feudal rights to interfere in the land-holdings of nobles. This

30268-446: The target of their election campaigns in 1980 and 1982 but Democrats managed to retain their majorities in both years. The roles of the parties reversed in 1994 when, after spending forty years in the minority, the Republicans regained control of the House with the " Contract with America ", an idea spearheaded by Minority Whip Newt Gingrich . Speaker Gingrich would regularly clash with Democratic President Bill Clinton , leading to

30456-462: The teaching of suitable sermons in local churches. By the early 15th century, combating Lollard teachings had become a key political issue, championed by Henry IV and his Lancastrian followers, who used the powers of both the church and state to combat the heresy . Pilgrimages were a popular religious practice throughout the Middle Ages in England, with the tradition dating back to the Roman period. Typically pilgrims would travel short distances to

30644-457: The teachings of the church. The more prosperous peasants, however, lost influence and power as the Normans made holding land more dependent on providing labour services to the local lord. They sank down the economic hierarchy, swelling the numbers of unfree villeins or serfs , forbidden to leave their manor or seek alternative employment. At the centre of power, the kings employed a succession of clergy as chancellors , responsible for running

30832-428: The throne with the support of parliament in 1399. Ruling as Henry IV, he exercised power through a royal council and parliament, while attempting to enforce political and religious conformity. His son, Henry V , reinvigorated the war with France and came close to achieving strategic success shortly before his death in 1422. Henry VI became king at the age of only nine months and both the English political system and

31020-467: The top of the social structure was the king, who stood above many of the normal processes of Anglo-Saxon life and whose household had special privileges and protection. Beneath the king were thegns , nobles, the more powerful of which maintained their own courts and were termed ealdormen . The relationship between kings and their nobles was bound up with military symbolism and the ritual exchange of weapons and armour. Freemen, called churls , formed

31208-739: The towns and cities, to the point where they outnumbered men in some settlements. There they worked with their husbands, or in a limited number of occupations, including spinning , making clothes, victualling and as servants. Some women became full-time ale brewers, until they were pushed out of business by the male-dominated beer industry in the 15th century. Higher status jobs and apprenticeships, however, remained closed to women. As in earlier times, noblewomen exercised power on their estates in their husbands' absence and again, if necessary, defended them in sieges and skirmishes. Wealthy widows who could successfully claim their rightful share of their late husband's property could live as powerful members of

31396-451: The towns and cities. New technologies were introduced, and England produced some of the great medieval philosophers and natural scientists . English kings in the 14th and 15th centuries laid claim to the French throne , resulting in the Hundred Years' War . At times England enjoyed huge military success, with the economy buoyed by profits from the international wool and cloth trade, but by 1450

31584-399: The use above during business meetings, organizations may use the gavel during their ceremonies and may specify the number of taps of the gavel corresponding to different actions. The gavel is sometimes used in courts of law and courts of equity in the United States and, by metonymy , is used there to represent the entire judiciary system, especially of judgeship . On the other hand, in

31772-441: The vote positively or negatively. Anyone who votes for the other party's candidate could face serious consequences, as was the case when Democrat James Traficant voted for Republican Dennis Hastert in 2001 ( 107th Congress ). In response, the Democrats stripped him of his seniority, and he lost all of his committee posts. Upon election, the new speaker is sworn in by the dean of the United States House of Representatives ,

31960-407: The war with Scotland and faced growing opposition to his rule as a result of his royal favourites and military failures. The Despenser War of 1321–22 was followed by instability and the subsequent overthrow, and possible murder, of Edward in 1327 at the hands of his French wife, Isabella , and a rebel baron, Roger Mortimer . Isabella and Mortimer's regime lasted only a few years before falling to

32148-677: The warlords. As the Norse in mainland Scandinavia started to convert , many mainland rulers recruited missionaries from England to assist in the process. With the conversion of much of England in the 6th and 7th centuries, there was an explosion of local church building. English monasteries formed the main basis for the church, however, and were often sponsored by local rulers, taking various forms, including mixed communities headed by abbesses , bishop-led communities of monks , and others formed around married priests and their families. Cathedrals were constructed, staffed either with secular canons in

32336-485: The young Henry III . England's power structures remained unstable and the outbreak of the Second Barons' War in 1264 resulted in the king's capture by Simon de Montfort . Henry's son, Edward , defeated the rebel factions between 1265 and 1267, restoring his father to power. On becoming king, Edward I rebuilt the status of the monarchy, restoring and extending key castles that had fallen into disrepair. Uprisings by

32524-399: Was a patriarchal society and the lives of women were heavily influenced by contemporary beliefs about gender and authority. However, the position of women varied considerably according to various factors, including their social class ; whether they were unmarried, married, widowed or remarried; and in which part of the country they lived. Significant gender inequalities persisted throughout

32712-502: Was a popular destination from the 7th century onwards; sometimes these trips were a form of convenient political exile. Under the Normans, religious institutions with important shrines, such as Glastonbury , Canterbury and Winchester , promoted themselves as pilgrimage destinations, maximising the value of the historic miracles associated with the sites. Accumulating relics became an important task for ambitious institutions, as these were believed to hold curative powers and lent status to

32900-409: Was a somewhat less influential speaker, particularly because of dissent from younger members of the Democratic Party. During the mid-1970s, the power of the speakership once again grew under Democrat Carl Albert . The Committee on Rules ceased to be a semi-independent panel, as it had been since 1910. Instead, it once again became an arm of the party leadership. Moreover, in 1975, the speaker was granted

33088-399: Was called by his opponents, sought to end the obstruction of bills by the minority, in particular by countering the tactic known as the " disappearing quorum ". By refusing to vote on a motion, the minority could ensure that a quorum would not be achieved and that the result would be invalid. Reed, however, declared that members who were in the chamber but refused to vote would still count for

33276-437: Was contentious and a frequent issue of complaint, as there was a growing belief that land should be held by hereditary right, not through the favour of the king. Property and wealth became increasingly focused in the hands of a subset of the nobility, the great magnates, at the expense of the wider baronage, encouraging the breakdown of some aspects of local feudalism. As time went by, the Norman nobility intermarried with many of

33464-566: Was covered by trees than in the 20th century, and bears , beavers and wolves lived wild in England, bears being hunted to extinction by the 11th century and beavers by the 12th. Of the 10,000 miles of roads that had been built by the Romans, many remained in use and four were of particular strategic importance—the Icknield Way , the Fosse Way , Ermine Street and Watling Street —which criss-crossed

33652-428: Was established while ecclesiastical reforms led to tensions between successive kings and archbishops . Despite developments in England's governance and legal system , infighting between the Anglo-Norman elite resulted in multiple civil wars and the loss of Normandy . The 14th century in England saw the Great Famine and the Black Death , catastrophic events that killed around half of England's population, throwing

33840-492: Was exerted both through the House of Lords at Parliament and through the king's council. The gentry and wealthier townsmen exercised increasing influence through the House of Commons , opposing raising taxes to pay for the French wars. By the 1430s and 1440s the English government was in major financial difficulties, leading to the crisis of 1450 and a popular revolt under the leadership of Jack Cade . Law and order deteriorated, and

34028-410: Was finally expelled from England in 1290 by Edward I, being replaced by foreign merchants. Christianity had been the official imperial religion of the Roman Empire, and the first churches were built in England in the second half of the 4th century, overseen by a hierarchy of bishops and priests. Many existing pagan shrines were converted to Christian use and few pagan sites still operated by

34216-548: Was limited, England played a prominent part in the Second , Third and Fifth Crusades over the next two centuries, with many crusaders leaving for the Levant during the intervening years. The idea of undertaking a pilgrimage to Jerusalem was not new in England, however, as the idea of religiously justified warfare went back to Anglo-Saxon times. Many of those who took up the Cross to go on

34404-408: Was particularly infamous for his marginalization of the minority Democrats and centralizing of authority to the speakership. In more recent times, Speaker Nancy Pelosi played a role in continuing the push for health care reform during the presidency of fellow Democrat Barack Obama and in pushing for increases in infrastructure and climate spending during the presidency of Democrat Joe Biden . On

34592-478: Was reelected speaker in the 111th Congress, and again in the 116th and 117th Congresses. The January 2023 speakership election occurred two months after the 2022 House elections in which the Republicans won a slim four-seat majority. Kevin McCarthy was nominated for speaker by the House Republican Conference but due to a division among the Republicans, no one received a majority of the votes on

34780-419: Was revealed to be the first name on McCarthy's list and became acting speaker. The intent of the rule was for the speaker pro tempore to serve for a short period, until the House elected a new speaker, but the House rules set no specific limit on the length of time that a member may be speaker pro tempore . The designation of a speaker pro tempore for purposes of succession, and for purposes of serving as

34968-429: Was then revealed, by Livingston himself, who had been publicly critical of President Bill Clinton 's alleged perjury during his sexual harassment trial, that he had engaged in an extramarital affair. He opted to resign from the House, despite being urged to stay on by House Democratic leader Gephardt. Subsequently, the chief deputy whip Dennis Hastert was selected as speaker. The Republicans retained their majorities in

35156-503: Was threatened by the defection of several members from his own party who chose not to vote for him. Boehner's tenure as speaker, which ended when he resigned from Congress in October 2015, was marked by multiple battles with the conservatives in his own party related to " Obamacare ", appropriations , among other political issues. This intra-party discord continued under Boehner's successor, Paul Ryan . When Republican leader John Boehner succeeded Pelosi as speaker in 2011, Pelosi remained

35344-659: Was triumphant and most of his rivals were dead. On his death, power passed to his brother Richard of Gloucester , who initially ruled on behalf of the young Edward V before seizing the throne himself as Richard III. The future Henry VII , aided by French and Scottish troops, returned to England and defeated Richard at the battle of Bosworth in 1485, bringing an end to the majority of the fighting, although lesser rebellions against his Tudor dynasty would continue for several years afterwards. The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were hierarchical societies, each based on ties of allegiance between powerful lords and their immediate followers. At

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