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44-600: The robbery has since been recognized as one of the most infamous crimes committed by outlaws in the American Old West . The James–Younger Gang was a gang of outlaws consisting of well-known criminal Jesse James and his brother, Frank James ; Cole , Jim , John and Bob Younger , as well as other gunslingers . After fighting for the Confederate States of America in the American Civil War (1861–1865),

88-538: A general and provincial governor during the Gallic Wars . It fell out of use during the early Empire . In English common law , an outlaw was a party who had defied the laws of the realm by such acts as ignoring a summons to court or fleeing instead of appearing to plead when charged with a crime . The earliest reference to outlawry in English legal texts appears in the 8th century. The term outlawry refers to

132-580: A government of a country that has relocated and argues its legitimacy from outside that country. Voluntary exile is often depicted as a form of protest by the person who claims it, to avoid persecution and prosecution (such as tax or criminal allegations), an act of shame or repentance, or isolating oneself to be able to devote time to a particular pursuit. Article 9 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that "No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile." Internal exile

176-515: A murderess out of revenge, she fled to Athens and married king Aigeus there, and became the stepmother of the hero Theseus . Due to a conflict with him, she must leave the Polis and go away into exile. John William Waterhouse (1849–1917), the English Pre-Raphaelite painter's famous picture Jason and Medea shows a key moment before, when Medea tries to poison Theseus. In ancient Rome,

220-429: A political variety, during the 19th and 20th century. Exiled political groups often develop complex media strategies, including diaspora engagement and investigative reporting, to maintain visibility, mobilise support, and address challenges of operating outside their home country. During a foreign occupation or after a coup d'état , a government in exile of a such afflicted country may be established abroad. One of

264-660: A special tax in order to re-enter the United States. In some cases a person voluntarily lives in exile to avoid legal issues, such as litigation or criminal prosecution . An example of this is Asil Nadir , who fled to the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus for 17 years rather than face prosecution in connection with the failed £1.7 bn company Polly Peck in the United Kingdom . Examples include: Exile, government man and assigned servant were all euphemisms used in

308-411: A wolf or other wild animal. Women were declared "waived" rather than outlawed, but it was effectively the same punishment. Among other forms of exile , Roman law included the penalty of aquae et ignis interdictio ("interdiction of water and fire"). Such people penalized were required to leave Roman territory and forfeit their property. If they returned, they were effectively outlaws; providing them

352-487: Is a form of banishment within the boundaries of one's homeland, but far away from home. In some cases the deposed head of state is allowed to go into exile following a coup or other change of government, allowing a more peaceful transition to take place or to escape justice. A wealthy citizen who moves to a jurisdiction with lower taxes is termed a tax exile . Creative people such as authors and musicians who achieve sudden wealth sometimes choose this. Examples include

396-437: Is an early motif in ancient Greek tragedy . In the ancient Greek world, this was seen as a fate worse than death. The motif reaches its peak on the play Medea , written by Euripides in the fifth century BC, and rooted in the very old oral traditions of Greek mythology. Euripides' Medea has remained the most frequently performed Greek tragedy through the 20th century. After Medea was abandoned by Jason and had become

440-455: Is an outlaw in the second sense but not the first ( Sándor Rózsa was tried and sentenced merely to a term of imprisonment when captured). In the common law of England , a "writ of outlawry" made the pronouncement Caput lupinum ("[Let his be] a wolf's head"), equating that person with a wolf in the eyes of the law. Not only was the subject deprived of all legal rights, being outside the "law", but others could kill him on sight as if he were

484-412: Is declared outside protection of law in one jurisdiction but who receives asylum and lives openly and obedient to local laws in another jurisdiction is an outlaw in the first meaning but not the second (one example being William John Bankes ). A fugitive who remains formally entitled to a form of trial if captured alive but avoids capture because of the high risk of conviction and severe punishment if tried

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528-673: The Central Tibetan Administration , commonly known as the Tibetan government-in-exile, and headed by the 14th Dalai Lama . Ivan the Terrible once exiled to Siberia an inanimate object: a bell. "When the inhabitants of the town of Uglich rang their bell to rally a demonstration against Ivan the Terrible, the cruel Czar executed two hundred (nobles), and exiled the Uglich bell to Siberia, where it remained for two hundred years." Exile

572-870: The Jews following the destruction of the second Temple in Jerusalem in AD 70. Jewish prayers include a yearning to return to Jerusalem and the Land of Israel , such as " Next Year in Jerusalem ". After the Partitions of Poland in the late 18th century, and following the uprisings (like Kościuszko Uprising , November Uprising and January Uprising ) against the partitioning powers ( Russia , Prussia and Austria ), many Poles have chosen – or been forced – to go into exile, forming large diasporas (known as Polonia ), especially in France and

616-496: The State Opening of Parliament ), romanticised outlaws became stock characters in several fictional settings. This was particularly so in the United States, where outlaws were popular subjects of 19th-century newspaper coverage and stories and 20th-century fiction and Western movies . Thus, "outlaw" is still commonly used to mean those violating the law or, by extension, those living that lifestyle, whether actual criminals evading

660-489: The papacy or a government ) are forced from their homeland. In Roman law , exsilium denoted both voluntary exile and banishment as a capital punishment alternative to death. Deportation was forced exile, and entailed the lifelong loss of citizenship and property. Relegation was a milder form of deportation, which preserved the subject's citizenship and property. The term diaspora describes group exile, both voluntary and forced. " Government in exile " describes

704-607: The 19th century for convicts under sentence who had been transported from Britain to Australia . When a large group, or occasionally a whole people or nation is exiled, it can be said that this nation is in exile, or "diaspora". Nations that have been in exile for substantial periods include the Israelites by the Assyrian king Sargon II in 720 BCE, the Judeans who were deported by Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II in 586 BC, and

748-587: The British-Canadian writer Arthur Hailey , who moved to the Bahamas to avoid taxes following the runaway success of his novels Hotel and Airport , and the English rock band the Rolling Stones who, in the spring of 1971, owed more in taxes than they could pay and left Britain before the government could seize their assets. Members of the band all moved to France for a period of time where they recorded music for

792-519: The Cartagena fleet to be " piratic ", which allowed any nation to prey on it. Taking the opposite road, some outlaws became political leaders, such as Ethiopia 's Kassa Hailu who became Emperor Tewodros II of Ethiopia . Though the judgment of outlawry is now obsolete (even though it inspired the pro forma Outlawries Bill which is still to this day introduced in the British House of Commons during

836-533: The German exile scene, "to bring the rich, scattered and murky experience of exile into epic form", as he wrote in his literary balance sheet. At the same place and in the same year, Anna Seghers published her famous novel Das siebte Kreuz ( The Seventh Cross , published in the United States in 1942). Important exile literature in recent years include that of the Caribbean, many of whose artists emigrated to Europe or

880-626: The James brothers formed a gang in 1866 and committed crimes in Missouri , until their gang eventually collapsed in 1876 after a botched bank robbery in Minnesota . In July 1873, Jesse and Frank James robbed a train in Adair, Iowa , and stole $ 6,000 (equivalent to $ 140,000 in 2023) in cash. However, they soon ran out of money and began plotting a new train robbery. By now, the gang had acquired new members, including

924-459: The James-Younger gang created a bonfire on the train tracks and waved a red flag in front of it to make the train conductor stop immediately. After entering the train, the gang proceeded with the robbery. However, they avoided robbing women and working men. It is said they did this by looking at every passenger's hands to see how much callus they had. While some of the gang members were handling

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968-679: The Queen's subjects, "whether a constable or not", and without "being accountable for using of any deadly weapon in aid of such apprehension." Similar provisions were passed in Victoria and Queensland . Although the provisions of the New South Wales Felons Apprehension Act were not exercised after the end of the bushranging era, they remained on the statute book until 1976. There have been several instances in military and political conflicts throughout history whereby one side declares

1012-569: The Roman Senate had the power to declare the exile to individuals, families or even entire regions. One of the Roman victims was the poet Ovid , who lived during the reign of Augustus . He was forced to leave Rome and move away to the city of Tomis on the Black Sea, now Constanța . There he wrote his famous work Tristia (Sorrows) about his bitter feelings in exile. Another, at least in a temporary exile,

1056-462: The United States . The entire population of Crimean Tatars (numbering 200,000 in all) that remained in their homeland of Crimea was exiled on 18 May 1944 to Central Asia as a form of ethnic cleansing and collective punishment on false accusations. Since the Cuban Revolution , over a million Cubans have left Cuba . Most of these self-identified as exiles as their motivation for leaving

1100-472: The adoption of international extradition pacts. It was obsolete when the offence was abolished in 1938. Outlawry was, however, a living practice as of 1855: in 1841, William John Bankes , who had previously been an MP for several different constituencies between 1810 and 1835, was outlawed by due process of law for absenting himself from trial for homosexuality and died in 1855 in Venice as an outlaw. There

1144-682: The album that came to be called Exile on Main Street , the Main Street of the title referring to the French Riviera. In 2012, Eduardo Saverin , one of the founders of Facebook, made headlines by renouncing his U.S. citizenship before his company's IPO . The dual Brazilian/U.S. citizen's decision to move to Singapore and renounce his citizenship spurred a bill in the U.S. Senate, the Ex-PATRIOT Act , which would have forced such wealthy tax exiles to pay

1188-1012: The ancient Norse and Icelandic legal code . In early modern times, the term Vogelfrei and its cognates came to be used in Germany, the Low Countries , and Scandinavia , referring to a person stripped of his civil rights being "free" for the taking like a bird. In Germany and Slavic countries during the 15th to 19th centuries, groups of outlaws were composed of former prisoners, soldiers, etc. Hence, they became an important social phenomenon. They lived off of robbery, and local inhabitants from lower classes often supported their activity. The best known are Juraj Jánošík and Jakub Surovec in Slovakia, Oleksa Dovbush in Ukraine, Rózsa Sándor in Hungary, Schinderhannes and Hans Kohlhase in Germany. The concept of outlawry

1232-445: The formal procedure of declaring someone an outlaw, i.e., putting him outside legal protection. In the common law of England , a judgment of (criminal) outlawry was one of the harshest penalties in the legal system since the outlaw could not use the legal system for protection, e.g., from mob justice . To be declared an outlaw was to suffer a form of civil or social death. The outlaw was debarred from all civilized society. No one

1276-603: The island is political in nature. At the time of the Cuban Revolution, Cuba only had a population of 6.5 million, and was not a country that had a history of significant emigration, it being the sixth largest recipient of immigrants in the world as of 1958. Most of the exiles' children also consider themselves to be Cuban exiles . Under Cuban law, children of Cubans born abroad are considered Cuban citizens. An extension of colonial practices, Latin America saw widespread exile, of

1320-495: The law or those merely opposed to "law-and-order" notions of conformity and authority (such as the " outlaw country " music movement in the 1970s). Exile Exile or banishment is primarily penal expulsion from one's native country , and secondarily expatriation or prolonged absence from one's homeland under either the compulsion of circumstance or the rigors of some high purpose. Usually persons and peoples suffer exile, but sometimes social entities like institutions (e.g.

1364-546: The legal system. In early Germanic law , the death penalty is conspicuously absent, and outlawing is the most extreme punishment, presumably amounting to a death sentence in practice. The concept is known from Roman law , as the status of homo sacer , and persisted throughout the Middle Ages . A secondary meaning of outlaw is a person systematically avoiding capture by evasion and violence. These meanings are related and overlapping but not necessarily identical. A fugitive who

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1408-698: The most well-known instances of this is the Polish government-in-exile , a government in exile that commanded Polish armed forces operating outside Poland, and the African-based Free French Forces government of Charles de Gaulle during the German Occupation of Poland and France in WWII . Other post-war examples include the client All Palestine Government established by the Egyptian Kingdom , and

1452-722: The other as being "illegal", notorious cases being the use of proscription in the civil wars of the Roman Republic . In later times there was the notable case of Napoleon Bonaparte whom the Congress of Vienna , on 13 March 1815, declared had "deprived himself of the protection of the law" . In modern times, the government of the First Spanish Republic , unable to reduce the Cantonal rebellion centered in Cartagena, Spain , declared

1496-504: The passengers, the rest broke open the safe and stole more money. All five robbers managed to escape unharmed, with a total of $ 12,000 (equivalent to $ 290,000 in 2023). Following one of the James-Younger gang's most successful robberies, the Pinkerton National Detective Agency began attempting to hunt down the members of the gang, particularly the ones responsible for the train robbery. In March 1874, John Younger

1540-650: The possibility of being declared an outlaw for derelictions of civil duty continued to exist in English law until the passing of the Civil Procedure Acts Repeal Act 1879 ( 42 & 43 Vict. c. 59) in 1879 and in Scots law until the late 1940s. Since then, failure to find the defendant and serve process is usually interpreted in favour of the plaintiff, and harsh penalties for mere nonappearance (merely presumed flight to escape justice) no longer apply. Outlawry also existed in other ancient legal codes, such as

1584-439: The three oldest Younger brothers. On January 31, 1874, five men, believed to have been Jesse and Frank James, Cole Younger, Jim Younger and John Younger, entered the small town of Gads Hill, Missouri , and robbed the general store . Afterwards, they proceeded to hold the townspeople hostage inside the store. A train was expected to arrive there at 4:00 pm that day, but it ended up being forty-five minutes late. When it did arrive,

1628-563: The use of fire or water was illegal, and they could be killed at will without legal penalty. The interdiction of water and fire was traditionally imposed by the tribune of the plebs and is attested to have been in use during the First Punic War of the third century BC by Cato the Elder . It was later also applied by many other officials, such as the Senate , magistrates , and Julius Caesar as

1672-558: Was Dante . The German-language writer Franz Kafka described the exile of Karl Rossmann in the posthumously published novel Amerika . During the period of National Socialism in the first few years after 1933, many Jews, as well as a significant number of German artists and intellectuals fled into exile; for instance, the authors Klaus Mann and Anna Seghers . So Germany's own exile literature emerged and received worldwide credit. Klaus Mann finished his novel Der Vulkan ( The Volcano: A Novel Among Emigrants ) in 1939 describing

1716-400: Was allowed to give him food, shelter, or any other sort of support—to do so was to commit the crime of aiding and abetting , and to be in danger of the ban oneself. A more recent concept of " wanted dead or alive " is similar but implies that a trial is desired (namely if the wanted person is returned alive), whereas outlawry precludes a trial. An outlaw might be killed with impunity, and it

1760-502: Was also a doctrine of civil outlawry. Civil outlawry did not carry the sentence of capital punishment. It was, however, imposed on defendants who fled or evaded justice when sued for civil actions like debts or torts. The punishments for civil outlawry were harsh, including confiscation of chattels (movable property) left behind by the outlaw. In the civil context, outlawry became obsolete in civil procedure by reforms that no longer required summoned defendants to appear and plead. Still,

1804-462: Was an outlaw. If a man was accused of treason or felony but failed to appear in court to defend himself, he was deemed convicted. If he was accused of a misdemeanour , then he was guilty of a serious contempt of court which was itself a capital crime. In the context of criminal law , outlawry faded out, not so much by legal changes as by the greater population density of the country, which made it harder for wanted fugitives to evade capture, and by

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1848-467: Was killed during a shootout with Jim Younger and three lawmen in Saint Clair, Missouri . Outlaw An outlaw , in its original and legal meaning, is a person declared as outside the protection of the law . In pre-modern societies, all legal protection was withdrawn from the criminal, so anyone was legally empowered to persecute or kill them. Outlawry was thus one of the harshest penalties in

1892-402: Was not only lawful but meritorious to kill a thief fleeing from justice—to do so was not murder . A man who slew a thief was expected to declare the fact without delay; otherwise, the dead man's kindred might clear his name by their oath and require the slayer to pay weregild as for a true man. By the rules of common law, a criminal outlaw did not need to be guilty of the crime for which he

1936-482: Was reintroduced to British law by several Australian colonial governments in the late 19th century to deal with the menace of bushranging . The Felons Apprehension Act (1865 No 2a) of New South Wales provided that a judge could, upon proof of sufficiently notorious conduct, issue a special bench warrant requiring a person to submit themselves to police custody before a given date, or be declared an outlaw. An outlawed person could be apprehended "alive or dead" by any of

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