Gartz is a town in the Uckermark district in Brandenburg , Germany . It is located on the West bank of the Oder River , on the border with Poland , about 20 km south of Szczecin , Poland. It is located within the historic region of Western Pomerania .
131-598: The existence of the town was first documented in 1124, when it was part of the Duchy of Pomerania , which had been conquered by the Polish duke Bolesław III Wrymouth . It was then visited by Otto of Bamberg , who was entrusted by Bolesław III Wrymouth with the Christianization of Western Pomerania . The name of the town derives from Old-Polabian from the word * gardec < *gordьcь, meaning "small fortified settlement". Following
262-460: A de facto official language of Namibia after the end of German colonial rule alongside English and Afrikaans , and had de jure co-official status from 1984 until its independence from South Africa in 1990. However, the Namibian government perceived Afrikaans and German as symbols of apartheid and colonialism, and decided English would be the sole official language upon independence, stating that it
393-402: A second language , and 75–100 million as a foreign language . This would imply the existence of approximately 175–220 million German speakers worldwide. German sociolinguist Ulrich Ammon estimated a number of 289 million German foreign language speakers without clarifying the criteria by which he classified a speaker. As of 2012 , about 90 million people, or 16% of
524-587: A "commonly used" language and the Pan South African Language Board is obligated to promote and ensure respect for it. Cameroon was also a colony of the German Empire from the same period (1884 to 1916). However, German was replaced by French and English, the languages of the two successor colonial powers, after its loss in World War I . Nevertheless, since the 21st century, German has become
655-617: A Danish vassal. In 1177, the Danes again raided the Oder Lagoon area, also the burgh of Wolgast in 1178. In 1184 and 1185, three campaigns of the Danes resulted in making Bogislaw I, Duke of Pomerania a Danish vassal. These campaigns were mounted by Valdemar's son and successor for the Danish throne, Canute VI of Denmark . In the Duchy of Pomerania the Danish period lasted until Valdemar II of Denmark lost
786-508: A burgh in close proximity had the duke level this burgh when they grew in power. Stettin, where the burgh was inside the town, had the duke level his burgh already in 1249, other towns were to follow. The fortified new towns had succeeded the burghs as strongholds for the country's defense. In many cases, the former burgh settlement would become a Slavic suburb of the German town ("Wiek", "Wieck"). In Stettin, two "Wiek" suburbs were set up anew outside
917-737: A congress in Usedom , where they accepted Christianity on 10 June 1128. Otto then was titled apostolus gentis Pomeranorum , made a saint by pope Clement III in 1189, and was worshipped in Pomerania even after the Protestant Reformation . In 1140, one year after Otto of Bamberg's death, a Pomeranian diocese was founded and placed directly under the Holy See . Adalbert of Pomerania , who had participated in Otto's mission as an interpreter and assistant,
1048-552: A different law than Slavs. While those were unfree (except for the nobles), did not own the soil they cultivated, and were to serve the nobility, the opposite was true for the Germans. About 1240, the areas of Stavenhagen and Pyritz were subject to German settlement. About 1250, massive settlement took place also in Central Western Pomerania ( County of Gützkow , lands of Meseritz , Ploth , Ziethen and Groswin ), and
1179-580: A fief from the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I (Barbarossa) in 1181, and from the Danish king Canute VI in 1185. When he died in 1187, his two sons Casimir II and Bogislaw II were still minors, and Stettin castellan Wartislaw (II) ruled in their place. Danish pressure resulted in Wartislaw's replacement by Rugian prince Jaromar I , a Danish vassal, in 1189. The Principality of Rügen
1310-556: A greater need for regularity in written conventions. While the major changes of the MHG period were socio-cultural, High German was still undergoing significant linguistic changes in syntax, phonetics, and morphology as well (e.g. diphthongization of certain vowel sounds: hus (OHG & MHG "house") → haus (regionally in later MHG)→ Haus (NHG), and weakening of unstressed short vowels to schwa [ə]: taga (OHG "days")→ tage (MHG)). A great wealth of texts survives from
1441-501: A local level since the 16th century imposed discriminatory regulations, such as bans on buying goods from Slavs/Poles or prohibiting them from becoming members of craft guilds. The towns of Pomerania that had joined the Hanseatic League acted independently from the duchy, and sometimes opposed the dukes' interest. The most powerful towns were Stralsund , Greifswald , and Stettin , but also Demmin , Anklam and Kolberg . Before
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#17330661669911572-453: A native tongue today, mostly descendants of German colonial settlers . The period of German colonialism in Namibia also led to the evolution of a Standard German-based pidgin language called " Namibian Black German ", which became a second language for parts of the indigenous population. Although it is nearly extinct today, some older Namibians still have some knowledge of it. German remained
1703-679: A popular foreign language among pupils and students, with 300,000 people learning or speaking German in Cameroon in 2010 and over 230,000 in 2020. Today Cameroon is one of the African countries outside Namibia with the highest number of people learning German. In the United States, German is the fifth most spoken language in terms of native and second language speakers after English, Spanish , French , and Chinese (with figures for Cantonese and Mandarin combined), with over 1 million total speakers. In
1834-475: A result, the surviving texts are written in highly disparate regional dialects and exhibit significant Latin influence, particularly in vocabulary. At this point monasteries, where most written works were produced, were dominated by Latin, and German saw only occasional use in official and ecclesiastical writing. While there is no complete agreement over the dates of the Middle High German (MHG) period, it
1965-688: Is a West Germanic language in the Indo-European language family , mainly spoken in Western and Central Europe . It is the most spoken native language within the European Union . It is the most widely spoken and official (or co-official) language in Germany , Austria , Switzerland , Liechtenstein , and the Italian autonomous province of South Tyrol . It is also an official language of Luxembourg , Belgium and
2096-580: Is a recognized minority language in the following countries: In France, the High German varieties of Alsatian and Moselle Franconian are identified as " regional languages ", but the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages of 1998 has not yet been ratified by the government. Namibia also was a colony of the German Empire, from 1884 to 1915. About 30,000 people still speak German as
2227-596: Is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects , with many varieties existing in Europe and other parts of the world. Some of these non-standard varieties have become recognized and protected by regional or national governments. Since 2004, heads of state of the German-speaking countries have met every year, and the Council for German Orthography has been the main international body regulating German orthography . German
2358-546: Is an Indo-European language that belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages . The Germanic languages are traditionally subdivided into three branches: North Germanic , East Germanic , and West Germanic . The first of these branches survives in modern Danish , Swedish , Norwegian , Faroese , and Icelandic , all of which are descended from Old Norse . The East Germanic languages are now extinct, and Gothic
2489-472: Is called the "German Sprachraum ". German is the official language of the following countries: German is a co-official language of the following countries: Although expulsions and (forced) assimilation after the two World wars greatly diminished them, minority communities of mostly bilingual German native speakers exist in areas both adjacent to and detached from the Sprachraum. Within Europe, German
2620-430: Is complicated by the existence of several varieties whose status as separate "languages" or "dialects" is disputed for political and linguistic reasons, including quantitatively strong varieties like certain forms of Alemannic and Low German . With the inclusion or exclusion of certain varieties, it is estimated that approximately 90–95 million people speak German as a first language , 10–25 million speak it as
2751-520: Is generally seen as ending when the 1346–53 Black Death decimated Europe's population. Modern High German begins with the Early New High German (ENHG) period, which Wilhelm Scherer dates 1350–1650, terminating with the end of the Thirty Years' War . This period saw the further displacement of Latin by German as the primary language of courtly proceedings and, increasingly, of literature in
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#17330661669912882-595: Is generally seen as lasting from 1050 to 1350. This was a period of significant expansion of the geographical territory occupied by Germanic tribes, and consequently of the number of German speakers. Whereas during the Old High German period the Germanic tribes extended only as far east as the Elbe and Saale rivers, the MHG period saw a number of these tribes expanding beyond this eastern boundary into Slavic territory (known as
3013-559: Is less closely related to languages based on Low Franconian dialects (e.g., Dutch and Afrikaans), Low German or Low Saxon dialects (spoken in northern Germany and southern Denmark ), neither of which underwent the High German consonant shift. As has been noted, the former of these dialect types is Istvaeonic and the latter Ingvaeonic, whereas the High German dialects are all Irminonic; the differences between these languages and standard German are therefore considerable. Also related to German are
3144-435: Is one of the major languages of the world . German is the second-most widely spoken Germanic language , after English, both as a first and as a second language . German is also widely taught as a foreign language , especially in continental Europe (where it is the third most taught foreign language after English and French), and in the United States. Overall, German is the fourth most commonly learned second language, and
3275-587: Is one of the three biggest newspapers in Namibia and the only German-language daily in Africa. An estimated 12,000 people speak German or a German variety as a first language in South Africa, mostly originating from different waves of immigration during the 19th and 20th centuries. One of the largest communities consists of the speakers of "Nataler Deutsch", a variety of Low German concentrated in and around Wartburg . The South African constitution identifies German as
3406-592: Is part of Lower Oder Valley National Park . Gartz is twinned with: [REDACTED] Media related to Gartz at Wikimedia Commons Duchy of Pomerania The Duchy of Pomerania ( German : Herzogtum Pommern ; Polish : Księstwo pomorskie ; Latin : Ducatus Pomeraniae ) was a duchy in Pomerania on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea , ruled by dukes of the House of Pomerania ( Griffins ). The country existed in
3537-401: Is partly derived from Latin and Greek , along with fewer words borrowed from French and Modern English . English, however, is the main source of more recent loanwords . German is a pluricentric language ; the three standardized variants are German , Austrian , and Swiss Standard German . Standard German is sometimes called High German , which refers to its regional origin. German
3668-510: Is the Sachsenspiegel , the first book of laws written in Middle Low German ( c. 1220 ). The abundance and especially the secular character of the literature of the MHG period demonstrate the beginnings of a standardized written form of German, as well as the desire of poets and authors to be understood by individuals on supra-dialectal terms. The Middle High German period
3799-566: Is the only language in this branch which survives in written texts. The West Germanic languages, however, have undergone extensive dialectal subdivision and are now represented in modern languages such as English, German, Dutch , Yiddish , Afrikaans , and others. Within the West Germanic language dialect continuum, the Benrath and Uerdingen lines (running through Düsseldorf - Benrath and Krefeld - Uerdingen , respectively) serve to distinguish
3930-481: Is understood in all areas where German is spoken. Approximate distribution of native German speakers (assuming a rounded total of 95 million) worldwide: As a result of the German diaspora , as well as the popularity of German taught as a foreign language , the geographical distribution of German speakers (or "Germanophones") spans all inhabited continents. However, an exact, global number of native German speakers
4061-673: The Ostsiedlung ). With the increasing wealth and geographic spread of the Germanic groups came greater use of German in the courts of nobles as the standard language of official proceedings and literature. A clear example of this is the mittelhochdeutsche Dichtersprache employed in the Hohenstaufen court in Swabia as a standardized supra-dialectal written language. While these efforts were still regionally bound, German began to be used in place of Latin for certain official purposes, leading to
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4192-627: The Alamanni , Bavarian, and Thuringian groups, all belonging to the Elbe Germanic group ( Irminones ), which had settled in what is now southern-central Germany and Austria between the second and sixth centuries, during the great migration. In general, the surviving texts of Old High German (OHG) show a wide range of dialectal diversity with very little written uniformity. The early written tradition of OHG survived mostly through monasteries and scriptoria as local translations of Latin originals; as
4323-643: The Angerdorf type, where a main street fork encloses a large meadow ("Anger") in the village's center where the life stock was kept at night, sometimes the church or other buildings not used for living were built on the Anger also. This type is the most prominent type in the Peene , lower Oder , Pyritz , Lake Madü and Rega areas, many villages of this type are also found in the Kolberg and Schlawe area. In addition to these types,
4454-627: The Battle of Bornhöved on 22 July 1227. Danish supremacy prevailed until 1325 in the Rugian principality. At that time, the duchy was also referred to as Slavinia ( German : Slawien ), a term also applied to several Wendish areas such as Mecklenburg and the Principality of Rügen. Starting in the 12th century, Pomerania was settled with Germans in a process termed Ostsiedlung , that affected all medieval East Central and Eastern Europe . Except for
4585-522: The Early Middle Ages . German is an inflected language , with four cases for nouns, pronouns, and adjectives (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative); three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter) and two numbers (singular, plural). It has strong and weak verbs . The majority of its vocabulary derives from the ancient Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, while a smaller share
4716-417: The European Union 's population, spoke German as their mother tongue, making it the second most widely spoken language on the continent after Russian and the second biggest language in terms of overall speakers (after English), as well as the most spoken native language. The area in central Europe where the majority of the population speaks German as a first language and has German as a (co-)official language
4847-514: The German states . While these states were still part of the Holy Roman Empire , and far from any form of unification, the desire for a cohesive written language that would be understandable across the many German-speaking principalities and kingdoms was stronger than ever. As a spoken language German remained highly fractured throughout this period, with a vast number of often mutually incomprehensible regional dialects being spoken throughout
4978-523: The Hagenhufendorf type, houses were built on both sides of a main road, each within their own hide ( German : Hagen ). Those villages were usually set up after the clearance of woodlands, most of them were given German names in absence of any Slavic site names. This type of village can be found all along the coast, most of them in the areas between Barth and Wolgast , Kolberg and Köslin , and north and west of Schlawe . Other villages were built in
5109-712: The Haufendorf type used in Slavic times and its Sackdorf variant can still be found in between, predominantly on the islands. The villages' area was divided in hides . The size of a hide differed between the village types: A Hagenhufe , used in the Hagenhufendorf villages, comprised 60 Morgen ( Latin : iugera ), about 40 hectares . A Landhufe , used in the Angerdorf villages, comprised 30 Morgen. One farm would usually have an area of one Hagenhufe or two Landhufen. Slavic farmland
5240-677: The Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I , and the other being Meißner Deutsch , used in the Electorate of Saxony in the Duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg . Alongside these courtly written standards, the invention of the printing press led to the development of a number of printers' languages ( Druckersprachen ) aimed at making printed material readable and understandable across as many diverse dialects of German as possible. The greater ease of production and increased availability of written texts brought about increased standardisation in
5371-583: The Holy Roman Empire (including periods of vassalage to the Margraves of Brandenburg ). Most of the time, the duchy was ruled by several Griffin dukes in common, resulting in various internal partitions . After the last Griffin duke had died during the Thirty Years' War in 1637, the duchy was partitioned between Brandenburg-Prussia and Sweden . The Kings of Sweden and the Margraves of Brandenburg, later Kings of Prussia, became members as Dukes of Pomerania in
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5502-516: The Kolberg (now Kołobrzeg), Köslin (also Cöslin, now Koszalin) and Bublitz (now Bobolice) areas. When in 1276 they became the sovereign of the town of Kolberg also, they moved their residence there, while the administration of the diocese was done from nearby Köslin. The bishops at multiple occasions tried to exclude their secular reign from ducal overlordship by applying for Imperial immediacy ( Reichsunmittelbarkeit ). The Pomeranian dukes successfully forestalled these ambitions, and immediacy
5633-580: The List of Reichstag participants . In the 12th century, Poland, the Holy Roman Empire's Duchy of Saxony and Denmark variously conquered Pomerania, ending the tribal era . The Stolp ( Słupsk ) and Schlawe ( Sławno ) areas ( lands of (Länder) Schlawe-Stolp ) were ruled by Ratibor I and his descendants ( Ratiboriden branch of the Griffin House of Pomerania ) until the Danish occupation and extinction of
5764-456: The Margraviate of Brandenburg and triggered several military conflicts. Between 1185 and 1227, Pomerania along with most of the southern Baltic coast remained under sovereignty of Denmark. However, Brandenburg again tried to gain sovereignty over Pomerania, and in 1214 for a short time conquered Stettin . After Denmark lost the Battle of Bornhöved in 1227, Denmark lost all her territories on
5895-644: The Old High German language in several Elder Futhark inscriptions from as early as the sixth century AD (such as the Pforzen buckle ), the Old High German period is generally seen as beginning with the Abrogans (written c. 765–775 ), a Latin-German glossary supplying over 3,000 Old High German words with their Latin equivalents. After the Abrogans , the first coherent works written in Old High German appear in
6026-481: The Peenestrom (the lands of Wusterhusen and Lassan ) local Slavs participated in the German settlement, which started in the 1260s. Settlement of the areas centered on the upper Rega river, previously unsettled, started in the 1250s, and reached a peak in the 1280s. The lower Rega area around Greifenberg and Treptow an der Rega was settled about the same period, but here a native Slavic population participated. In
6157-516: The Persante area, first German settlements occurred about 1260, but a more extensive settlement did not start before 1280. On the islands of Usedom and Wollin , only isolated settlements took place in the 13th century, e.g. in the Garz (Usedom) and Caseburg (Karsibór) area, where Germans settled already in the 1240s, and in proximity of the German town of Wolin . The local Grobe Abbey did, in contrast to
6288-545: The Persante river ( Kolberg area), the lower Peene river, and between Schlawe and the Leba valley. Largely unsettled were the hilly regions and the woods in the South. The 12th century warfare, especially the Danish raids, depopulated many areas of Pomerania and caused severe population drops in others (e.g. Usedom). At the turn to the 13th century, only isolated German settlements existed, e.g. Hohenkrug and other German villages, and
6419-640: The Sprachraum in Europe. German is used in a wide variety of spheres throughout the country, especially in business, tourism, and public signage, as well as in education, churches (most notably the German-speaking Evangelical Lutheran Church in Namibia (GELK) ), other cultural spheres such as music, and media (such as German language radio programs by the Namibian Broadcasting Corporation ). The Allgemeine Zeitung
6550-536: The Standard German language in its written form, and the Duden Handbook was declared its standard definition. Punctuation and compound spelling (joined or isolated compounds) were not standardized in the process. The Deutsche Bühnensprache ( lit. ' German stage language ' ) by Theodor Siebs had established conventions for German pronunciation in theatres , three years earlier; however, this
6681-407: The Stargard area (where settlement was encouraged already since 1229). In the 1260s, settlement started in the Cammin area, and in the virtually unpopulated lands of Naugard , Massow and Daber . The Ueckermünde and the Oder mouth areas were also settled at about 1260, but the Ueckermünde heath and the woodlands on both sides of the Oder Lagoon remained untouched. In the areas adjacent to
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#17330661669916812-407: The Straßendorf type, characterized by a single and very long main street, was introduced in a later stage of Ostsiedlung, and therefore is found predominantly in areas that were affected last by the German settlement (easternmost parts, Cammin area). Villages of this type were either new foundations, or extensions of Slavic precursors. In other areas, Hagenhufendorf and Angerdorf types dominate, while
6943-442: The Treaty of Stralsund in 1370, and during the reign of Eric of Pomerania , the Hanseatic towns were in a state of war with Denmark for hegemony in the Baltic Sea. Parts of the Pomeranian nobility were engaged in piracy against Hanseatic vessels. Barnim VI of Pomerania-Wolgast did not only engage in piracy himself, he is also known for providing refuge and hideouts for the Likedeeler pirate organisation. The relation between
7074-400: The Upper German dialects spoken in the southern German-speaking countries , such as Swiss German ( Alemannic dialects ) and the various Germanic dialects spoken in the French region of Grand Est , such as Alsatian (mainly Alemannic, but also Central–and Upper Franconian dialects) and Lorraine Franconian (Central Franconian). After these High German dialects, standard German
7205-420: The bishop of Cammin , before 1268). In the 1270s followed Cammin (1274), Massow (by the bishop of Cammin, 1274), Pasewalk (recorded in 1274, founded probably in the 1250s), Plathe (1277), Lassan (between 1264 and 1278), Rügenwalde (by Wizlaw II of Rügen), Regenwalde (1279–80), Labes (about 1280), and Treptow an der Rega (between 1277 and 1281). Neuwarp , Richtenberg , Belgard , and Werben (by
7336-433: The fragmentation of Poland in 1138 it was part of the separate Duchy of Pomerania , which in 1227 fell under the overlordship of the multi-ethnic Holy Roman Empire . In 1236, the castle was the seat of the local Slavic castellan . In 1249 Gartz was granted town privileges by Duke Barnim I the Good . Because of its strategic location on the river, the town was frequently vulnerable during military campaigns. In 1284, it
7467-408: The pagan Germanic tradition. Of particular interest to scholars, however, has been the Hildebrandslied , a secular epic poem telling the tale of an estranged father and son unknowingly meeting each other in battle. Linguistically, this text is highly interesting due to the mixed use of Old Saxon and Old High German dialects in its composition. The written works of this period stem mainly from
7598-423: The 1160s) culminated in the defeat of the Principality of Rugia in 1168. The Rugian princes became vassals of Valdemar I of Denmark . In the fall of 1170, the Danes raided the Oder estuary. In 1171, the Danes raided Circipania and took Cotimar's burgh in Behren-Lübchin . In 1173, the Danes turned to the Oder Lagoon again, taking the burgh of Stettin . Wartislaw II Swantiboriz , castellan of Stettin, became
7729-528: The 1240s were Demmin , Greifswald (by Eldena Abbey ), Altentreptow . In the 1250s followed Anklam , Altdamm , Pyritz , probably already Stargard and Grimmen , Greifenhagen , Barth (Principality of Rügen, before 1255), and Damgarten (Principality of Rügen, 1258). In the 1260s followed Wollin (1260), Ueckermünde , Wolgast , probably already Gützkow , Pölitz (1260), Greifenberg (1262), Gollnow , probably already Usedom , Penkun , Tribsees (Principality of Rügen, before 1267) and Naugard (by
7860-450: The 1250 Treaty of Landin between Pomeranian dukes and margraves of Brandenburg, Barnim I managed to reassert the rule of his Griffin house over Pomerania, but lost the Uckermark to Brandenburg. Brandenburg since 1250 expanded eastward. In 1250–52, the margraves gained half of Lebus Land , including the terra Küstrin between Warthe and Mietzel (Myśla), and the terra Chinz north of the Mietzel river, both previously held by Barnim. In
7991-408: The 1260s, and was promoted by the Belbuck Abbey . A large influx of settlers to the western parts of Schlawe-Stolp took place after 1270, first settlers were called to the Stolp area in the 1280s. Here, local Slavs participated in the Ostsiedlung, and settlement went on throughout the 14th century. Initially, the Germans who settled the northern regions predominantly came from Lower Saxony , while
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#17330661669918122-458: The 1270s precursor had not done well), Rugendal (Principality of Rügen, before 1313, decayed), Schlawe (by the Swenzones , 1317), Garz (by the princes of Rügen, 1320s), Jacobshagen (by three brothers von Stegelitz , 1336), Freienwalde (by von Wedel , before 1338), Zanow (by the Swenzones, 1343), Lauenburg (by the Teutonic Knights , 1341), Bütow (by the Teutonic Knights, 1346), and Fiddichow (by Barnim III, 1347). Many towns with
8253-544: The Bear a dedicated enemy of Slavs, by Lothair III, Holy Roman Emperor . Thus, the western territories contributed to making Wartislaw significantly independent from the Polish dukes. Wartislaw was not the only one campaigning in these areas. The Polish Duke Boleslaw III, during his Pomeranian campaign launched an expedition into the Müritz area in 1120–21, before he turned back to subdue Wartislaw. The later Holy Roman Emperor Lothair III (then Saxon duke Lothair I of Supplinburg) in 1114 initiated massive campaigns against
8384-614: The Empire. Its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Prague (German: Prag ) and Budapest ( Buda , German: Ofen ), to name two examples, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain; others, like Pressburg ( Pozsony , now Bratislava), were originally settled during the Habsburg period and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest, Bratislava, and cities like Zagreb (German: Agram ) or Ljubljana (German: Laibach ), contained significant German minorities. In
8515-414: The Frisian languages— North Frisian (spoken in Nordfriesland ), Saterland Frisian (spoken in Saterland ), and West Frisian (spoken in Friesland )—as well as the Anglic languages of English and Scots. These Anglo-Frisian dialects did not take part in the High German consonant shift, and the Anglic languages also adopted much vocabulary from both Old Norse and the Norman language . The history of
8646-417: The German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the Migration Period , which separated Old High German dialects from Old Saxon . This sound shift involved a drastic change in the pronunciation of both voiced and voiceless stop consonants ( b , d , g , and p , t , k , respectively). The primary effects of the shift were the following below. While there is written evidence of
8777-399: The German states; the invention of the printing press c. 1440 and the publication of Luther's vernacular translation of the Bible in 1534, however, had an immense effect on standardizing German as a supra-dialectal written language. The ENHG period saw the rise of several important cross-regional forms of chancery German, one being gemeine tiutsch , used in the court of
8908-623: The Germanic dialects that were affected by the High German consonant shift (south of Benrath) from those that were not (north of Uerdingen). The various regional dialects spoken south of these lines are grouped as High German dialects, while those spoken to the north comprise the Low German and Low Franconian dialects. As members of the West Germanic language family, High German, Low German, and Low Franconian have been proposed to be further distinguished historically as Irminonic , Ingvaeonic , and Istvaeonic , respectively. This classification indicates their historical descent from dialects spoken by
9039-415: The Germans who settled the southern areas ( mittelpommerscher Keil ) predominantly came from Altmark and Westphalia . This caused the emergence of East Pomeranian , Central Pomeranian and Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch dialects. German settlers also came from areas earlier affected from Ostsiedlung, such as Mecklenburg , Brandenburg , and later also German settled regions of Pomerania herself. Though
9170-547: The Irminones (also known as the Elbe group), Ingvaeones (or North Sea Germanic group), and Istvaeones (or Weser–Rhine group). Standard German is based on a combination of Thuringian - Upper Saxon and Upper Franconian dialects, which are Central German and Upper German dialects belonging to the High German dialect group. German is therefore closely related to the other languages based on High German dialects, such as Luxembourgish (based on Central Franconian dialects ) and Yiddish . Also closely related to Standard German are
9301-644: The Italian autonomous region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia , as well as a recognized national language in Namibia . There are also notable German-speaking communities in France ( Alsace ), the Czech Republic ( North Bohemia ), Poland ( Upper Silesia ), Slovakia ( Košice Region , Spiš , and Hauerland ), Denmark ( North Schleswig ), Romania and Hungary ( Sopron ). Overseas, sizeable communities of German-speakers are found in Brazil ( Blumenau and Pomerode ), South Africa ( Kroondal ), Namibia , among others, some communities have decidedly Austrian German or Swiss German characters (e.g. Pozuzo , Peru). German
9432-507: The MHG period. Significantly, these texts include a number of impressive secular works, such as the Nibelungenlied , an epic poem telling the story of the dragon -slayer Siegfried ( c. thirteenth century ), and the Iwein , an Arthurian verse poem by Hartmann von Aue ( c. 1203 ), lyric poems , and courtly romances such as Parzival and Tristan . Also noteworthy
9563-739: The Middle Ages between years 1121–1160, 1264–1295, 1478–1531, and 1625–1637. The duchy originated from the realm of Wartislaw I , a Slavic Pomeranian duke, and was extended by the Lands of Schlawe and Stolp in 1317, the Principality of Rügen in 1325, and the Lauenburg and Bütow Land in 1455. During the High Middle Ages , it also comprised the northern Neumark and Uckermark areas as well as Circipania and Mecklenburg-Strelitz . The Duchy of Pomerania
9694-571: The Polish duke. In several expeditions mounted between 1102 and 1121, most of Pomerania had been conquered by the Polish duke Bolesław III Wrymouth . From 1102 to 1109, Boleslaw campaigned in the Noteć and Parsęta area. The Pomeranian residence in Białogard was taken already in 1102. From 1112 to 1116, Boleslaw subdued all of Pomerelia . From 1119 to 1122, the area towards the Oder were subdued. Szczecin
9825-508: The Pomeranian duchy, and to strengthen the Christian faith of the inhabitants of Stettin and Wollin, who fell back into heathen practices and idolatry . Otto this time visited primarily Western Pomeranian burghs, had the temples of Gützkow and Wolgast torn down and on their sites erected the predecessors of today's St Nikolai and St Petri churches, respectively. The nobility assembled to
9956-918: The Pomeranian dukes or ecclesial bodies like monasteries and orders. Most prominent on this issue was Barnim I of Pomerania-Stettin , who since was entitled "the towns' founder". The towns build on his behalf were granted Magdeburg Law and settled predominantly by people from the western Margraviate of Brandenburg , while the towns founded in the North (most on behalf of the Rugian princes and Wartislaw III of Pomerania-Demmin were granted Lübeck Law and were settled predominantly by people from Lower Saxony . The first towns were Stralsund (Principality of Rügen, 1234), Prenzlau ( Uckermark , then Pomerania-Stettin, 1234), Bahn ( Knights Templar , about 1234), and Stettin (1237–43), Gartz (Oder) (Pomerania-Stettin, 1240), and Loitz (by Detlev of Gadebusch , 1242). Other towns built in
10087-575: The Pomeranian dukes thereafter. In 1181 the dukes took their duchy as a fief from the Holy Roman Emperor Barbarossa . Bogislaw I, Duke of Pomerania had travelled to Barbarossa's camp in Lübeck , where he received the Imperial flag and the title "Duke of Slavinia". From the North, Denmark attacked Pomerania. Several campaigns throughout the 12th century (in 1136, 1150, 1159 and throughout
10218-465: The Pomeranians were assured that Otto's aim was not the gain of wealth at the expense of the Pomeranian people, as he was wealthy already, but only to convert them to Christianity, which would protect the Pomeranians from further punishment by God, as which the devastating Polish conquest was depicted. This approach turned out to be successful, and was backed by parts of the Pomeranian nobility that in part
10349-618: The Pomerelian Kashubians and the Slovincians , the Wends were assimilated. Most towns and villages date back to this period. Before the Ostsiedlung, Pomerania was rather sparsely settled. Around 1200, a relatively dense population could be found on the islands of Rügen , Usedom and Wollin , around the burghs of Stettin , Köslin , Pyritz ( Pyritzer Weizacker ) and Stargard , around
10480-500: The Ratiboride branch in 1227. The areas stretching from Kolberg ( Kołobrzeg ) to Stettin (Szczecin) were ruled by Ratibor's brother Wartislaw I and his descendants ( House of Pomerania , also called Griffins, of which he was the first ascertained ancestor) until the 1630s. The terms of surrender after the Polish conquest were that Wartislaw had to accept Polish sovereignty, convert his people to Christianity, and pay an annual tribute to
10611-505: The areas near the Oder Lagoon and Peene river. Most notably Demmin , the Principality of Gützkow and Wolgast were conquered in the following years. The major stage of the westward expansion into Lutici territory occurred between Otto of Bamberg's two missions, 1124 and 1128. In 1128, Demmin, the County of Gützkow and Wolgast were already incorporated into Wartislaw I's realm, yet warfare
10742-457: The bishop of Cammin) are first recorded in 1295, 1297, 1299, and 1300, respectively, all were most certainly founded earlier. In the area directly administered by the bishops of Cammin, the towns of Kolberg (1255), Köslin (1266), Körlin (early 14th century), and Bublitz (1340) were set up. The early 14th century saw the foundation of Stolp (by Waldemar of Brandenburg , 1310), Neustettin (by Wartislaw IV, 1310), Rügenwalde (again 1312,
10873-408: The case of Kolberg . Exceptions are Wollin and probably Cammin , which were built on the spot of former, yet decayed settlements, and Stettin , where two German settlements were set up close to the Slavic burgh and settlement, all of which were included in the later town. In many cases, the name of the neighboring Slavic settlement would be used for the new town. The towns were built on behalf of
11004-451: The coastal settlements declined during the 12th century warfare. Yet these settlements were not continued by the German towns, which were founded on previously unsettled soil. Although some towns had a Slavic settlement, sometimes attached to a burgh , as precursor, the name of which would be adopted for the German town, the new town was usually founded on empty space in the settlements neighborhood. The distance could be some kilometers as in
11135-431: The conversion of the non-nobles to Christianity. In addition, the Danes withdrew from most of Pomerania in 1227, leaving the duchy vulnerable to their expansive neighbors, especially Mecklenburg , Brandenburg , and Henry I of Silesia . Germans, at this early stage (before 1240), were often settled in frontier regions, such as the mainland part of the Principality of Rugia (after prince Jaromar I granted Eldena Abbey
11266-482: The course of the 1250s, the margraves further gained the castellanies Zantoch and Driesen except for the burghs itself, of both castellanies actually belonging to Greater Poland , Barnim had held the northern parts. In 1261, Barnim lost the Soldin area, and in the following years the terra Zehden to Brandenburg. German language German (German: Deutsch , pronounced [dɔʏtʃ] )
11397-478: The development of non-local forms of language and exposed all speakers to forms of German from outside their own area. With Luther's rendering of the Bible in the vernacular, German asserted itself against the dominance of Latin as a legitimate language for courtly, literary, and now ecclesiastical subject-matter. His Bible was ubiquitous in the German states: nearly every household possessed a copy. Nevertheless, even with
11528-452: The dialect so as to make the work as natural and accessible to German speakers as possible. Copies of Luther's Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region, translating words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Luther said the following concerning his translation method: One who would talk German does not ask the Latin how he shall do it; he must ask the mother in
11659-431: The duchy from their residences Demmin (Casimir) and Stettin (Bogislaw). Except for the terra Kolberg , which was ruled as a co-dominion, they partitioned the duchy with Pomerania-Demmin comprising the upper Peene , Tollense , Dievenow and Rega areas, and Pomerania-Stettin comprising the Oder , Ihna and lower Peene areas. When Casimir I died in 1180, Bogislaw became the sole duke. Bogislaw I took his duchy as
11790-507: The eastern provinces of Banat , Bukovina , and Transylvania (German: Banat, Buchenland, Siebenbürgen ), German was the predominant language not only in the larger towns—like Temeschburg ( Timișoara ), Hermannstadt ( Sibiu ), and Kronstadt ( Brașov )—but also in many smaller localities in the surrounding areas. In 1901, the Second Orthographic Conference ended with a (nearly) complete standardization of
11921-562: The exact proportion of German versus Slavic populations cannot be determined, it is undisputed that the Germans significantly outnumbered the Slavs. Before the end of the 13th century, the Western Pomeranian mainland and most of Farther Pomerania west of the Gollenberg had turned almost completely German, mentions of Slavs in documents became exceptional. The Slavic dialects disappeared, with
12052-684: The exception that fishermen from the isles and the Oder lagoon area continued to use Wendish for a relatively long period. Villages before the Ostsiedlung were of the Haufendorf type, the houses were built in close proximity to each other without a special ruling. A variant of this type also found in Pomerania is the Sackgassendorf (or Sackdorf ) type, where a dead end road leads to those houses. This type evolved as an extension of Haufendorf type villages. German settlement introduced new types of villages: In
12183-548: The farmers ( German : Vollbauern ). These people were termed "gardeners" ( German : Gärtner ) or Kossäten (literally "who sits in a hut"), and could either be local Slavs or the younger sons of German farmers who did not inherit their father's soil. Nearly all towns in modern Pomerania date back to the Ostsiedlung. In Slavic times, there have been town-like settlements already in Demmin , Wolgast , Usedom , Wollin , Stettin , Kolberg , Pyritz and Stargard , although many of
12314-435: The home, the children on the streets, the common man in the market-place and note carefully how they talk, then translate accordingly. They will then understand what is said to them because it is German. When Christ says ' ex abundantia cordis os loquitur ,' I would translate, if I followed the papists, aus dem Überflusz des Herzens redet der Mund . But tell me is this talking German? What German understands such stuff? No,
12445-474: The influence of Luther's Bible as an unofficial written standard, a widely accepted standard for written German did not appear until the middle of the eighteenth century. German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire , which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe . Until the mid-nineteenth century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of
12576-418: The local Lutici tribes resulting in their final defeat in 1228. Also, the territories were invaded by Danish forces multiple times, who, coming from the Baltic Sea , used the rivers Peene and Uecker to advance to a line Demmin – Pasewalk . At different times, Pomeranians, Saxons and Danes were either allies or opponents. The Pomeranian dukes consolidated their power in the course of the 12th century, yet
12707-452: The merchant's settlement near the Stettin burgh. In contrast, the monasteries were almost exclusively run by Germans and Danes. Massive German settlement started in the first half of the 13th century. Ostsiedlung was a common process at this time in all Central Europe and was largely run by the nobles and monasteries to increase their income. Also, the settlers were expected to finish and secure
12838-402: The mother in the home and the plain man would say, Wesz das Herz voll ist, des gehet der Mund über . Luther's translation of the Bible into High German was also decisive for the German language and its evolution from Early New High German to modern Standard German. The publication of Luther's Bible was a decisive moment in the spread of literacy in early modern Germany , and promoted
12969-630: The ninth century, chief among them being the Muspilli , Merseburg charms , and Hildebrandslied , and other religious texts (the Georgslied , Ludwigslied , Evangelienbuch , and translated hymns and prayers). The Muspilli is a Christian poem written in a Bavarian dialect offering an account of the soul after the Last Judgment , and the Merseburg charms are transcriptions of spells and charms from
13100-460: The other Pomeranian monasteries, not enhance German settlement. Therefore, Slavic culture on the isles persisted and vanished only in the late 14th century. The island of Rügen , in contrast to the meanwhile German mainland parts of the principality, also remained a Slavic character throughout the 13th century – German settlement would only start in the 14th century, with strong participation of local Slavs. In Schlawe-Stolp, German settlement started in
13231-501: The pope accepted the move of the see, the bishopric was referred to as Roman Catholic Diocese of Kammin , while before it was addressed as Pomeranian diocese. In 1248, the Kammin bishops and the Pomeranian dukes had interchanged the terrae Stargard and Kolberg, leaving the bishops in charge of the latter. In the following, the bishops extended their secular reign, which soon comprised
13362-443: The preceding warfare had left these territories completely devastated. A first attempt to convert the Pomeranians was made following the subjugation of Pomerania by Boleslaw III of Poland . In 1122, Spanish monk Bernard (also Bernhard) travelled to Jumne ( Wolin ), accompanied only by his chaplain and an interpreter. The Pomeranians however were not impressed by his missionary efforts and finally threw him out of town. Bernard
13493-462: The pronunciation of the ending -ig as [ɪk] instead of [ɪç]. In Northern Germany, High German was a foreign language to most inhabitants, whose native dialects were subsets of Low German. It was usually encountered only in writing or formal speech; in fact, most of High German was a written language, not identical to any spoken dialect, throughout the German-speaking area until well into the 19th century. However, wider standardization of pronunciation
13624-400: The remainder came under Barnim's rule after Wartislaw died in 1264. During the reign of Otto I, Margrave of Brandenburg and son of Albert I of Brandenburg (1100–1170), Brandenburg claimed sovereignty over Pomerania. Yet, in 1181, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I invested Duke Bogislaw I of the Griffin House of Pomerania with the Duchy of Slavia (Pomerania). This was not accepted by
13755-601: The right to call in settlers in 1209), Circipania , the lands of Loitz (administered semi-independently by Detlev of Gadebush), the Uckermark , the lands of Kolbatz Abbey and Bahn (which later was granted to the Knights Templar), and the area north of the Warthe and along the lower Oder river. However, in many of these frontiers, German settlement did not hinder the advance of Pomerania's neighbors. Germans were placed under
13886-553: The southern Baltic shore, including Pomerania. At this time, the Duchy of Pomerania was co-ruled by duke Wartislaw III of Demmin and duke Barnim I of Stettin. After the Danes retreated, Brandenburg took her chance and invaded Pomerania-Demmin. In 1231, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II gave the duchy, which then was again a part of the empire, as a fief to the Ascanian margraves of Brandenburg. Denmark also attempted to restore her rule and took Wolgast and Demmin in 1235, but
14017-406: The state of Brandenburg , despite historically belonging to Pomerania . In 1993, a Polish-German school project was established at the local school. The town was affected by the 1997 Central European flood . Many Poles moved to Gartz, and as of 2014, 32 of 62 children in the local kindergarten had non-German parents. Across the river lies an industrial area of the Polish town of Gryfino . Gartz
14148-541: The states of North Dakota and South Dakota , German is the most common language spoken at home after English. As a legacy of significant German immigration to the country , German geographical names can be found throughout the Midwest region , such as New Ulm and Bismarck (North Dakota's state capital), plus many other regions. A number of German varieties have developed in the country and are still spoken today, such as Pennsylvania Dutch and Texas German . In Brazil,
14279-590: The still undefeated Principality of Rügen as a fief. Wartislaw I also accepted the Emperor as his overlord. With Bolesław's death in 1138 and the fragmentation of Poland, Polish overlordship ended, triggering competition of the Holy Roman Empire and Denmark for the area. In the meantime, Wartislaw managed to conquer vast territories west of the Oder river, an area inhabited by Lutici tribes weakened by past warfare, and included these territories into his Duchy of Pomerania . Already in 1120, he had expanded west into
14410-496: The third most commonly learned second language in the United States in K-12 education. The language has been influential in the fields of philosophy, theology, science, and technology. It is the second most commonly used language in science and the third most widely used language on websites . The German-speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of annual publication of new books, with one-tenth of all books (including e-books) in
14541-557: The town, however in 1477, with the help of the cities of Stargard and Szczecin , Gartz was finally recaptured, which was confirmed in a subsequent peace treaty. In 1502, Bogislaw X, Duke of Pomerania temporarily resided in the town. The town was devastated in the Thirty Years' War , the Polish–Swedish War and the Great Northern War in the 17th–18th century. From 1648 to 1720 it was part of Swedish Pomerania , in 1720 it
14672-708: The towns and the nobility throughout the Middle Ages ranged from alliances and support ( German : Landfrieden ) to cabalism, banditry and outright warfare. In 1155, the duchy was partitioned in Pomerania-Demmin and Pomerania-Stettin. With short interruptions, this division lasted until 1264. Wartislaw I was murdered between 1134 and 1148 in Stolpe . His brother, Ratibor I of Schlawe-Stolp , founded Stolpe Abbey near this site and ruled Wartislaw's realm in place of his minor nephews, Bogislaw I and Casimir I . Ratibor died in 1155, and Wartislaw's sons agreed to co-rule
14803-404: The walls, to which most Slavs from within the walls were resettled. Such Wiek settlements did initially not belong to the town, but to the duke, although they were likely to come into possession of the town in the course of the 14th century. Also in the 14th century, Slavic Wiek suburbs lost their Slavic character. Indigenous Slavs and Poles faced discrimination from the arriving Germans, who on
14934-543: The world being published in German. German is most closely related to other West Germanic languages, namely Afrikaans , Dutch , English , the Frisian languages , and Scots . It also contains close similarities in vocabulary to some languages in the North Germanic group , such as Danish , Norwegian , and Swedish . Modern German gradually developed from Old High German , which in turn developed from Proto-Germanic during
15065-579: The written form of German. One of the central events in the development of ENHG was the publication of Luther's translation of the Bible into High German (the New Testament was published in 1522; the Old Testament was published in parts and completed in 1534). Luther based his translation primarily on the Meißner Deutsch of Saxony , spending much time among the population of Saxony researching
15196-457: Was Christian raised already, like duke Wartislaw I , who encouraged and promoted Otto's mission. Many Pomeranians were baptized already in Pyritz and also in the other burghs visited. Otto of Bamberg returned in 1128, this time invited by duke Wartislaw I himself, aided by the emperor Holy Roman Emperor Lothar II , to convert the ( Lutician ) Slavs of Western Pomerania just incorporated into
15327-429: Was a "neutral" language as there were virtually no English native speakers in Namibia at that time. German, Afrikaans, and several indigenous languages thus became "national languages" by law, identifying them as elements of the cultural heritage of the nation and ensuring that the state acknowledged and supported their presence in the country. Today, Namibia is considered to be the only German-speaking country outside of
15458-530: Was an artificial standard that did not correspond to any traditional spoken dialect. Rather, it was based on the pronunciation of German in Northern Germany, although it was subsequently regarded often as a general prescriptive norm, despite differing pronunciation traditions especially in the Upper-German-speaking regions that still characterise the dialect of the area today – especially
15589-573: Was annexed by Prussia , and from 1871 it formed part of the German Empire . From 1720 to 1945, Gartz was part of the Prussian Province of Pomerania . In the final stages of World War II , in 1945, the town was heavily destroyed. Since the Oder-Neisse line was made the German-Polish border after the defeat of Nazi Germany in the war in 1945, Gartz is now a border town . From 1945 to 1952, it
15720-481: Was driven out the same year. Wartislaw had to accept Brandenburg's overlordship in the 1236 Treaty of Kremmen , furthermore he had to hand over most of his duchy to Brandenburg immediately, that was the Burg Stargard Land and adjacent areas (all soon to become a part of Mecklenburg , forming the bulk of the later Mecklenburg-Strelitz area). Circipania was already lost to Mecklenburg in the years before. In
15851-460: Was established as a vassal state of Poland in 1121, which it remained until the fragmentation of Poland after the death of Polish ruler Bolesław III Wrymouth in 1138. Afterwards the Dukes of Pomerania were independent, and later were vassals of the Duchy of Saxony from 1164 to 1181, of the Holy Roman Empire from 1181 to 1185, of Denmark from 1185 to 1227 and finally, from 1227 on, staying with
15982-485: Was established on the basis of public speaking in theatres and the media during the 20th century and documented in pronouncing dictionaries. Official revisions of some of the rules from 1901 were not issued until the controversial German orthography reform of 1996 was made the official standard by governments of all German-speaking countries. Media and written works are now almost all produced in Standard German which
16113-599: Was extended southward on the expense of Pomerania-Demmin. When Casimir II and Bogislaw II died in 1219 and 1220, respectively, their respective sons Wartislaw III (Pomerania-Demmin) and Barnim I (Pomerania-Stettin) were still minors. Wartislaw's mother Ingardis of Denmark thus ruled until Wartislaw was able to rule Pomerania-Demmin on his own in 1225, and Barnim, in theory duke since 1220, practically started his reign in Pomerania-Stettin only in 1233. Pomerania-Demmin lost her southern and western areas to Brandenburg, and
16244-517: Was granted only temporarily in 1345. In the West, bishops and dukes of the Holy Roman Empire mounted expeditions to Pomerania. Most notable for the further fate of Pomerania are the 1147 Wendish Crusade and the 1164 Battle of Verchen , the Pomeranian dukes became vassals of Henry the Lion , of Saxony . Despite this vassalage, Henry again sieged Demmin in 1177 when he allied with the Danes, but reconciled with
16375-658: Was later made the first bishop of Lubusz in Poland. After Bernard's misfortune, Boleslaw III asked Otto of Bamberg to convert Pomerania to Christianity , which he accomplished in his first visit in 1124–25. Otto's strategy severely differed from the one Bernard used: While Bernard travelled alone and as a poor and unknown priest, Otto, a wealthy and famous man, was accompanied by 20 clergy of his own diocese, numerous servants, 60 warriors supplied to him by Boleslaw, and carried with him numerous supplies and gifts. After arriving in Pyritz ,
16506-450: Was made the first bishop. The direct subordination under the pope thwarted the claims of the archbishops of Magdeburg and Gniezno , who both had asserted pressure on Otto of Bamberg to incorporate the new diocese into their realms. The initial see of the Pomeranian diocese was Wollin , and was moved to Grobe Abbey on the island of Usedom and to Kammin (Cammin, now Kamien Pomorski) after 1150 and 1175, respectively. Since 1188, when
16637-548: Was measured in Haken ( Latin : uncus ), with one Haken equals 15 Morgen (half a Landhufe). Haken were used only in villages remaining under old Slavic law (predominantly on the islands), whereas Hufen were used for new villages placed under German law (in Pomerania sometimes referred to as Schwerin Law ). Not all families of German villages owned a Hufe. Those dwelling on considerably smaller property ("gardens") were usually hired as workers by
16768-452: Was one of the Pomeranian towns that guaranteed a peace treaty between the Duchy of Pomerania and the Margraviate of Brandenburg . It was granted several privileges by Pomeranian dukes in the following decades. During a Pomeranian succession war, in 1468, the town opened its gates to Brandenburgians, what was taken in other Pomeranian cities and towns as an act of treason. In 1473, the Duchy of Pomerania made an unsuccessful attempt to recapture
16899-528: Was part of the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern , from 1952 to 1990 of the Bezirk Frankfurt of East Germany and since 1990 of Brandenburg . After the fall of communism in Central Europe and the German reunification , in 1990 Gartz entered a partnership with the nearby Polish town of Gryfino as its twin town, and in 1998 river cruises between the towns were launched. In 1990, the town was assigned to
17030-604: Was still going on. Captured Lutici and other war loot, including livestock, money, and clothes were apportioned among the victorious. After Wartislaw's Lutician conquests, his duchy lay between the Bay of Greifswald to the north, Circipania , including Güstrow (Ostrów), to the west, Kolobrzeg in the east, and possibly as far as the Havel and Spree rivers in the south. These gains were not subject to Polish over lordship, but were placed under over lordship of Nordmark margrave Albrecht
17161-404: Was taken in the winter of 1121–1122. The conquest resulted in a high death toll and devastation of vast areas of Pomerania, and the Pomeranian dukes were forced to become vassals of Boleslaw III, King of Poland. Poland's influence vanished in the next decade. In 1135, Bolesław had accepted overlordship of Holy Roman Emperor Lothair III and in turn received his Pomeranian gains as well as
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