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22-406: Structural fumigation targets pests inside buildings (usually residences), including pests that inhabit the physical structure itself, such as woodborers and drywood termites . Commodity fumigation, on the other hand, is also to be conducted inside a physical structure, such as a storage unit, but it aims to eliminate pests from infesting physical goods, usually food products, by killing pests within

44-475: A residential setting, a "rubber" tent or tents, typically made of plastic/pvc coated canvas material, may be placed over the entire structure while the pesticides are being released into the vacant structure. This process is called tent fumigation, or "tenting". The sealed tent contains the poisonous gases and prevents them from escaping into the environment. This process is commonly used for the treatment of drywood termites and/or bedbugs, using sulfuryl fluoride as

66-404: A type that only attacks living wood, and thus incapable of "infesting" any other pieces of wood, or doing any further damage. Genuine infestations are far more likely in areas with high humidity, such as poorly ventilated crawl spaces . Housing with central heating/air-conditioning tends to cut the humidity of wood in the living areas to less than half of natural humidity, thus strongly reducing

88-439: Is a non-toxic and low cost agent. For example, to fumigate a 1000   ft (~28.32   m) area, a 20% solution (200   mL of solution in 1000   mL demineralized water) would be sprayed via fogger for 30 minutes. Fogging may be done at a rate of up to 130   mL/minute and the contact time should be at least one hour. At the heart of this technology is the use of chemicals. Ideally, these chemicals kill or passivate

110-399: Is held for a set period while the fumigant gas percolates through the space and acts on/kills any infestation in the area. Finally, the space is ventilated so that the poisonous gases are allowed to escape from the space, rendering it safe for humans to enter. If successful, the fumigated area is now safe and pest free. Structural fumigation techniques differ from building to building. In

132-679: Is named after the western slopes of the Ural Mountains in Russia and Kazakhstan. Limestones on the edge of Russian Platform and make up the Ishimbay oil fields. These oil fields were vital to the Soviet Union during WW2 when the Germans controlled the oil fields to the west. The International Chronostratigraphic Chart (v2018/07) provides a numerical age of 298.9 ± 0.15 – 272.3 ± 0.5 Ma. The base of

154-462: Is required. Fumigation with formaldehyde vapor is the recognized and most commonly used method because it is a cost-effective procedure. However, alternative methods are sought due to safety and efficacy concerns. Vaporized hydrogen peroxide is a dry gaseous method that has been used as a reliable alternative for aseptic processing isolators, and more recently, for room/facility decontamination. Hydrogen peroxide and silver in solution and diluted in water

176-651: The Guadalupian . The Cisuralian Epoch is named after the western slopes of the Ural Mountains in Russia and Kazakhstan and dates between 298.9 ± 0.15 – 272.3 ± 0.5 Ma . In the regional stratigraphy of southwestern North America, the Cisuralian encompasses two series: the Wolfcampian (Asselian to mid-Artinskian) and Leonardian (mid-Artinskian to Kungurian). The series saw the appearance of beetles and flies and

198-670: The Hercynian orogeny continued. This created the large supercontinent, Pangea , by the middle of the early Permian, which was to have an impact on the climate. At the start of the Permian, the Late Palaeozoic Ice Age , which began in the Carboniferous , was at its peak. Glaciers receded over the course of the late Cisuralian as the Earth's climate gradually warmed, particularly during

220-488: The Artinskian Warming Event, drying the continent's interiors. The pan-tropical belt of Pangaea experienced particularly significant aridification during this epoch. The swampy fringes were mostly ferns, seed ferns, and lycophytes . The series saw the appearance of beetles and flies. The coal swamps from the Carboniferous declined but the herbivores, Diadectes and Edaphosaurus persisted until

242-635: The Cisuralian series and the Permian system is defined as the place in the stratigraphic record where fossils of the conodont Streptognathodus isolatus first appear. The global reference profile for the base (the GSSP or golden spike ) is located in the valley of the Aidaralash River, near Aqtöbe in the Ural Mountains of Kazakhstan. Gondwana collided with Laurussia and created the Alleghenian orogeny in present-day North America. In northwestern Europe,

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264-480: The area is a critical safety aspect of fumigation. It is important to distinguish between the pack or source of the fumigant gas and the environment which has been fumigated. While the fumigant pack may be safe and spent, the space will still hold the fumigant gas until it has been ventilated. Woodborer The term woodboring beetle encompasses many species and families of beetles whose larval or adult forms eat and destroy wood (i.e., are xylophagous ). In

286-469: The beetles' bodies but also are concentrated in their frass, contributing to soil nutrients cycles. Though the vast majority of woodboring beetles are ecologically important and economically benign, some species can become economic pests by attacking relatively healthy trees (e.g. Asian longhorn beetle , emerald ash borer ) or by infesting downed trees in lumber yards. Species such as the Asian longhorn beetle and

308-429: The container which will house them. Each fumigation lasts for a certain duration. This is because after spraying the pesticides, or fumigants, only the pests around are eradicated. Fumigation generally involves the following phases: first, humans are evacuated from the area intended for fumigation and the area covered to create a sealed environment. Next, the fumigant is released into the space to be fumigated. The space

330-420: The emerald ash borer are examples of invasive species that threaten natural forest ecosystems. Woodboring beetles are commonly detected a few years after new construction. The lumber supply may have contained wood infected with beetle eggs or larvae, and since beetle life cycles can be one or more years, several years may pass before the presence of beetles becomes noticeable. In many cases, the beetles will be of

352-487: The end of this series, approximately. The dry interior had small insectivores. Caseids and prototherapsid Tetraceratops made their appearance. The marine life was probably more diverse than modern times as the climate warmed. Unusual sharks such as Helicoprion continued in this series. Early Permian terrestrial faunas were dominated by pelycosaurs (a paraphyletic group of early synapsids ), diadectids , and temnospondyls , The pelycosaurs appeared during

374-531: The likelihood of an infestation. Some species will infest furniture. Some beetles invade wood used in construction and furniture making; others limit their activity to forests or roots of living trees. The following lists some of those beetles that are house pests. Early Permian The Cisuralian is the first series / epoch of the Permian . The Cisuralian was preceded by the Pennsylvanian and followed by

396-617: The pesticide (sulfuryl fluoride is a naturally occurring gas, used in much higher concentration than found in the natural atmosphere, and which leaves no physical residue). The fumigated structure can be re-occupied after the tent has been removed and the pesticide has dissipated to a safe level, with no need for physical cleaning. Fumigation of hospital rooms with high concentrations of toxic chemicals has been proposed to reduce microbial agents on hospital surfaces and to control surgical site infections. Formaldehyde fumigation has long been an accepted method for areas where microbiological cleanliness

418-494: The targeted creatures without harming others. Usually such a feat is impossible, so fumigation is conducted in the absence of humans. Many chemicals have been discontinued owing to safety issues. Fumigation is a hazardous operation. Generally it is a legal requirement that the operator who carries out the fumigation operation holds official certification to perform the fumigation, as the chemicals used are toxic to most forms of life, including humans. Post operation ventilation of

440-436: The turnover of trees by culling weak trees, thus allowing new growth to occur. They are also important as primary decomposers of trees within forest systems, allowing for the recycling of nutrients locked away in the relatively decay-resilient woody material of trees. To develop and reach maturity woodboring beetles need nutrients provided by fungi from outside of the inhabited wood. These nutrients are not only assimilated into

462-620: The woodworking industry, larval stages of some are sometimes referred to as woodworms . The three most species-rich families of woodboring beetles are longhorn beetles , bark beetles and weevils , and metallic flat-headed borers . Woodboring is thought to be the ancestral ecology of beetles, and bores made by beetles in fossil wood extend back to the earliest fossil record of beetles in the Early Permian ( Asselian ), around 295-300 million years ago. Woodboring beetles most often attack dying or dead trees. In forest settings, they are important in

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484-541: Was a relatively stable warming period of about 21 million years. The Cisuralian is the first series or epoch of the Permian. The Cisuralian was preceded by the last Pennsylvanian epoch ( Gzhelian ) and is followed by the Permian Guadalupian Epoch. The name "Cisuralian" was proposed in 1982, and approved by the International Subcommission on Permian Stratigraphy in 1996. The Cisuralian Epoch

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