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145-466: Fruitvale (originally Fruit Vale and formerly Brays ) is a neighborhood in Oakland , California , United States. It is located approximately 4 miles (6.44 km) southeast of Downtown , and is home to the city's largest Hispanic population, with Hispanics constituting 53.8% of Fruitvale's population. Fruitvale's ZIP code is 94601. It lies at an elevation of 49 feet (15 m). The area got its name from

290-407: A 'lease' which turned out to be a mortgage against the 19,000-acre rancho. The lands became Carpentier's when Peralta refused to repay the loan he believed was fraudulently incurred. The Peraltas had no choice but to abandon the homesite they had occupied for two generations." In 1851, three men— Horace Carpentier , Edson Adams, and Andrew Moon—began developing what is now downtown Oakland. In 1852,

435-644: A chapter in Oakland, and the Chicano Revolutionary Party was another Chicano militant organization. The Chicano Revolutionary Party had a free breakfast program that the Black Panthers had helped them create in Jingletown; they also patrolled the streets of Fruitvale and helped defend it against police brutality. La Raza Unida Party also had a chapter in Oakland. The Clinica de la Raza was created due to

580-479: A critical historical moment in which Mexican-Americans and Mexicans were "under pressure to assimilate particular standards—of beauty, of identity, of aspiration. In a Mexican context, the pressure was to urbanize and Europeanize ... "Mexican-Americans" were expected to accept anti-indigenous discourses as their own." As Pérez-Torres concludes, Aztlán allowed "for another way of aligning one's interests and concerns with community and with history ... though hazy as to

725-409: A cultural identity that is neither fully "American" or "Mexican." Chicano culture embodies the "in-between" nature of cultural hybridity . Central aspects of Chicano culture include lowriding , hip hop , rock , graffiti art , theater, muralism , visual art, literature, poetry, and more. Mexican American celebrities, artists, and actors/actresses help bring Chicano culture to light and contribute to

870-651: A difference in cultural views. Chicano was widely reclaimed in the 1960s and 1970s during the Chicano Movement to assert a distinct ethnic, political, and cultural identity that resisted assimilation into the mainstream American culture, systematic racism and stereotypes, colonialism, and the American nation-state. Chicano identity formed around seven themes: unity, economy, education, institutions, self-defense, culture, and political liberation, in an effort to bridge regional and class divisions. The notion of Aztlán ,

1015-653: A disproportionate death toll from the COVID-19 pandemic and Delta cron hybrid variant within the San Francisco Bay Area. In 2023, prior to and during the Covid pandemic, Oakland became the first city in American history to lose three professional major league sports teams to other cities within a span of five years. Oakland is in the eastern region of the San Francisco Bay . The United States Census Bureau says

1160-513: A diverse group of nations and peoples. A 2011 study found that 85 to 90% of maternal mtDNA lineages in Mexican Americans are Indigenous. Chicano ethnic identity may involve more than just Indigenous and Spanish ancestry. It may also include African ancestry (as a result of Spanish slavery or runaway slaves from Anglo-Americans). Arteaga concluded that "the physical manifestation of the Chicano,

1305-430: A foreigner and is expected to do menial labor and ask nothing of the society in which she lives." Among Mexican Americans, Chicano and Chicana began to be viewed as a positive identity of self-determination and political solidarity. In Mexico, Chicano may still be associated with a Mexican American person of low importance, class , and poor morals (similar to the terms Cholo , Chulo and Majo ), indicating

1450-459: A form of empowerment and resistance. The community forged an independent political and cultural movement, sometimes working alongside the Black power movement . The Chicano Movement faltered by the mid-1970s as a result of external and internal pressures. It was under state surveillance, infiltration, and repression by U.S. government agencies , informants , and agent provocateurs , such as through

1595-504: A habit of nearby mill workers, largely males of Portuguese and Azorean background, who would jingle the coins from a week's work in their pockets as they walked to display their prosperity. In the late 1950s and 1960s the Portuguese began moving out and Latinos began moving in, becoming the majority of Jingletown's population. About half of Jingletown's population is still Latino but demographics are changing due to gentrification. In 1998,

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1740-514: A home on a property called "Oak Tree Farm" in the neighborhood of Fruitvale; the seventeen-room house, built as a wedding present for their daughter, is now called the Alfred H. Cohen House and remains one of the few 19th century landmarks in the Fruitvale area. About 80 years later, during and following World War II , massive numbers of African Americans and Latinos migrated to Oakland and located in

1885-511: A letter X. More than a letter, the X in Xicanisma is also a symbol to represent being at a literal crossroads or otherwise embodying hybridity . Xicanisma acknowledges Indigenous survival after hundreds of years of colonization and the need to reclaim one's Indigenous roots while also being "committed to the struggle for liberation of all oppressed people", wrote Francesca A. López. Activists like Guillermo Gómez-Peña , issued "a call for

2030-446: A marsh-lined wildlife haven, Lake Merritt was dredged and bordered with parks from the 1890s to the 1910s. Despite this reduction in habitat, Oakland is home to a number of rare and endangered species, many of which are localized to serpentine soils and bedrock. Lake Merritt is surrounded by residential and business districts, including downtown and Grand Lake . The city of Piedmont , incorporated in Oakland's central foothills after

2175-476: A model of transit-oriented development , showcasing a mixture of retail and housing integrated with public transportation. On December 2, 2016, a fire at a warehouse party in Fruitvale killed at least 36 people. The subsection of the neighborhood adjacent to the Oakland Estuary is called Jingletown , also called "JT" by East Oakland natives. The history of Jingletown begins with its name, originating from

2320-412: A mythical homeland claimed to be located in the southwestern United States , mobilized Mexican Americans to take social and political action. Chicano became a unifying term for mestizos . Xicano was also used in the 1970s. In the 1970s, Chicanos developed a reverence for machismo while also maintaining the values of their original platform. For instance, Oscar Zeta Acosta defined machismo as

2465-588: A new plant there, Oakland had become known as the " Detroit of the West," referring to the major auto manufacturing center in Michigan. Oakland expanded during the 1920s, as its population expanded with factory workers. Approximately 13,000 homes were built in the 3 years between 1921 and 1924, more than during the 13 years between 1907 and 1920. Many of the large downtown office buildings, apartment buildings, and single-family houses still standing in Oakland were built during

2610-717: A population of 440,646 in 2020. A major West Coast port, Oakland is the most populous city in the East Bay, the third most populous city in the Bay Area, and the eighth most populous city in California. It serves as the Bay Area's trade center: the Port of Oakland is the busiest port in Northern California , and the fifth- or sixth-busiest in the United States. A charter city , Oakland

2755-459: A prominent theme in Chicano art because the contemporary urban cholo culture" is seen as its heir. Many aspects of Chicano culture like lowriding cars and bicycles have been stigmatized and policed by Anglo Americans who perceive Chicanos as "juvenile delinquents or gang members" for their embrace of nonwhite style and cultures, much as they did Pachucos. These negative societal perceptions of Chicanos were amplified by media outlets such as

2900-534: A resource when its hillside oak and redwood timber were logged to build San Francisco . The fertile flatland soils helped it become a prolific agricultural region. In the 1850s, what became the first campus of the University of California was founded in Oakland, and Oakland was selected as the western terminal of the Transcontinental Railroad in 1869. The following year, Oakland's Lake Merritt became

3045-521: A return to the Amerindian roots of most Latinos as well as a call for a strategic alliance to give agency to Native American groups." This can include one's Indigenous roots from Mexico "as well as those with roots centered in Central and South America," wrote Francisco Rios. Castillo argued that this shift in language was important because "language is the vehicle by which we perceive ourselves in relation to

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3190-494: A small epidemic of Pneumonic plague which killed a dozen people in Oakland. This started when a man went hunting in Contra Costa Valley and killed a squirrel. After eating the squirrel, he fell ill four days later and another household member contracted the plague. This in turn was passed on either directly or indirectly to about a dozen others. The officials in Oakland acted quickly by issuing death certificates to monitor

3335-490: A space for Chicanos to partially escape criminalization in the 1990s. Artist and archivist Guadalupe Rosales states that "a lot of teenagers were being criminalized or profiled as criminals or gangsters, so the party scene gave access for people to escape that". Numerous party crews, such as Aztek Nation, organized events and parties would frequently take place in neighborhood backyards, particularly in East and South Los Angeles ,

3480-477: A special covered wagon outfitted to transport 700 fruit and nut trees. Half of the trees survived the journey and included apples, pears, peaches, cherries, quince, walnut, and hickory. After establishing a nursery in what would become Milwaukie, Oregon, in 1854 the family moved to the San Francisco Bay Area . Luelling bought 400 acres on Sausal Creek in what is now Oakland . The orchard he established

3625-458: A stigma that Black and Mexican cultures don't get along, but I wanted to show the beauty in being a product of both." Chicano political identity developed from a reverence of Pachuco resistance in the 1940s. Luis Valdez wrote that "Pachuco determination and pride grew through the 1950s and gave impetus to the Chicano Movement of the 1960s ... By then the political consciousness stirred by

3770-614: A stream that enters the San Francisco Bay at Emeryville . In 1772, the area that later became Oakland was colonized, along with the rest of California, by Spanish settlers for the king of Spain . In the early 19th century, the Spanish crown granted the East Bay area to Luis María Peralta for his Rancho San Antonio . The grant was confirmed by the successor Mexican republic upon its independence from Spain. Upon his death in 1842, Peralta divided his land among his four sons. Most of Oakland

3915-710: A subcategory underneath Spanish/Hispanic descent , which erased the possibility of Afro-Chicanos , Chicanos of Indigenous descent , and other Chicanos of color. Chicano did not appear on any subsequent census forms and Hispanic has remained. Since then, Hispanic has widely been used by politicians and the media. For this reason, many Chicanos reject the term Hispanic . Instead of or in addition to identifying as Chicano or any of its variations, some may prefer: Chicano and Chicana identity reflects elements of ethnic, political, cultural and Indigenous hybridity . These qualities of what constitutes Chicano identity may be expressed by Chicanos differently. Armando Rendón wrote in

4060-506: A total of US$ 57 million during the 2001–2011 timeframe to plaintiffs claiming police abuse; this is the largest sum paid by any city in California. On October 10, 2011, protesters and civic activists began " Occupy Oakland " demonstrations at Frank Ogawa Plaza in Downtown Oakland . African-Americans dropped to 28% of Oakland's population in 2010, from nearly half in 1980, due to fast-rising rents and an extreme housing crisis in

4205-616: A unique cultural identity, as noted by Charles "Chaz" Bojórquez , "with their hair done in big pompadours , and "draped" in tailor-made suits, they were swinging to their own styles. They spoke Cálo , their own language, a cool jive of half-English, half-Spanish rhythms. [...] Out of the zootsuiter experience came lowrider cars and culture, clothes, music, tag names, and, again, its own graffiti language." San Antonio–based Chicano artist Adan Hernandez regarded pachucos as "the coolest thing to behold in fashion, manner, and speech.” As described by artist Carlos Jackson, "Pachuco culture remains

4350-456: A vacant three-bedroom house in West Oakland. The group, calling themselves Moms 4 Housing , said their goal was to protest what they said was a large number of vacant houses in Oakland owned by redevelopment companies while the city experienced a housing crisis. Two months later they were evicted from the house by three dozen sheriff's deputies, as hundreds of supporters demonstrated in favor of

4495-508: A way for Chicanos to reclaim a diverse or imprecise Indigenous past; while recognizing how Aztlán promoted divisive forms of Chicano nationalism that "did little to shake the walls and bring down the structures of power as its rhetoric so firmly proclaimed". As stated by Chicano historian Juan Gómez-Quiñones , the Plan Espiritual de Aztlán was "stripped of what radical element it possessed by stressing its alleged romantic idealism, reducing

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4640-520: A world of government-sanctioned disorder. Pachuco culture, which probably originated in the El Paso-Juarez area, spread to the borderland areas of California and Texas as Pachuquismo , which would eventually evolve into Chicanismo . Chicano zoot suiters on the west coast were influenced by Black zoot suiters in the jazz and swing music scene on the East Coast . Chicano zoot suiters developed

4785-659: Is a Spanish language derivative of an older Nahuatl word Mexitli ("Meh-shee-tlee"). Mexitli formed part of the expression Huitzilopochtlil Mexitli —a reference to the historic migration of the Mexica people from their homeland of Aztlán to the Valley of Mexico . Mexitli is the root of the word Mexica , which refers to the Mexica people , and its singular form Mexihcatl ( /meːˈʃiʔkat͡ɬ/ ). The x in Mexihcatl represents an /ʃ/ or sh sound in both Nahuatl and early modern Spanish, while

4930-443: Is a guideline for family life." From the beginning of the Chicano Movement, some Chicanas criticized the idea that machismo must guide the people and questioned if machismo was "indeed a genuinely Mexican cultural value or a kind of distorted view of masculinity generated by the psychological need to compensate for the indignities suffered by Chicanos in a white supremacist society." Angie Chabram-Dernersesian found that most of

5075-524: Is ample literary evidence to substantiate that Chicano is a long-standing endonym , as a large body of Chicano literature pre-dates the 1950s. In the 1940s, "Chicano" was reclaimed by Pachuco youth as an expression of defiance to Anglo-American society. At the time, Chicano was used among English and Spanish speakers as a classist and racist slur to refer to working class Mexican Americans in Spanish-speaking neighborhoods. In Mexico,

5220-411: Is far enough inland that the fog often burns off by midday, allowing it to have typically sunny California days. The hills tend to have more fog than the flatlands, as the fog drifts down from Berkeley . The U.S. Weather Bureau kept weather records in downtown Oakland from October 4, 1894, to July 31, 1958. During that time, the record high temperature was 104 °F (40 °C) on June 24, 1957, and

5365-580: Is itself a product of hybridity." Robert Quintana Hopkins argues that Afro-Chicanos are sometimes erased from the ethnic identity "because so many people uncritically apply the ' one drop rule ' in the U.S. [which] ignores the complexity of racial hybridity." Black and Chicano communities have engaged in close political movements and struggles for liberation, yet there have also been tensions between Black and Chicano communities. This has been attributed to racial capitalism and anti-Blackness in Chicano communities. Afro-Chicano rapper Choosey stated "there's

5510-536: Is located near the shopping district, at the corner of 33rd Avenue and East 12th Street. AC Transit bus lines servicing the district include the 1T , 14, 19, 20, 21, 39, 40, 51, 54, 62, 339 and O lines. Oakland, California Oakland is a city in the East Bay region of the San Francisco Bay Area in the U.S. state of California . It is the county seat and most populous city in Alameda County , with

5655-519: Is not "bound to the feminine or masculine aspects" and that it may be "inclusive to anyone who identifies with it". Some prefer the -e suffix Xicane in order to be more in-line with Spanish-speaking language constructs. In the 1930s, "community leaders promoted the term Mexican American to convey an assimilationist ideology stressing white identity," as noted by legal scholar Ian Haney López . Lisa Y. Ramos argues that "this phenomenon demonstrates why no Black-Brown civil rights effort emerged prior to

5800-527: Is not to replace patriarchy with matriarchy , but to create "a nonmaterialistic and nonexploitive society in which feminine principles of nurturing and community prevail"; where the feminine is reinserted into our consciousness rather than subordinated by colonization . The X reflects the Sh sound in Mesoamerican languages (such as Tlaxcala , which is pronounced Tlash-KAH-lah ), and so marked this sound with

5945-527: Is one of the major commercial areas of the city. The area is home to many Latino businesses and hosts several annual cultural events, including a Cinco de Mayo parade and a Día De Los Muertos festival, which began in 1996 on International Blvd. Before the 1970s, the area had the Montgomery Wards West Coast distribution center and retail store located on the downtown Oakland side, roughly opposite East Oakland Hospital, both on East 14th Street. On

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6090-417: Is the only beach in Oakland. Oaklanders refer to their city's terrain as "the flatlands" and "the hills" . Until recent waves of gentrification, these terms also symbolized Oakland's deep economic divide, with "the hills" being more affluent communities. About two-thirds of Oakland lies in the flat plain of the East Bay, with one-third rising into the foothills and hills of the East Bay range. Ruptures along

6235-489: Is typified by the temperate and seasonal Mediterranean climate. Summers are usually dry and warm and winters are cool and damp. It has features found in both nearby coastal cities such as San Francisco and inland cities such as San Jose , making it warmer than San Francisco and cooler than San Jose. Its position on San Francisco Bay across from the Bay Bridge means the northern part of the city can have cooling maritime fog . It

6380-459: The Black is Beautiful movement. Chicano identity emerged as a symbol of pride in having a non-white and non-European image of oneself. It challenged the U.S. census designation "Whites with Spanish Surnames" that was used in the 1950s. Chicanos asserted ethnic pride at a time when Mexican assimilation into American culture was being promoted by the U.S. government. Ian Haney López argues that this

6525-630: The Los Angeles Times . Luis Alvarez remarks how negative portrayals in the media served as a tool to advocate for increased policing of Black and Brown male bodies in particular: "Popular discourse characterizing nonwhite youth as animal-like, hypersexual, and criminal marked their bodies as "other" and, when coming from city officials and the press, served to help construct for the public a social meaning of African Americans and Mexican American youth [as, in their minds, justifiably criminalized ]." Chicano rave culture in southern California provided

6670-509: The Black Panther Party at Merritt College (then located at a former high school on Grove Street, now occupied by Children's Hospital Oakland Research Institute ), which emphasized Black nationalism , advocated armed self-defense against police, and was involved in several incidents that ended in the deaths of police officers and other Black Panther members. Among their social programs were feeding children and providing other services to

6815-544: The Brown Berets (1967–1972; 1992–Present) gained support in their protests of educational inequalities and demanding an end to police brutality . They collaborated with the Black Panthers and Young Lords , which were founded in 1966 and 1968 respectively. Membership in the Brown Berets was estimated to have reached five thousand in over 80 chapters (mostly centered in California and Texas). The Brown Berets helped organize

6960-569: The Chicano Blowouts of 1968 and the national Chicano Moratorium , which protested the high rate of Chicano casualties in the Vietnam War . Police harassment, infiltration by federal agents provacateur via COINTELPRO , and internal disputes led to the decline and disbandment of the Berets in 1972. Sánchez, then a professor at East Los Angeles College , revived the Brown Berets in 1992 prompted by

7105-672: The Chicano Manifesto (1971), "I am Chicano. What it means to me may be different than what it means to you." Benjamin Alire Sáenz wrote "There is no such thing as the Chicano voice: there are only Chicano and Chicana voices ." The identity can be somewhat ambiguous (e.g. in the 1991 Culture Clash play A Bowl of Beings , in response to Che Guevara 's demand for a definition of "Chicano", an "armchair activist" cries out, "I still don't know!"). Many Chicanos understand themselves as being "neither from here, nor from there", as neither from

7250-537: The Chicano Movement were expanded. Building solidarity with undocumented immigrants became more important, despite issues of legal status and economic competitiveness sometimes maintaining distance between groups. U.S. foreign interventions abroad were connected with domestic issues concerning the rights of undocumented immigrants in the United States . Chicano/a consciousness increasingly became transnational and transcultural , thinking beyond and bridging with communities over political borders. The identity

7395-616: The College of California , and in 1869, the first campus of the University of California . The university moved just north to Berkeley in the 1870s. During the 1850s, just as gold was discovered in California, Oakland started growing and further developing because land was becoming too expensive in San Francisco . People in China were struggling financially as a result of the First Opium War ,

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7540-628: The Congressional Hispanic Caucus with their perception of the Congressional Black Caucus . 'We certainly haven't been militant like the Black Caucus. We're seen as a power bloc—an ethnic power bloc striving to deal with mainstream issues.' In 1980, Hispanic was first made available as a self-identification on U.S. census forms. While Chicano also appeared on the 1980 U.S. census, it was only permitted to be selected as

7685-473: The Jim Crow South carried their racial attitudes, causing tensions to rise among black and white workers competing for better-paying jobs in the Bay Area. The racial harmony Oakland African-Americans had been accustomed to prior to the war evaporated. Also migrating to the area during this time were many Mexican Americans from southwestern states such as New Mexico , Texas , and Colorado . Many worked for

7830-618: The Oakland Hills . East Oakland, which includes the East Oakland Hills, encompasses more than half of Oakland's land area, stretching from Lakeshore Avenue on the east shore of Lake Merritt southeast to the San Leandro border. North Oakland encompasses the neighborhoods between downtown and Berkeley and Emeryville . West Oakland is the area between downtown and the Bay, partially surrounded by

7975-516: The Oakland Museum (established 1970). Chicano Chicano ( masculine form ) or Chicana ( feminine form ) is an ethnic identity for Mexican Americans that emerged from the Chicano Movement . Chicano was originally a classist and racist slur used toward low-income Mexicans that was reclaimed in the 1940s among youth who belonged to the Pachuco and Pachuca subculture. In

8120-552: The Oakland Point , and encompassing the Port of Oakland . In 2011, Oakland was ranked the tenth most walkable city in the United States by Walk Score . Lake Merritt, an urban estuary near downtown, is a mix of fresh and salt water draining in and out from the Oakland Harbor at the San Francisco Bay and one of Oakland's most notable features. It was designated the United States' first official wildlife refuge in 1870. Originally

8265-651: The San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge also sustained damage and was closed to traffic for one month. On October 20, 1991, a massive firestorm swept down from the Berkeley /Oakland hills above the Caldecott Tunnel. Twenty-five people were killed, 150 people were injured, and nearly 4,000 homes destroyed. With the loss of life and an estimated economic loss of US$ 1.5 billion, this was the worst urban firestorm in American history, until 2017. During

8410-571: The Second Opium War , and the Taiping Rebellion , so they began migrating to Oakland, many of whom were recruited to work on railroads. However, the Chinese struggled to settle because they were discriminated against by the white community and their living quarters were burned down on several occasions. The city and its environs quickly grew with the railroads, becoming a major rail terminal in

8555-532: The Southern Pacific Railroad , at its major rail yard in West Oakland. Their young men encountered hostility and discrimination by Armed Forces personnel, and tensions broke out in " zoot suit riots " in downtown Oakland in 1943 in the wake of a major disturbance in Los Angeles that year. In 1946, National City Lines (NCL), a General Motors holding company , acquired 64% of Key System stock; during

8700-457: The Third World . Chicanas worked to "liberate her entire people "; not to oppress men, but to be equal partners in the movement. Xicanisma , coined by Ana Castillo in 1994, called for Chicana/os to "reinsert the forsaken feminine into our consciousness", to embrace one's Indigenous roots, and support Indigenous sovereignty . In the 2000s, earlier traditions of anti-imperialism in

8845-593: The glottal stop in the middle of the Nahuatl word disappeared. The word Chicano may derive from the loss of the initial syllable of Mexicano (Mexican). According to Villanueva, "given that the velar (x) is a palatal phoneme (S) with the spelling (sh)," in accordance with the Indigenous phonological system of the Mexicas ("Meshicas"), it would become "Meshicano" or "Mechicano." In this explanation, Chicano comes from

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8990-630: The mainstream American culture. Etymologically deriving from the Spanish word " Hispano ", referring to the Latin word Hispania , which was used for the Iberian Peninsula under the Roman Republic, the term Hispanic is an Anglicized translation of the Spanish word "Hispano". Hispano is commonly used in the Spanish speaking world when referring to "Hispanohablantes" (Spanish speakers), " Hispanoamerica " (Spanish-America) and "Hispanos" when referring to

9135-451: The "xicano" in "Mexicano." Some Chicanos replace the Ch with the letter X , or Xicano , to reclaim the Nahuatl sh sound. The first two syllables of Xicano are therefore in Nahuatl while the last syllable is Castilian. In Mexico's Indigenous regions, Indigenous people refer to members of the non-Indigenous majority as mexicanos , referring to the modern nation of Mexico. Among themselves,

9280-478: The 1890s. The various streetcar companies operating in Oakland were acquired by Francis "Borax" Smith and consolidated into what eventually became known as the Key System , the predecessor of today's publicly owned AC Transit . Oakland was one of the worst affected cities in California that was impacted by the San Francisco plague of 1900–1904 . Quarantine measures were set in place at the Oakland ports requiring

9425-482: The 1906 earthquake, is a small independent city surrounded by the city of Oakland. Oakland has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate ( Köppen Csb ) with an average of 260 sunny days per year. In general, the city features warm, dry summers, and cool, wet winters. Based on data gathered by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , Oakland is ranked No. 1 in climate among U.S. cities. Oakland's climate

9570-427: The 1920s; they reflect the architectural styles of the time. Russell Clifford Durant established Durant Field at 82nd Avenue and East 14th Street in 1916. The first transcontinental airmail flight finished its journey at Durant Field on August 9, 1920, flown by Army Capt. Eddie Rickenbacker and Navy Lt. Bert Acosta . Durant Field was often called Oakland Airport, though the current Oakland International Airport

9715-656: The 1943 Zoot Suit Riots had developed into a movement that would soon issue the Chicano Manifesto—a detailed platform of political activism." By the 1960s, the Pachuco figure "emerged as an icon of resistance in Chicano cultural production." The Pachuca was not regarded with the same status. Catherine Ramírez credits this to the Pachuca being interpreted as a symbol of "dissident femininity, female masculinity, and, in some instances, lesbian sexuality". The political identity

9860-477: The 1950s California Supreme Court lawsuit Vallerga v. Dept. Alcoholic Bev. Control, when the bar challenged a state law for the right to serve gay patrons and won in 1959. In 1960, Kaiser Corporation opened its new headquarters; it was the largest skyscraper in Oakland, as well as "the largest office tower west of Chicago " up to that time. In the postwar period, suburban development increased around Oakland, and wealthier residents moved to new housing . Despite

10005-455: The 1960s, Chicano was widely reclaimed among Hispanics in the building of a movement toward political empowerment , ethnic solidarity , and pride in being of Indigenous descent (with many using the Nahuatl language or names ). Chicano was used in a sense separate from Mexican American identity. Youth in barrios rejected cultural assimilation into mainstream American culture and embraced their own identity and worldview as

10150-657: The 1960s." Chicano youth rejected the previous generation's racial aspirations to assimilate into Anglo-American society and developed a " Pachuco culture that fashioned itself neither as Mexican nor American." In the Chicano Movement, possibilities for Black–brown unity arose: "Chicanos defined themselves as proud members of a brown race, thereby rejecting, not only the previous generation's assimilationist orientation, but their racial pretensions as well." Chicano leaders collaborated with Black Power movement leaders and activists. Mexican Americans insisted that Mexicans were white, while Chicanos embraced being non-white and

10295-475: The Chicano party scene. Chicano identity functions as a way to reclaim one's Indigenous American , and often Indigenous Mexican , ancestry—to form an identity distinct from European identity, despite some Chicanos being of partial European descent—as a way to resist and subvert colonial domination. Rather than part of European American culture, Alicia Gasper de Alba referred to Chicanismo as an " alter-Native culture, an Other American culture Indigenous to

10440-581: The Deep South: Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina, and Texas, as well as Missouri and Tennessee. Henry J. Kaiser 's representatives recruited sharecroppers and tenant farmers from rural areas to work in his shipyards. African Americans were part of the Great Migration by which five million persons left the South, mostly for the West, from 1940 to 1970. White migrants from

10585-452: The FBI's COINTELPRO . The Chicano Movement also had a fixation on masculine pride and machismo that fractured the community through sexism toward Chicanas and homophobia toward queer Chicano/as. In the 1980s, increased assimilation and economic mobility motivated many to embrace Hispanic identity in an era of conservatism . The term Hispanic emerged from consultation between

10730-760: The Fruitvale District, and included the Josiah Lusk Canning Company, the Oakland Preserving Company (which started the Del Monte brand), and the California Packing Company. President Franklin D. Roosevelt called on defense industries with government contracts to integrate their workforces and provide opportunities for all Americans. Tens of thousands of laborers came from around the country, especially poor whites and blacks from

10875-592: The Fruitvale district was heavily settled by Chicanos and Latinos. The Chicano Movement that was going on at the time throughout the Southwest also spread to the Fruitvale district. After the 1968 murder of Charles Pinky De Baca by the Oakland Police Department , the community began to organize against police brutality. One of the first organizations was Latinos United for Justice. Many other militant and non-militant Chicano groups formed. The Brown Berets had

11020-848: The Institute of Mosaic Art, and one can see many mosaics displayed on buildings sprinkled throughout the neighborhood. Grupo TACA operates an Oakland-area TACA Satellite in Suite 130 at 3411 East 12th Street in Fruitvale Village. International Boulevard is a major thoroughfare that runs through Fruitvale and is locale to many restaurants and businesses. It has been called a "model for development" without gentrification . Oakland Unified School District operates district public schools. In addition Oakland Charter Academy and Oakland Charter High School , which are member schools of Amethod Public Schools , are located in Fruitvale. The Fruitvale BART station

11165-756: The Movement. As the Chicano political consciousness developed, Chicanas, including Chicana lesbians of color brought attention to " reproductive rights , especially sterilization abuse [ sterilization of Latinas ], battered women 's shelters, rape crisis centers , [and] welfare advocacy." Chicana texts like Essays on La Mujer (1977), Mexican Women in the United States (1980), and This Bridge Called My Back (1981) have been relatively ignored even in Chicano Studies . Sonia Saldívar-Hull argued that even when Chicanas have challenged sexism , their identities have been invalidated. Chicano political activist groups like

11310-683: The Pacific Coast. His 1854 nursery, Fruit Vale, is the namesake of the Fruitvale neighborhood. In Salem, Iowa, Luelling had established a fruit and nut tree nursery and dry goods store, but was ousted from the Salem Monthly Meeting of Friends for actively helping slaves escape on the Underground Railroad . In 1847, he migrated west on the Oregon Trail with his wife and their eight children. The family traveled by covered wagon along with

11455-678: The San Leandro side, to the south, was the Fruitvale Theater. In between, around 35th Avenue and E 14th St., were the Foodvale Market, a two-story department store, the post office, and a number of other businesses. St. Elizabeth's Catholic Church and Cristo Rey De La Salle East Bay High School are both located one block north of International Blvd. Henderson Luelling was an early Oakland, California, settler, horticulturist , Quaker , and abolitionist who introduced varietal fruit trees to

11600-551: The State Board of Health and the United States Public Health Service were only allotted about $ 60,000 a year to eradicate the disease. During this period Oakland did not have sufficient health facilities, so some of the infected patients were treated at home. The State Board of Health along with Oakland also advised physicians to promptly report any cases of infected patients. Yet, in 1919 it still resulted in

11745-530: The Town of Oakland was incorporated by the state legislature. During this time, Oakland had 75–100 inhabitants, two hotels, a wharf, two warehouses, and only cattle trails. Two years later, on March 25, 1854, Oakland re-incorporated as the City of Oakland. Horace Carpentier was elected the first mayor, though a scandal ended his mayorship in less than a year. In 1853, a preparatory academy was founded in Oakland that soon became

11890-499: The U.S. government and Mexican-American political elites in the Hispanic Caucus of Congress. They used the term to identify themselves and the community with mainstream American culture, depart from Chicanismo , and distance themselves from what they perceived as the "militant" Black Caucus . At the grassroots level , Chicano/as continued to build the feminist , gay and lesbian , and anti-apartheid movements, which kept

12035-556: The United States or Mexico. Juan Bruce-Novoa wrote in 1990: "A Chicano lives in the space between the hyphen in Mexican-American ." Being Chicano/a may represent the struggle of being institutionally acculturated to assimilate into the Anglo-dominated society of the United States, yet maintaining the cultural sense developed as a Latin-American cultured U.S.-born Mexican child. Rafael Pérez-Torres wrote, "one can no longer assert

12180-442: The United States' first officially designated wildlife refuge, now a National Historic Landmark . Following the catastrophic 1906 San Francisco earthquake , many San Francisco citizens moved to Oakland, enlarging the population, increasing its housing stock, and improving its infrastructure. It continued to grow in the 20th century with its port, shipyards , and manufacturing industry. In the 21st century, between 2019 and 2023, after

12325-588: The Vietnam War, primarily at local schools such as Fremont High School and Oakland High School . The Chicano Movement was very much part of Oakland's history, especially in the Fruitvale district. Its contributions are still seen throughout the district. Fruitvale has been experiencing rapid renovation. In 2004, the Unity Council opened the Fruitvale Transit Village. The "Fruitvale Village" has become

12470-516: The actions of the Chicano Movement as a need for a free clinic for the Chicano and Latino community of East Oakland. There were several actions by Chicanos against the Vietnam War in the Fruitvale district. On July 26, 1970, the Oakland Chicano Moratorium protest against the Vietnam War was held at San Antonio Park. One of the speakers was Chicano radical Rodolfo "Corky" Gonzáles . There were also several Chicano school walkouts against

12615-555: The area defined as the Central Business District in Oakland's 1998 General Plan. Brown's plan and other redevelopment projects were controversial due to potential rent increases and gentrification , which would displace lower-income residents from downtown Oakland into outlying neighborhoods and cities. Due to allegations of misconduct by the Oakland Police Department , the City of Oakland has paid claims for

12760-403: The authorities at the port to inspect the arriving vessels for the presence of infected rats. Quarantine authorities at these ports inspected over a thousand vessels per year for plague and yellow fever. By 1908, over 5,000 people were detained in quarantine. Hunters were sent to poison the affected areas in Oakland and shoot the squirrels, but the eradication work was limited in its range because

12905-411: The automobile industry went through restructuring, many jobs were lost. In addition, labor unrest increased as workers struggled to protect their livelihoods. Oakland was the center of a general strike during the first week of December 1946, one of six cities across the country that had such a strike after World War II. The Mary's First and Last Chance in Oakland was a lesbian bar, once the focus of

13050-797: The bay. On November 27, 1908, Homer took a ferry across the bay in a driving rainstorm and met for lunch with Frank and twenty three other businessmen at the Hotel Metropole at 13th and Jefferson. This gathering became the first meeting of the Tri-City Rotary Club, renamed in 1911 The Rotary Club of Oakland, the third Rotary Club in the world. This group established the tradition of weekly meetings, something most clubs worldwide follow today. In 1917, General Motors opened an automobile factory in East Oakland called Oakland Assembly . It produced Chevrolet cars and then GMC trucks until 1963, when it

13195-483: The boat's name is known. The Chicano poet and writer Tino Villanueva traced the first documented use of the term as an ethnonym to 1911, as referenced in a then-unpublished essay by University of Texas anthropologist José Limón. Linguists Edward R. Simmen and Richard F. Bauerle report the use of the term in an essay by Mexican-American writer, Mario Suárez, published in the Arizona Quarterly in 1947. There

13340-619: The city and county refused requests for hundreds of millions of dollars in benefits to the privately owned teams, Oakland lost three teams of the major North American sports leagues within a span of five years. The earliest known inhabitants of the area were the Huchiun natives, who lived there for thousands of years. The Huchiun belonged to a linguistic grouping later called the Ohlone (a Miwok word meaning "western people"). In Oakland, they were concentrated around Lake Merritt and Temescal Creek ,

13485-483: The city's total area is 78.0 square miles (202 km ), including 55.8 square miles (145 km ) of land and 22.2 square miles (57 km ) (28.48 percent) of water. Oakland's highest point is near Grizzly Peak Blvd, east of Berkeley, just over 1,760 feet (540 m) above sea level at about 37°52′43″N 122°13′27″W  /  37.8786°N 122.2241°W  / 37.8786; -122.2241 . Oakland has 19 miles (31 km) of shoreline, but Radio Beach

13630-451: The concept of Aztlán to a psychological ploy ... all of which became possible because of the Plan's incomplete analysis which, in turn, allowed it ... to degenerate into reformism ." While acknowledging its romanticized and exclusionary foundations, Chicano scholars like Rafael Pérez-Torres state that Aztlán opened a subjectivity which stressed a connection to Indigenous peoples and cultures at

13775-889: The deterritorializing qualities of Chicano subjectivity ." As early as the 1930s, the precursors to Chicano cultural identity were developing in Los Angeles, California and the Southwestern United States . Former zoot suiter Salvador "El Chava" reflects on how racism and poverty forged a hostile social environment for Chicanos which led to the development of gangs: "we had to protect ourselves". Barrios and colonias (rural barrios ) emerged throughout southern California and elsewhere in neglected districts of cities and outlying areas with little infrastructure. Alienation from public institutions made some Chicano youth susceptible to gang channels, who became drawn to their rigid hierarchical structure and assigned social roles in

13920-513: The development of brown pride . Mexican American continued to be used by a more assimilationist faction who wanted to define Mexican Americans "as a white ethnic group that had little in common with African Americans ." Carlos Muñoz argues that the desire to separate themselves from Blackness and political struggle was rooted in an attempt to minimize "the existence of racism toward their own people, [believing] they could "deflect" anti-Mexican sentiment in society" through affiliating with

14065-544: The diet of the Mexican peasant today", elaborating that "this passionate search for a national culture which existed before the colonial era finds its legitimate reason in the anxiety shared by native intellectuals to shrink away from that of Western culture in which they all risk being swamped ... the native intellectuals, since they could not stand wonderstruck before the history of today's barbarity, decided to go back further and to delve deeper down; and, let us make no mistake, it

14210-484: The earlier "Fruit Vale", the fruit tree nursery (mostly apricots and cherries) established there by Henderson Luelling in the mid-19th century. After the 1906 earthquake , the influx of refugees from San Francisco caused a population boom, and the unincorporated neighborhood was annexed into the city of Oakland by 1909. The Fruitvale shopping district is located along International Blvd. (formerly East 14th Street until 1995), from Fruitvale Avenue to 38th Avenue, and

14355-560: The early 20th century. By the 1950s, Chicano referred to those who resisted total assimilation, while Pocho referred (often pejoratively ) to those who strongly advocated for assimilation. In his essay "Chicanismo" in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures (2002), José Cuéllar , dates the transition from derisive to positive to the late 1950s, with increasing use by young Mexican-American high school students. These younger, politically aware Mexican Americans adopted

14500-702: The east (up to 30 inches [760 mm]), with nearly all precipitation falling between November and April. Overnight lows are mild. Oakland seldom experiences warm nights with the warmest recorded night of 72 °F (22 °C) in September 1971 and an average of 64 °F (18 °C) for the annual warmest low. The coldest day of the year averages a mild 50 °F (10 °C) and has never been recorded below 36 °F (2 °C). The National Weather Service today has two official weather stations in Oakland: Oakland International Airport and

14645-480: The emerging era of political and cultural conservatism in the United States during the 1980s. Key members of the Mexican American political elite, all of whom were middle-aged men, helped popularize the term Hispanic among Mexican Americans. The term was picked up by electronic and print media. Laura E. Gómez conducted a series of interviews with these elites and found that one of the main reasons Hispanic

14790-560: The greater social imaginary held by many people across the Americas who descend from Spanish families. The term Hispano is commonly used in the U.S. states of New Mexico, Texas, and Colorado, as well as used in Mexico and other Spanish-American countries when referring to the greater Spanish-speaking world, often referred to as "Latin America". Following the decline of the Chicano Movement , Hispanic

14935-677: The growing influence it has on American pop culture. In modern-day America you can now find Chicanos in all types of professions and trades. Notable subcultures include the Cholo , Pachuca , Pachuco , and Pinto subcultures. Chicano culture has had international influence in the form of lowrider car clubs in Brazil and England , music and youth culture in Japan , Māori youth enhancing lowrider bicycles and taking on cholo style, and intellectuals in France "embracing

15080-556: The high number of Chicano homicides in Los Angeles County , hoping to replace the gang life with the Brown Berets. Reies Tijerina , who was a vocal claimant to the rights of Latin Americans and Mexican Americans and a major figure of the early Chicano Movement , wrote: "The Anglo press degradized the word 'Chicano.' They use it to divide us. We use it to unify ourselves with our people and with Latin America." Chicano represents

15225-548: The identity politically relevant. After a decade of Hispanic dominance, Chicano student activism in the early 1990s recession and the anti- Gulf War movement revived the identity with a demand to expand Chicano studies programs. Chicanas were active at the forefront, despite facing critiques from "movement loyalists", as they did in the Chicano Movement . Chicana feminists addressed employment discrimination , environmental racism , healthcare , sexual violence , and exploitation in their communities and in solidarity with

15370-591: The incorporation of California into the United States after the Mexican–American War . Camarillo claims the family was the victim of targeted racial violence . He writes in Chicanos in California , "They lost everything when squatters cut down their fruit trees, killed their cattle, destroyed their buildings, and even fenced off the roads leading to the rancho. Especially insidious were the actions of attorney Horace Carpentier , who tricked Vicente Peralta into signing

15515-567: The land base now known as the West and Southwest of the United States." While influenced by settler-imposed systems and structures, Alba refers to Chicano culture as "not immigrant but native, not foreign but colonized, not alien but different from the overarching hegemony of white America ." The Plan Espiritual de Aztlán (1969) drew from Frantz Fanon 's The Wretched of the Earth (1961). In Wretched , Fanon stated: "the past existence of an Aztec civilization does not change anything very much in

15660-522: The late 1860s and 1870s. In 1868, the Central Pacific constructed the Oakland Long Wharf at Oakland Point, the site of today's Port of Oakland . A number of horsecar and cable car lines were constructed in Oakland during the latter half of the 19th century. The first electric streetcar set out from Oakland to Berkeley in 1891, and other lines were converted and added over the course of

15805-402: The late 1980s that the larger Fruitvale District began to attract more Latino residents. African Americans had either relocated to the outer East Oakland area south of Fruitvale or had moved out of the city altogether to outer Bay Area suburbs. Fruitvale became predominantly Latino, and is the cultural landmark for the city's Latino population. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the lower part of

15950-515: The literature on the Chicano Movement focused on men and boys, while almost none focused on Chicanas. The omission of Chicanas and the machismo of the Chicano Movement led to a shift by the 1990s. Xicanisma was coined by Ana Castillo in Massacre of the Dreamers (1994) as a recognition of a shift in consciousness since the Chicano Movement and to reinvigorate Chicana feminism . The aim of Xicanisma

16095-421: The major increases in the number and proportion of African Americans in the city, in 1966 only 16 of the city's 661 police officers were black. Tensions between the black community and the largely white police force were high, as expectations during the civil rights era increased to gain social justice and equality before the law. Police abuse of blacks was common. Students Huey Newton and Bobby Seale founded

16240-523: The mid-1990s, Oakland's economy began to recover as it transitioned to new types of jobs. In addition, the city participated in large development and urban renewal projects, concentrated especially in the downtown area, at the Port of Oakland , and at the Oakland International Airport . After his 1999 inauguration, Oakland Mayor Jerry Brown continued his predecessor Elihu Harris' public policy of supporting downtown housing development in

16385-604: The name Xicana for a town near the same location of Chicana , which is considered to be the oldest recorded usage of that term. A gunboat , the Chicana , was sold in 1857 to Jose Maria Carvajal to ship arms on the Rio Grande . The King and Kenedy firm submitted a voucher to the Joint Claims Commission of the United States in 1870 to cover the costs of this gunboat's conversion from a passenger steamer . No explanation for

16530-559: The nearby San Andreas Fault caused severe earth movement in the San Francisco Bay Area in 1906 and 1989. San Andreas quakes induces creep (movement occurring on earthquake faults) in the Hayward fault, which runs directly through Oakland, Berkeley, San Jose and other Bay Area cities. Oakland has more than 50 distinct neighborhoods. The city's greater divisions include downtown Oakland and its greater Central Business District , Lake Merritt , East Oakland , North Oakland , West Oakland , and

16675-403: The nearby town of Alameda being made an island. In 1906, the city's population doubled with refugees made homeless after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and fire. In 1908, the lawyer, former miner, and newspaper owner Homer Wood (1880–1976) suggested to his friend Frank Bilger of Blake and Bilger Rock Quarry and Paving Company that he organize a gathering to establish a Rotary Club east of

16820-416: The needy. As in many other American cities during the 1980s, crack cocaine became a serious problem in Oakland. Drug dealing in general, and the dealing of crack cocaine in particular, resulted in elevated rates of violent crime, causing Oakland to consistently be listed as one of America's most crime-ridden cities. In 1980, Oakland's Black population reached its 20th-century peak at approximately 47% of

16965-460: The neighborhood became home to an award-winning affordable housing project that has helped to revitalize the community. In 2003 a building boom began, with several local developers installing hundreds of market-rate condominiums, lofts and townhomes by the Estuary waterfront. The neighborhood remains home to many working artists who live and work in converted lofts. The neighborhood also used to be home to

17110-494: The next several years NCL engaged in the conspiratorial dissolution of Oakland's electric streetcar system. The city's expensive electric streetcar fleet was converted to cheaper diesel buses. The state Legislature created the Alameda and Contra Costa Transit District in 1955, which operates today as AC Transit , the third-largest bus-only transit system in the nation. After the war, as Oakland's shipbuilding industry declined and

17255-496: The old part of town, West Oakland . This era was followed by "urban renewal" and the construction of the Nimitz Freeway , which bulldozed much of West Oakland. There was then a movement of the dispossessed residents to East Oakland. Fruitvale was in the middle part of East Oakland and due to its location was heavily settled by African Americans and Latinos, who by 1990 formed a majority of the district's residents. It wasn't until

17400-454: The overall city population. The 6.9 M w Loma Prieta earthquake occurred on October 17, 1989. The rupture was related to the San Andreas fault system and affected the entire San Francisco Bay Area with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX ( Violent ). Many structures in Oakland were badly damaged including the double-decker portion of Interstate 880 that collapsed. The eastern span of

17545-516: The record low temperature was 24 °F (−4 °C) on January 23, 1949. Dry, warm offshore "Diablo" winds (similar to the Santa Ana winds of Southern California) sometimes occur, especially in fall, and raise the fire danger. In 1991, such an episode allowed the catastrophic Oakland Hills fire to spread and consume many homes. Oakland, like much of Northern California, is susceptible to winter rainstorms and Atmospheric rivers . The wettest "rain year"

17690-603: The region. The city inspected warehouses and live/work spaces after a fire broke out in the Ghost Ship warehouse , killing 36 people in 2016. Oakland is the second U.S. city, after Denver , to decriminalize psilocybin mushrooms . In June 2019, the City Council passed the resolution in a unanimous vote ending the investigation and imposition of criminal penalties for use and possession of natural entheogens . In November 2019, two homeless mothers and their children moved into

17835-406: The source of Chicano identity, claiming that this "instinctual and mystical source of manhood, honor and pride... alone justifies all behavior." Armando Rendón wrote in Chicano Manifesto (1971) that machismo was "in fact an underlying drive of the gathering identification of Mexican Americans... the essence of machismo , of being macho , is as much a symbolic principle for the Chicano revolt as it

17980-398: The speaker identifies by their pueblo (village or tribal) identity, such as Mayan , Zapotec , Mixtec , Huastec , or any of the other hundreds of Indigenous groups. A newly emigrated Nahuatl speaker in an urban center might have referred to his cultural relatives in this country, different from himself, as mexicanos , shortened to Chicanos or Xicanos. The town of Chicana

18125-439: The spread of plague. At the time of incorporation in 1852, Oakland had consisted of the territory that lay south of today's major intersection of San Pablo Avenue, Broadway, and Fourteenth Street. The city gradually annexed farmlands and settlements to the east and the north. Oakland's rise to industrial prominence, and its subsequent need for a seaport, led to the digging of a shipping and tidal channel in 1902. This resulted in

18270-446: The surrounding valleys, and Orange County . By 1995, it was estimated that over 500 party crews were in existence. They laid the foundations for "an influential but oft-overlooked Latin dance subculture that offered community for Chicano ravers, queer folk, and other marginalized youth." Ravers used map points techniques to derail police raids . Rosales states that a shift occurred around the late 1990s and increasing violence affected

18415-456: The term "as an act of political defiance and ethnic pride", similar to the reclaiming of Black by African Americans . The Chicano Movement during the 1960s and early 1970s played a significant role in reclaiming "Chicano," challenging those who used it as a term of derision on both sides of the Mexico-U.S. border . Demographic differences in the adoption of Chicano occurred at first. It

18560-470: The term was used with Pocho "to deride Mexicans living in the United States, and especially their U.S.-born children, for losing their culture, customs, and language." Mexican anthropologist Manuel Gamio reported in 1930 that Chicamo (with an m ) was used as a derogatory term by Hispanic Texans for recently arrived Mexican immigrants displaced during the Mexican Revolution in the beginning of

18705-412: The wholeness of a Chicano subject ... It is illusory to deny the nomadic quality of the Chicano community, a community in flux that yet survives and, through survival, affirms itself." Chicano is a way for Mexican Americans to assert ethnic solidarity and Brown Pride. Boxer Rodolfo Gonzales was one of the first to reclaim the term in this way. This Brown Pride movement established itself alongside

18850-440: The women. The incident received nationwide coverage. The company that owns the house later said they would sell it to a nonprofit affordable housing group. As of 2019, Oakland's per-capita homeless rate was higher than San Francisco and Berkeley. Between 2014 and 2020, Oakland strengthened its protections for tenants in order to reduce the displacement of its long-time residents. Between January 2020 and March 2022, Oakland suffered

18995-416: The world". Among a minority of Mexican Americans, the term Xicanx may be used to refer to gender non-conformity . Luis J. Rodriguez states that "even though most US Mexicans may not use this term," that it can be important for gender non-conforming Mexican Americans . Xicanx may destabilize aspects of the coloniality of gender in Mexican American communities. Artist Roy Martinez states that it

19140-478: Was incorporated on May 4, 1852, in the wake of the state's increasing population due to the California gold rush . Oakland's territory covers what was once a mosaic of California coastal terrace prairie , oak woodland , and north coastal scrub . In the late 18th century, it became part of a large rancho grant in the colony of New Spain , and was known for its plentiful oak tree stands. Its land served as

19285-636: Was called Fruit Vale, the namesake of the present neighborhood of Fruitvale. Luelling is buried in Mountain View Cemetery (Oakland, California) . Luelling sold some acreage to Frederick Rhoda who started his own fruit farm. Rhoda Street, Fruitvale is named for the family, and Lincoln Avenue was named for one of their sons. Another son, Franklin Rhoda was a founder of the Fruitvale Presbyterian Church. In 1859, Watson Augustus Bray built

19430-464: Was first defined by the U.S. Federal Office of Management and Budget 's (OMB) Directive No. 15 in 1977 as "a person of Mexican , Dominican , Puerto Rican , Cuban , Central or South America or other Spanish culture or origin, regardless of race ." The term was promoted by Mexican American political elites to encourage cultural assimilation into the mainstream culture and move away from Chicanismo . The rise of Hispanic identity paralleled

19575-411: Was founded on the principle that the U.S. nation-state had impoverished and exploited the Chicano people and communities. Alberto Varon argued that this brand of Chicano nationalism focused on the machismo subject in its calls for political resistance. Chicano machismo was both a unifying and fracturing force. Cherríe Moraga argued that it fostered homophobia and sexism , which became obstacles to

19720-510: Was from July 1997 to June 1998 with 47.76 inches (1,213.1 mm) and the driest from July 2020 to June 2021 with 8.03 inches (204.0 mm). The most rainfall in one month was 15.35 inches (390 mm) in January 1911. The most rainfall in 24 hours was 4.75 inches (121 mm) on December 31, 2022. Rainfall near the bayfront is only 23 inches (580 mm), but is higher in the Oakland Hills to

19865-410: Was more likely to be used by males than females, and less likely to be used among those of higher socioeconomic status. Usage was also generational, with third-generation men more likely to use the word. This group was also younger, more political, and different from traditional Mexican cultural heritage. Chicana was a similar classist term to refer to "[a] marginalized, brown woman who is treated as

20010-461: Was moved to Fremont in southern Alameda County. Also in 1916, the Fageol Motor Company chose East Oakland for their first factory, manufacturing farming tractors from 1918 to 1923. By 1920, Oakland was the home of numerous manufacturing industries, including metals , canneries, bakeries, internal combustion engines , automobiles, and shipbuilding. By 1929, when Chrysler expanded with

20155-588: Was promoted was to move away from Chicano : "The Chicano label reflected the more radical political agenda of Mexican-Americans in the 1960s and 1970s, and the politicians who call themselves Hispanic today are the harbingers of a more conservative, more accomadationist politics." Gómez found that some of these elites promoted Hispanic to appeal to white American sensibilities, particularly in regard to separating themselves from Black political consciousness. Gómez records: Another respondent agreed with this position, contrasting his white colleagues' perceptions of

20300-402: Was renewed based on Indigenous and decolonial consciousness , cultural expression, resisting gentrification , defense of immigrants, and the rights of women and queer people. Xicanx identity also emerged in the 2010s, based on the Chicana feminist intervention of Xicanisma . The etymology of the term Chicano is the subject of some debate by historians. Some believe Chicano

20445-646: Was shown on the Gutiérrez 1562 New World map near the mouth of the Colorado River , and is probably pre-Columbian in origin. The town was again included on Desegno del Discoperto Della Nova Franza , a 1566 French map by Paolo Forlani. Roberto Cintli Rodríguez places the location of Chicana at the mouth of the Colorado River, near present-day Yuma, Arizona . An 18th century map of the Nayarit Missions used

20590-462: Was soon established four miles (6.4 km) to the southwest. During World War II, the East Bay Area was home to many war-related industries. Oakland's Moore Dry Dock Company expanded its shipbuilding capabilities and built over 100 ships. Valued at $ 100 million in 1943, Oakland's canning industry was its second-most-valuable war contribution after shipbuilding. The largest canneries were in

20735-531: Was to "serve Anglo self-interest", who claimed Mexicans were white to try to deny racism against them. Alfred Arteaga argues that Chicano as an ethnic identity is born out of the European colonization of the Americas . He states that Chicano arose as hybrid ethnicity or race amidst colonial violence. This hybridity extends beyond a previously generalized "Aztec" ancestry, since the Indigenous peoples of Mexico are

20880-441: Was with the greatest delight that they discovered that there was nothing to be ashamed of in the past, but rather dignity, glory, and solemnity." The Chicano Movement adopted this perspective through the notion of Aztlán —a mythic Aztec homeland which Chicanos used as a way to connect themselves to a precolonial past, before the time of the " 'gringo' invasion of our lands." Chicano scholars have described how this functioned as

21025-493: Was within the shares given to Antonio Maria and Vicente. The portion of the parcel that is now Oakland was called Encinar (misrendered at an early date and carried forward as "encinal") – Spanish for " oak grove " – due to the large oak forest that covered the area, which eventually led to the city's name. According to Stanford University historian Albert Camarillo, the Peralta family struggled to keep their land after

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