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103-573: The Garza Revolution was one of many outbreaks of rebellion during the four decades of Porfirio Diaz' regime. In September, Garza issued a statement, declaring that the citizens of Mexico were " treated like ' despicable slaves, ' that the Mexican government was plagued by ' frightful corruption, ' that freedom of the press had been squashed, and that the Constitution of 1857 had been betrayed. " Garza called on Mexicans to " rise in mass in

206-427: A ' revolutionist ' from one of the ordinary inhabitants. " On October 12, Bourke reported the following about the examination of a Mexican village during one of his scouting expeditions; " Every house in a suspected locality is examined, names of inmates taken down, number of horses on hand ascertained, and the vicinity examined for fresh horse or wagon tracks, manure, fires, signs of bedding, anything to suggest

309-519: A teamster named Jonathan May went to the Seminole's reservation just outside town and stealthily positioned themselves around the fugitive's camp. One later account of the incident says that a company of soldiers was to assist in the arrest but if this was true they played no active role in the event. At midnight Sheriff Crowell made his appearance, some accounts say the Black Seminoles were dancing at

412-503: A 2019 special report by the Committee to Protect Journalists , approximately 25 journalists were murdered on duty in 2019. The figure is claimed to be the lowest since 2002, a year in which at least 21 journalists were killed while they were reporting from the field. Meanwhile, Reporters Without Borders (RSF) reported 49 killings, the lowest since 2003, when almost 36 journalists were killed. Leading press watchdogs fear persisting danger for

515-421: A church when Crowell appeared and others say that the celebrating took place on the property of the scout Friday Bowleg. According to one account, Adam Payne was dancing when he heard Crowell call his name. As he turned, Claron Windus fired upon him with a shotgun and " shot him so close it set him on fire. " Other accounts say that there was a struggle while Crowell was trying to handcuff the men and that Adam and

618-511: A country's legal system can go as far down as its constitution . The concept of freedom of speech is often covered by the same laws as freedom of the press, thereby giving equal treatment to spoken and published expression. Freedom of the press was formally established in Great Britain with the lapse of the Licensing Act in 1695. Sweden was the first country in the world to adopt freedom of

721-531: A crime. The king was above public criticism and statements critical of the government were forbidden, according to the English court of the Star Chamber . The truth was not a defense to seditious libel because the goal was to prevent and punish all condemnation of the government. Locke contributed to the lapse of the Licensing Act in 1695 , whereupon the press needed no license. Still, some libels were tried throughout

824-511: A few days. " Shortly after learning of the attack, General Wheaton ordered troops of the 3rd Cavalry to ride to the country opposite of San Ygnacio, Coahuila, and begin searching for the rebels. Beginning on December 19, Wheaton ordered additional forces to occupy the Mexican National Railroad and other locations in the immediate area. Elements of the 7th Cavalry , the 18th Infantry and the 23rd Infantry also took up positions along

927-614: A fight on the Mexican side of the border. A day later, Lieutenant Dickman came across Cecilio Eschevarria who put up a " sharp fight " but was ultimately captured. On the same day, a rebel named Maximo Martinez, who participated in the San Ygnacio raid, surrendered to a local sheriff. The final engagement of the war to involve the Americans occurred on February 23 in Starr County . According to General Wheaton, Lieutenant P. G. Lowe, 18th Infantry,

1030-467: A horse from Deputy Sheriff Claron Windus . The two evaded arrest and fled to Nacimiento, Mexico , but they made the mistake of returning to Brackettville in December to celebrate the coming of the new year. Somehow the sheriff of Brackettville, Lorenzo C. Crowell, learned of the celebration and devised a plan to capture the fugitives. So on the night of December 31, Sheriff Crowell, Deputy Sheriff Windus and

1133-450: A key mechanism of a functioning, healthy democracy . In the absence of censorship , journalism exists as a watchdog of private and government action, providing information to maintain an informed citizenry of voters. In this perspective, "government efforts to influence published or broadcasted news content, either via media control or by inducing self-censorship , represent a threat to the access of important and necessary information to

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1236-607: A key role in ending the Indian wars in Texas. In 1873, the Secretary of War William W. Belknap and General Philip Sheridan went to Fort Clark for " secret talks " with Mackenzie. It was decided that the colonel would lead a punitive expedition across the border to fight the Lipan and that scouts would guide the way. On May 17, 1873, Colonel Mackenzie crossed the border into Coahuila Mexico with

1339-578: A long tradition of freedom of speech, including freedom of the press, which yet exists in the XVIII century and in the XIX century. After World War II, Hugh Baillie , the president of the United Press wire service based in the U.S., promoted freedom of news dissemination. In 1944, he called for an open system of news sources and transmission, and a minimum of government regulation of the news. His proposals were aired at

1442-506: A message to the Black Seminoles' chief, John Horse , inviting him and his band to come back to the United States to enlist as Indian scouts and help fight hostile Native Americans; in exchange, they would be repatriated to Indian Territory. The Black Seminoles, about 200 people, accepted the agreement, believing that they would be granted land in the United States, food and provisions, as well as reimbursement for traveling costs. The treaty

1545-570: A nervous meltdown when called journalist Paul Pârvu asked him if he felt guilt over Romanian deaths during the revolution. During the exchange, Iliescu referred to Pârvu as an "animal". Modern, major media outlets were founded during the mid-1990s, such as Antena 1 in 1994 and ProTV in 1995. In 1999, the editor of a Ora , a local newspaper, Tiberiu Patru, was arrested before being able to publish an investigation of corruption in Dolj County under. In response, Ora moved its newsroom in front of

1648-425: A proclamation to the people along the international border. The proclamation read in part; " We have appealed to reason and he [Porfirio Diaz] has not listened to us; we have appealed to patriotism and he has despised us; let us, therefore, rush to the last recourse which remains to us. Our end is noble, since it contemplates the restoration of our liberty besmirched and defiled by the tyrants of Tuxtepec . Let us leave

1751-521: A revolution. " Guerilla warfare was a major factor in the conflict as the number of Garzistas remained very small and they blended into the civilian population. They never stayed in Mexican territory for more than a few days and they used horses to ride back and forth across the border, almost with impunity. Over the course of two campaigns in three years, the Mexican military and the American army engaged in several small skirmishes, all of them occurring within

1854-586: A second rebel was wounded. Lieutenant West " captured a number of papers and saddles, and burned or destroyed the provisions, etc., that the bandits [rebels] left behind. " On December 29, two United States Marshals were captured at Lopeno by 40 to 50 Garzistas who rescued one of their imprisoned leaders, named Antonio Palacios. The two marshals escaped though when the Mexican Army found the rebels and engaged them. A letter dated January 2, 1893, from Deputy Marshal Eugene Iglesias to Marshal Rosendo Guerra, reads; " On

1957-600: A second warning from the Russian censorship apparatus Roskomnadzor . On 17 June 2024, a Moscow court issued arrest warrants for IStories editor-in-chief and award-winning investigative reporter Roman Anin and Ekaterina Fomina, a journalist at TV Rain and a former IStories correspondent, on charges of disseminating "false information" about the Russian armed forces in Ukraine. Russia's Interior Ministry added two Russian journalists in exile to its wanted list. Fomina said

2060-430: A single scout, out of no more than fifty men, was killed or seriously injured. Usually the scouts fought with the cavalry regiments stationed at Fort Clark but occasionally they launched their own operations. Fort Clark was also the headquarters of Colonel Ranald S. Mackenzie , the leader of multiple expeditions into Mexico to punish hostile natives that crossed the border to raid in the United States. Mackenzie played

2163-473: A surprise attack on the village of San Ygnacio, Coahuila, opposite of San Ygnacio, Texas . The engagement lasted from 12:00 am to 3:00 pm and proved to be the deadliest of the war as it turned from a battle into a massacre. The commander of American forces, Brigadier General Frank Wheaton , wrote the following in his annual report of military affairs in Texas; " [At] about 11 a. m. on the 10th of December, 1892, one hundred and thirty-one bandits [rebels] attacked

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2266-417: A third of the world's people live in countries where there is no press freedom. Overwhelmingly, these people live in countries where there is no system of democracy or where there are serious deficiencies in the democratic process. Freedom of the press is an extremely problematic problem/concept for most non-democratic systems of government since, in the modern age, strict control of access to information

2369-453: Is considered a landmark in the fight for a free press. Between September 4, 1770 and October 7, 1771 the kingdom of Denmark–Norway had the most unrestricted freedom of press of any country in Europe. This occurred during the regime of Johann Friedrich Struensee , whose second act was to abolish the old censorship laws. However, due to the great amount of mostly anonymous pamphlets published that

2472-412: Is critical to the existence of most non-democratic governments and their associated control systems and security apparatus. To this end, most non-democratic societies employ state-run news organizations to promote the propaganda critical to maintaining an existing political power base and suppress (often very brutally, through the use of police, military, or intelligence agencies) any significant attempts by

2575-458: Is gone, but there are some 50 or 60 still out who are implicated in the San Ignacio raid, without money or food and who, on account of this extradition business, and in some cases civil processes, are afraid to surrender; these men are in the brush, roaming from place to place, stopping no 2 days at any one and will simply have to be hunted down. This can be done better I think by a few Seminoles and

2678-434: Is known to subjectively measure the level of freedom and editorial independence that is enjoyed by the press in every nation and significant disputed territories around the world. Levels of freedom are scored on a scale from 1 (most free) to 100 (least free). Depending on the basics, the nations are then classified in three types: 1. "Free" 2. "Partly Free" 3. "Not Free". A free and independent press has been theorized to be

2781-625: The Buffalo Soldier regiments, to guide the troops through hostile territory. The majority of their service was in the 1870s, in which they played a significant role in ending the Texas-Indian Wars . The Black and native Seminoles originally came from Florida; after escaping their masters, several hundred black freedmen sought refuge among the Seminoles, who granted them autonomy in exchange for periodic tribute and military service. In 1842,

2884-724: The EU Charter of Fundamental Rights (since 2000) as well as the European Convention on Human Rights (since 1950). Within the EU enlargement process, guaranteeing media freedom is named a "key indicator of a country's readiness to become part of the EU". According to the New York Times , "Britain has a long tradition of a free, inquisitive press", but "[u]nlike the United States, Britain has no constitutional guarantee of press freedom." Freedom of

2987-503: The Whigs or the Tories , and that they were "essentially and indispensably necessary" to the parties' operations. John Stuart Mill in 1869 in his book On Liberty approached the problem of authority versus liberty from the viewpoint of a 19th-century utilitarian : The individual has the right of expressing himself so long as he does not harm other individuals. The good society is one in which

3090-483: The "true Church of England , at this moment, lies in the Editors of its Newspapers. These preach to the people daily, weekly; admonishing kings themselves; advising peace or war, with an authority which only the first Reformers , and a long-past class of Popes , were possessed of". Similarly, Charles Dickens , in his Pickwick Papers (1837), caricatured the newspapers as but the "chosen organ and representative" of either

3193-603: The 18th century, until "the Society of the Bill of Rights" led by John Horne Tooke and John Wilkes organized a campaign to publish Parliamentary Debates. This culminated in three defeats of the Crown in the 1770 cases of Almon, Miller and Woodfall , who all had published one of the Letters of Junius , and the unsuccessful arrest of John Wheble in 1771. Thereafter the Crown was much more careful in

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3296-573: The Black Seminole Scouts still live in southern Texas (Brackettville, Texas, Del Rio, Texas) and northern Mexico. The duration of an enlistment agreement was set at six-months until the 20th century. This reflected the scouts' disinterest in long-term commitments and the Army's opinion that the need for scouts would not last long. Some scouts would serve more than once. Within the scout community, there were certain surnames that were well known. Of

3399-698: The COVID-19 pandemic . The First Amendment of the United States Constitution states: Black Seminole Scouts Black Seminole Scouts , also known as the Seminole Negro - Indian Scouts , or Seminole Scouts , were employed by the United States Army between 1870 and 1914. The unit included both Black Seminoles and some native Seminoles . However, because most of the Seminole scouts were of African descent, they were often attached to

3502-491: The Comanches along the lower Pecos River . When the camp was found the scouts dismounted and positioned themselves behind some rocks so that they would appear to be a larger force and a battle ensued. According to Bullis' report " we twice took their horses from them and killed three Indians and wounded a fourth " but the roughly thirty Comanche eventually ascertained the scouting party"s size and attempted to surround it to cut off

3605-584: The Garzistas. One of the first battles was fought along the banks of the Rio Grande at San Ygnacio , on December 26, during which a large force of rebels opened fire from the Texas side of the river onto Mexican troops on the other side. The engagement was a long range one and according to an American newspaper correspondent, one Mexican soldier was killed and several people were wounded on both sides. The first campaign occurred between September 1891 and April 1892, by

3708-674: The Geneva Conference on Freedom of Information in 1948 but were blocked by the Soviets and the French. Since 1950, the European Convention on Human Rights includes "Article 10" related to Freedom of expression which applies to Member states of the Council of Europe . Media freedom is a fundamental right that applies to all member states of the European Union and its citizens , as defined in

3811-614: The National Theater of Craiova to protest Patru's arrest. The 2000s saw the creation of many new media outlets across television, radio, and the traditional press. In 2023, Reporters Without Borders identified safety as a concern for Romanian journalists. More than 120 journalists remained in prison in Turkey in 2019, making it the most prolific incarcerator of journalists in the world. In some countries, including Turkey, journalists were threatened or arrested for their coverage of

3914-403: The Rio Grande to prevent any " armed bodies " from crossing the international border. On December 24, Lieutenant P.W. West, with a troop of 3rd Cavalry and the Black Seminole Scouts, discovered a trail near San Ygnacio and followed it. At the end of the trail, West found about 35 rebels who " made a short stand, " but fled soon after the Americans returned fire. One of the Garzistas was killed and

4017-698: The Romanian citizenry, was highly illegal and severe repercussions for existed for listening. Directly following the Romanian Revolution , post-communist corruption was largely the subject of investigative reports. At the same time, widespread violence against journalists began. During the June 1990 Mineriad , a series of protests against the National Salvation Front , counter-demonstrators assaulted reporting journalists. In 1992, President Ion Iliescu had

4120-587: The Russian military and its operations in Ukraine, forcing independent media in Russia to stop reporting on Ukraine or cease operations. At least 1,000 Russian journalists have fled Russia since February 2022. About 85% of Russians get most of their information from Russian state-controlled media. Novaya Gazeta 's editor-in-chief Dmitry Muratov was awarded the 2021 Nobel Peace Prize for his "efforts to safeguard freedom of expression". In March 2022, Novaya Gazeta suspended its print activities after receiving

4223-915: The Scout Camp will be permitted to remain and live on the Fort Clark Military Reservation until the older people pass away in the course of nature, or until such time as the War Department may see fit to order their removal. After the removal of the people from the Scout Camp, the buildings not in use by those permitted to stay, will be demolished. " Many of the scouts' remains rest at the Seminole Indian Scouts Cemetery in Kinney County, Texas , including Medal of Honor recipients, John Ward, Pompey Factor, Adam Paine and Isaac Payne; along with members of their families. Descendants of

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4326-631: The Seminoles reluctantly agreed to move to a reservation in the Indian Territory . Not long after the Seminoles were removed to the Indian Territory, the Black Seminoles, as they became, went to Coahuila , Mexico , to escape enslavement. There they were welcomed by the Mexicans and later joined by native Seminoles, Black Creeks and Black Cherokees . In 1870, the United States Army issued

4429-545: The Service of United States, September 30th, 1914, - 1st Sgt. John Shields, Privates: Antonio Sanchez, Isaac Wilson and William Wilson. The remainder of the people including the Scouts discharged September 30th, 1914, and their families with the exception of those named in the following paragraph will move from Fort Clark Military Reservation between October 1st and October 15th, 1914 with all of their effects. The following named members of

4532-489: The Shelys with his deputies than any other way.... Since my last letter Rafael Nielo and Esperantis Ortiz have surrendered here and others are expected today. " The United States Army continued making arrests of suspected rebels from April to August, but after September, the scouting operations had ceased. General Wheaton reported the capture of 132 individuals during the second campaign, 86 of whom were found to have participated in

4635-462: The Texas-Mexico Border . Duke University Press. ISBN   0-8223-3320-1 . Freedom of the press Freedom of the press or freedom of the media is the fundamental principle that communication and expression through various media, including printed and electronic media , especially published materials , should be considered a right to be exercised freely. Such freedom implies

4738-537: The United States consul at Matamoros , John B. Richardson, Captain F. H. Hardie, 3rd Cavalry, Stephen O’Connor, 23rd Infantry , M. Romero of the Mexican legation in Washington, D.C. , and P. Ornelas, the Mexican consul at San Antonio , Texas. Captain Bourke's reports of the two campaigns are very descriptive, one of the first was written on October 6, 1891, less than a month after the operation's beginning. In it he describes

4841-535: The United States in three detachments as follows: Privates, Curly Jefferson, Fay July, Sam Washington, and Charles J. July on July 31st, 1914. One third in the Scout camp on the reservation including the families of the scouts discharged July 31st, 1914 will move from the Fort Clark Military between August 1st and August 15th, 1914 with all of their stock and belongings. The following named scouts will be discharged from

4944-462: The abolition of the king's prerogative to cancel licenses in the 1840s. The US Secretary of State, Mike Pompeo , criticized Russia for limiting the activities of VOA and Radio Free Europe in Russia with a governmental order demanding reviewing the subject by Moscow. On 4 March 2022, Russian President Vladimir Putin signed into law a bill introducing prison sentences of up to 15 years for those who publish "knowingly false information" about

5047-415: The absence of interference from an overreaching state ; its preservation may be sought through a constitution or other legal protection and security. It is in opposition to paid press, where communities, police organizations, and governments are paid for their copyrights. Without respect to governmental information, any government may distinguish which materials are public or protected from disclosure to

5150-422: The afternoon of the 29th, they numbering some 40 to 50 men, moved down the river to Lopena [Lopeno], some 18 miles below Carrizo; arriving at Lopena about 8 o ' clock pm. Some 3 or 4 men came up and informed the captain that they had not noticed any Mexican troops over the river. They went to the river that night, it was a bright moonlight night, the two deputies were placed behind the 10 first men and followed by

5253-526: The application of libel ; for example, in the aftermath of the Peterloo Massacre , Burdett was convicted, whereas by contrast, the Junius affair was over a satire and sarcasm about the non-lethal conduct and policies of the government. In Britain's American colonies, the first editors discovered their readers enjoyed it when they criticised the local governor; the governors discovered they could shut down

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5356-459: The arrest warrant would affect her professional life as she would not be able to travel to many countries that could arrest her and extradite her to Russia. Until 1989, Romania was part of the communist bloc as the Socialist Republic of Romania . The communist regime heavily restricted freedom of the press and other civil liberties. Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty , though available to

5459-598: The charges against Isaac Payne and Dallas Griner were dropped. Payne stayed in Mexico for a few weeks before returning to Fort Clark to re-enlist. In 1878, Colonel Ranald S. Mackenzie was recalled to the fort in order to lead an expedition against the Kickapoo. After this campaign the Texas-Indian Wars were mostly over, all of the hostile natives were either dead or living in the reservation system. However, on February 23, 1893,

5562-519: The course of the next few months there were outbreaks of brawling and rioting. The local American settlers attempted to have the scouts disbanded but others argued that the army should enlist all of the male Black Seminoles as scouts in order to protect them from outlaws and hostile natives. In late August, John Ward's brother, Scott, was accused of stealing five horses and then in September Isaac Payne and Dallas Griner were accused of stealing

5665-468: The difficulties of his mission; " The difficulty of the task performed may be inferred from the fact, which is of course well known to the Department Commander, that the population in this valley [Rio Grande Valley] is essentially Mexican—the language, dress, customs, weights and measures, money used—everything about them—may be put down as Spanish, therefore, it is almost an impossibility to separate

5768-448: The disbandment reads as follows: " In compliance with orders contained in the 3rd Indorsement Headquarters Southern Department, May 7th, 1914, and the 5th Indorsement War Department, June 29th, 1914, on communications 2128018-A.A.G.O., April 16, 1914 - Subject Seminole Negro Indian Scouts. The Seminole Negro Indian Scouts will be disbanded and cease to exist as an organization after September 30, 1914. They will be discharged from Service of

5871-534: The eight countries with the most press freedom are, in order: Norway , Denmark , Sweden , Estonia , Finland , Ireland , Portugal , and Costa Rica . The ten countries with the least press freedom are, in order: North Korea , Eritrea , Iran , Turkmenistan , Myanmar , China , Vietnam , Cuba , Iraq , and Syria . Freedom of the Press is a yearly report by the US-based non-profit organization Freedom House . It

5974-503: The end of which the Mexican and American militaries were successful in suppressing the rebellion and forcing Garza into hiding in Texas. On January 19, Captain George F. Chase confirmed the weakness of the Garzista forces when he reported the capture of Frank Garza, a relative of Catarino Garza. Frank Garza told Chase that he had served with the rebels for about a month but abandoned them because he

6077-570: The film industry, from directors to the lowliest assistant, had to sign an oath of loyalty to the Nazi Party due to the opinion-changing power Goebbels perceived movies to have; Goebbels himself maintained some personal control over every single film made in Nazi Europe. Journalists who crossed the Propaganda Ministry were routinely imprisoned. One of the world's first freedom of the press acts

6180-427: The greatest number of persons enjoy the greatest possible amount of happiness. Applying these general principles of liberty to freedom of expression, Mill states that if we silence an opinion, we may silence the truth. The individual freedom of expression is therefore essential to the well-being of society. Mill wrote: The December 1817 Trials of writer and satirist William Hone for publishing three political pamphlets

6283-531: The idea, writing "when as debtors and delinquents may walk abroad without a keeper, but inoffensive books must not stir forth without a visible jailer in their title." Although at the time it did little to halt the practice of licensing, it would be viewed later a significant milestone as one of the most eloquent defenses of press freedom. Milton's central argument was that the individual is capable of using reason and distinguishing right from wrong, and good from bad. In order to be able to exercise this ration right,

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6386-407: The individual must have unlimited access to the ideas of his fellow men in "a free and open encounter." Milton's writings developed the concept of the open marketplace of ideas , the idea that when people argue against each other, good arguments will prevail. One form of speech that was widely restricted in Great Britain was seditious libel , and laws were in place that made criticizing the government

6489-503: The journey the five men were ambushed by about forty Kiowas. The only option was to try and fight their way out and escape. Details of the engagement are unclear but the scout Adam Payne was awarded the Medal of Honor for risking his life to save the others. Under fire, Payne engaged the Kiowas, allowing the other four men to get away. Eventually Payne's horse was shot out from underneath him but he

6592-711: The law may suppress abuses of this freedom. However, Bibles, catechisms, liturgical and prayer books shall not be printed without the prior permission of the Bishop. After the abolition of the monarchy in 1946 and the abrogation of the Statute in 1948, the Constitution of the Republic of Italy guarantees the freedom of the press, as stated in Article 21, Paragraphs 2 and 3: The press may not be subjected to any authorisation or censorship. Seizure may be permitted only by judicial order stating

6695-598: The level of press freedom worldwide. Some create subjective lists, while others are based on quantitative data: Each year, The Committee to Protect Journalists produces a comprehensive list of all working journalists killed in relation to their employment, including profiles of each deceased journalist within an exhaustive database, and an annual census of incarcerated journalists (as of midnight, December 1). The year 2017 reported record findings of jailed journalists, reaching 262. Turkey , China , and Egypt account for more than half of all global journalists jailed. As per

6798-428: The life of journalists. The drop in the murder of in-field journalists came across during the "global attention on the issue of impunity in journalist murders", focusing on the assassination of Saudi journalist Jamal Khashoggi in October 2018 and Daphne Caruana Galizia , a Maltese blogger in October 2017. Every year, Reporters Without Borders establishes a subjective ranking of countries in terms of their freedom of

6901-470: The massacre at San Ygnacio and 71 of them were convicted in an American court. Wheaton said; " I regret that under our laws more severe punishment can not be given the leaders of such an unlawful raid and brutal massacre as that of December 10 last. Possibly after they have served the sentences awarded by our courts the extradition by Mexico of those guilty of murder and similar crimes may be effected. " Young, Elliott (2004). Catarino Garza's Revolution on

7004-504: The media or individual journalists to challenge the approved "government line" on contentious issues. In such countries, journalists operating on the fringes of what is deemed to be acceptable will very often find themselves the subject of considerable intimidation by agents of the state. This can range from simple threats to their professional careers (firing, professional blacklisting ) to death threats , kidnapping , torture , and assassination . Central, Northern, and Western Europe have

7107-422: The men were ambushed at a canyon shaped like a cul-de-sac, adding; " it was a terrible place, it is a wonder that any of them got away. " About the same time, the Americans learned that, because of their patrolling and the capture of several key leaders, the rebels had broken up into small groups of between two and 10 men. The closest the 3rd Cavalry came to catching Garza came on February 18, 1892, when Captain Chase

7210-435: The name of liberty, the constitution and the public conscience. " The war began on the night of September 15 when 60 to 80 Garzistas, as they were called, crossed the Rio Grande near Fort Ringgold, Texas to " overthrow the Mexican government. " Many of the Garzistas were Mexican-Americans , recruited in Texas, known for being criminals before the war which is why they are often referred to as bandits or outlaws . A record of

7313-402: The newspapers. The most dramatic confrontation came in New York in 1734, where the governor brought John Peter Zenger to trial for criminal libel after the publication of satirical attacks. The defense lawyers argued that according to English common law, the truth was a valid defense against libel. The jury acquitted Zenger, who became the iconic American hero for freedom of the press. The result

7416-500: The others were too unreliable to control the unit. Having been a commander of black soldiers during the Civil War, Bullis was trusted by his men and even asked to perform marriages for the tribe. Between May 1872 and 1881, the Seminole scouts fought in several engagements with Comanches , Kiowas , Apaches and Kickapoos , sometimes traveling into Mexico, the Indian Territory and Kansas . During their service against hostiles, not

7519-499: The plough to grasp in hand the sword and, guided by love of our Fatherland, let us re-conquer upon the field of battle the rights which have been usurped from us under the specious pretext of consolidating that abominable peace which has shed so much blood…. Forward, Mexicans! Let us march to die for liberty. Immortal glory for those who know how to die for her! Scorn and degradation for those who prefer to be slaves rather than patriots! " On December 10, Benavides led 131 mounted rebels in

7622-517: The press into its constitution with the Freedom of the Press Act of 1766. Freedom of the press is not construed as an absence of interference by outside entities, such as a government or religious organization, but rather as a right for authors to have their works published by other people. This idea was famously summarized by the 20th-century American journalist , A. J. Liebling , who wrote, "Freedom of

7725-471: The press is guaranteed only to those who own one". Freedom of the press gives the printer or publisher exclusive control over what the publisher chooses to publish, including the right to refuse to print anything for any reason. If the author cannot reach a voluntary agreement with a publisher to produce the author's work, then the author must turn to self-publishing . Beyond legal definitions, several non-governmental organizations use other criteria to judge

7828-459: The press was established in Great Britain in 1695, with Alan Rusbridger , former editor of The Guardian , stating: "When people talk about licensing journalists or newspapers the instinct should be to refer them to history. Read about how licensing of the press in Britain was abolished in 1695. Remember how the freedoms won here became a model for much of the rest of the world, and be conscious of how

7931-553: The press was suppressed in Nazi Germany by the Reichstag Fire Decree of President Paul von Hindenburg , just as Adolf Hitler was coming to power. Hitler suppressed freedom of the press through Joseph Goebbels ' Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda . The Ministry acted as a central control point for all media, issuing orders as to what stories could be run and what stories would be suppressed. Anyone involved in

8034-466: The press. The Press Freedom Index list is based on responses to surveys sent to journalists that are members of partner organizations of the RWB, as well as related specialists such as researchers, jurists, and human rights activists. The survey asks questions about direct attacks on journalists and the media and other indirect sources of pressure against the free press, such as non-governmental groups. In 2022,

8137-502: The public and affect the quality of democracy". An independent press "serves to increase political knowledge, participation, and voter turnout ", acting as an essential driver of civic participation. Turkey , China , Egypt , Eritrea , and Saudi Arabia accounted for 70% of all journalists that were imprisoned in 2018. CPJ reported that "After China, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt, the worst jailers are Eritrea, Vietnam, and Iran." According to Reporters Without Borders , more than

8240-522: The public. State materials are protected due to either one of two reasons: the classification of information as sensitive, classified, or secret, or the relevance of the information to protecting the national interest . Many governments are also subject to " sunshine laws " or freedom of information legislation that define the ambit of national interest and enable citizens to request access to government-held information. The United Nations ' 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights states: "Everyone has

8343-858: The reason and only for offences expressly determined by the law on the press or in case of violation of the obligation to identify the persons responsible for such offences. The Constitution allows the warrantless confiscation of periodicals in cases of absolute urgency, when the Judiciary cannot timely intervene, on the condition that a judicial validation must be obtained within 24 hours. Article 21 also gives restrictions against those publications considered offensive by public morality , as stated in Paragraph 6: Publications, performances, and other exhibits offensive to public morality shall be prohibited. Measures of preventive and repressive measure against such violations shall be established by law. In 1933, freedom of

8446-444: The rebels, as were local peasants the army encountered. The Mexican Army suffered from the same problems as the Americans, leading Bourke to recommend to his superiors that all field commanders speak Spanish so as to better communicate with Mexican authorities and citizens, rather than rely on the guides. The United States Army also employed 35 Black Seminole Scouts , from Fort Clark , Texas Rangers and local sheriffs to help track

8549-482: The recent presence of strangers " On November 15, Bourke wrote that the expeditions from Fort Ringgold were " without the slightest result, beyond wearing out horses, men, and officers. " This was largely due to the fact that the Americans had to search for a small group of locals in sparsely populated wilderness stretching hundreds of miles. Intelligence gathering was poor; Mexican civilians employed as guides were known for being unreliable because of their sympathies with

8652-476: The remainder of crowd, they began crossing the river when about some 10 or 15 yds from Mexican bank they were fired upon and a general fight began between the bandits [rebels] as they were in the river and the Mexican troops. " Benavides was one of the first prisoners taken by the Americans during the second campaign. On January 21, 1893, a squad from the 3rd Cavalry, under Lieutenant J. T. Dickman, arrested Benavides and another leader named Prudencio Gonzales without

8755-443: The right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference, and to seek, receive, and impart information and ideas through any media regardless of frontiers." This philosophy is usually accompanied by legislation ensuring various degrees of freedom of scientific research (known as scientific freedom ), publishing, and the press. The depth to which these laws are entrenched in

8858-457: The scout Frank Enoch were shot while trying to escape. The scout Bobby Kibbett attacked Windus at that point and while Windus and Crowell were fighting with him Isaac Payne and Dallas Griner got away to Mexico. Adam's body was given to his family for burial and Enoch died during surgery in Brackettville. Bobby Kibbett was later tried and acquitted for attempting to murder Deputy Sheriff Windus and

8961-517: The scouts and a detachment of 4th Cavalry . They fought a successful skirmish against Kickapoo raiders at El Remolino , forced the Mexican Army to keep from intervening and then hastily returned to the fort. During the Red River War , a notable engagement occurred on September 19, 1874, when three Black Seminole scouts and two Tonkawa scouts were sent out by Mackenzie to search for enemies. During

9064-491: The scouts fought in one final skirmish against Mexican bandits at Las Muias Ranch, thirty miles north of Fort Ringgold in Starr County . The Black Seminole Scouts were disbanded twenty-one years later in 1914 and most were forced to leave the Fort Clark reservation with their families. Just twenty-seven Black Seminoles were allowed to remain at the fort but only until the elders of the group had departed. The official report of

9167-465: The scouts from their horses. The scouts made it to their horses though and they were on their way back to safety when they realized that Lieutenant Bullis had been left behind. Under heavy fire, the scouts returned to rescue their commander. In May 1876 Chief John Horse was badly wounded and the scout Titus Payne was killed after a shooting incident in Eagle Pass. There was apparently no effort to catch

9270-410: The shooters because the former outlaw and sheriff John King Fisher was suspected of being responsible. Fisher was a horse thief and cattle rustler in his early life and well known for his hatred of the scouts. By 1876 he was a sheriff and had almost indisputable control over Kinney County . Because of this power Fisher was untouchable. The shooting created unrest among the Black Seminoles and over

9373-446: The surviving Mexican soldiers twenty-two, with the women and children, were driven to this side. The wounded were cared for by the citizens of San Ygnacio, Tex. It was claimed by Mexican authorities that these Mexican soldiers were detained there against their will as prisoners, but the matter was repeatedly investigated by officers at the time and such was found not to be the case. Most of these soldiers returned to their own country within

9476-497: The troop of the Sixth Mexican Cavalry, under Capt. [Rutillio] Segura, stationed on the river opposite that point. The soldiers [40 men and three officers] were at stables, and were unprepared. Ten men and two officers were killed, and twelve wounded; eleven escaped. The quarters were set on fire and the captain and several soldiers who had been wounded were thrown into the burning buildings by the bandits and burned to death. Of

9579-634: The vicinity of the Rio Grande Valley . The majority of the fighting was between Mexican troops and the rebels in Coahuila but there were also a few encounters between the Americans and the rebels on Texas soil. The main authors of the correspondence were Captain John G. Bourke , 3rd Cavalry , Captain George F. Chase, 3rd Cavalry, Captain George King Hunter , 3rd Cavalry, Captain E. L. Randall, Fort Ringgold,

9682-523: The war was created by American military and civil personnel in letters, telegrams and official reports, much of which has been preserved in a collection by the United States Army. On September 16, Captain E. L. Randall, United States Army, sent a telegram from Fort Ringgold to the army's Department of Texas with news of the event; " I have received information that at six o ' clock last night C. E. Garcia [Catarino Garza] crossed into Mexico when 14 miles below here with over 50 armed men, his object to attempt

9785-541: The world still watches us to see how we protect those freedoms." Until 1694, Great Britain had an elaborate system of licensing ; the most recent was seen in the Licensing of the Press Act, 1662 . No publication was allowed without the accompaniment of a government-granted license. Fifty years earlier, at a time of civil war , John Milton wrote his pamphlet Areopagitica (1644). In this work Milton argued forcefully against this form of government censorship and parodied

9888-481: Was " poorly fed " and " paid nothing. " Frank also said that " very few men remained with Catarino Garza. " The first engagement involving the Americans was just over a week later, on January 31, when three men from the 3rd Cavalry came across a group of rebels. During the ensuing gunfight, one American, mentioned in records only as Glover, was killed and the two others were able to escape. Captain Chase wrote on February 3 that

9991-561: Was able to kill one of the attackers and take his horse. Payne was decorated for his " habitual courage " and received the Medal of Honor. While attached to the buffalo soldiers of the 24th Infantry , three scouts received the Medal of Honor in 1875. For their " bravery and trustworthiness " during a skirmish on April 25 against Comanches who had raided a stagecoach on April 5 and stolen horses. Scouts John Ward , Isaac Payne and Pompey Factor were with Lieutenant Bullis scouting to locate

10094-513: Was an emerging tension between the media and the government. By the mid-1760s, there were 24 weekly newspapers in the 13 colonies, and the satirical attack on the government became common features in American newspapers. In the Victorian era , the press became more influential than it had been previously, to the dismay of some readers. Thomas Carlyle , in his essay " Signs of the Times " (1829), said that

10197-620: Was critical and often slanderous towards Struensee's own regime, he reinstated some restrictions regarding the freedom of press a year later, October 7, 1771. After the Italian unification in 1861, the Albertine Statute of 1848 was adopted as the constitution of the Kingdom of Italy . The Statute granted the freedom of the press with some restrictions in case of abuses and in religious matters, as stated in Article 28: The press shall be free, but

10300-552: Was introduced in Sweden in 1766 ( Swedish Freedom of the Press Act ), due in part to classical liberal member of parliament, Ostrobothnian priest, Anders Chydenius . Excepted and liable to prosecution was only vocal opposition to the king and the Church of Sweden . The act was largely rolled back after King Gustav 's coup d'état in 1772, restored after the overthrowing of his son, Gustav IV of Sweden in 1809, and fully recognized with

10403-455: Was out scouting with a former sheriff named Washington Shely and two Black Seminoles when they came across Las Muias Ranch, held by " the most desperate of all the bandits ", Eusabio Martinez, alias Mangas de Agua. Another skirmish ensued and ended with Martinez dead. By March 1893, the war was basically over. Captain Henry Jackson, 7th Cavalry, wrote; " The idea of any Revolution against Mexico

10506-450: Was searching the home of Garza's father-in-law, Alejandro Gonzales. According to a letter from Captain Bourke dated March 2, 1892, Chase found what he thought to be Garza's shoeprint leading away from Gonzales' house, but heavy rains helped the rebel escape. Fighting did not resume until December, but Garza was no longer leading the rebels. Instead, they were led by the rancher Francisco Benavides. In November 1892, Benavides signed and issued

10609-492: Was sent from Fort Duncan to Fort Sam Houston, but has since been lost, and none of these promises ever were kept. They crossed the international border on July 4 and were officially mustered into service on August 16 at Fort Duncan , near Eagle Pass , Texas . Most of the scouts were moved to Fort Clark near Brackettville in July 1872. Their first able commander was a Quaker and Civil War veteran, Lieutenant John L. Bullis ;

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