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116-818: Ostwin Fritz Menzer (6 April 1908 in Herrndorf near Niederschöna in Saxony between Chemnitz and Dresden – 25 October 2005 in Bad Homburg vor der Höhe ) was a German cryptologist , who before and during World War II , worked in the In 7/VI , the Wehrmacht signals intelligence agency, later working in ( OKW/ Chi ) that was the cipher bureau of the supreme command of the Nazi party, and later in Abwehr ,

232-497: A key , scrambling the order of characters like the shuffled pieces of a jigsaw puzzle . The resulting message is hard to decipher without the key because there are many ways the characters can be arranged. For example, the plaintext "THIS IS WIKIPEDIA" could be encrypted to "TWDIP SIHII IKASE". To decipher the encrypted message without the key, an attacker could try to guess possible words and phrases like DIATHESIS, DISSIPATE, WIDTH, etc., but it would take them some time to reconstruct

348-532: A Bohemian exclave until 1809. Eastern parts were also ruled by Poland between 1002 and 1032, by the Duchy of Jawor , the southwesternmost duchy of fragmented Piast -ruled Poland, from 1319 to 1346, and by Hungary from 1469 to 1490, and Pechern (Upper Sorbian: Pěchč ) was part of the Duchy of Żagań , one of the Lower Silesian duchies formed in the course of the medieval fragmentation of Poland, remaining under

464-560: A clue as to the routes. A variation of the route cipher was the Union Route Cipher, used by Union forces during the American Civil War . This worked much like an ordinary route cipher, but transposed whole words instead of individual letters. Because this would leave certain highly sensitive words exposed, such words would first be concealed by code . The cipher clerk may also add entire null words, which were often chosen to make

580-796: A coalition of Austria, France and Russia against Prussia. Frederick II of Prussia chose to attack preemptively and invaded Saxony in August 1756, precipitating the Third Silesian War (part of the Seven Years' War ). The Prussians quickly defeated Saxony and incorporated the Saxon army into the Prussian Army . At the end of the Seven Years' War, Saxony recovered its independence in the 1763 Treaty of Hubertusburg . In 1806, French Emperor Napoleon abolished

696-456: A columnar transposition where the read-out is by rows instead of columns. Columnar transposition continued to be used for serious purposes as a component of more complex ciphers at least into the 1950s. A single columnar transposition could be attacked by guessing possible column lengths, writing the message out in its columns (but in the wrong order, as the key is not yet known), and then looking for possible anagrams . Thus to make it stronger,

812-614: A constitution for the Kingdom of Saxony that served as the basis for its government until 1918. During the 1848–49 constitutionalist revolutions in Germany , Saxony became a hotbed of revolutionaries, with anarchists such as Mikhail Bakunin and democrats including Richard Wagner and Gottfried Semper taking part in the May Uprising in Dresden in 1849. (Scenes of Richard Wagner's participation in

928-624: A cryptanalytic method for breaking the Wehrmacht's own machine, the Enigma machine . Subsequently, he was commissioned to lead his own unit within OKW/Chi, which had to deal with the cryptanalysis of foreign cryptographic methods, as well as the development and security check of own procedures and construction of new cryptanalytic aids. Thus, at the age of 28, Fritz Menzer became the Chief of Communications Security for

1044-407: A cylinder of the same diameter as the encrypting cylinder. Using the same example as before, if the cylinder has a radius such that only three letters can fit around its circumference, the cipherer writes out: In this example, the cylinder is running horizontally and the ribbon is wrapped around vertically. Hence, the cipherer then reads off: In a route cipher, the plaintext is first written out in

1160-413: A double transposition was often used. This is simply a columnar transposition applied twice. The same key can be used for both transpositions, or two different keys can be used. In the following example, we use the keys JANEAUSTEN and AEROPLANES to encrypt the following plaintext: " Transposition ciphers scramble letters like puzzle pieces to create an indecipherable arrangement." The colors show how

1276-605: A federalistic and pro-Austrian policy throughout the early 1860s until the outbreak of the Austro-Prussian War . During that war, Prussian troops overran Saxony without resistance and then invaded Austrian Bohemia . After the war, Saxony was forced to pay an indemnity and to join the North German Confederation in 1867. Under the terms of the North German Confederation, Prussia took over control of

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1392-448: A four-digit time group: On other links, a Fibonacci sequence of 100-125 digits would be generated through various manipulations of date, time and a secret number. If a message were longer that the key, it would be reversed as many as times as necessary. Key generation tables were also used. In use, the key constituted the input to an autoclave. After aligning the alphabets according to a prearranged system or according to an indicator in

1508-612: A grid of given dimensions, then read off in a pattern given in the key. For example, using the same plaintext that we used for rail fence : The key might specify "spiral inwards, clockwise, starting from the top right". That would give a cipher text of: Route ciphers have many more keys than a rail fence. In fact, for messages of reasonable length, the number of possible keys is potentially too great to be enumerated even by modern machinery. However, not all keys are equally good. Badly chosen routes will leave excessive chunks of plaintext, or text simply reversed, and this will give cryptanalysts

1624-483: A keystring of "432143." Plaintext columns with unique numbers are transcribed downward; those with recurring numbers are transcribed left to right: A disrupted transposition cipher further complicates the transposition pattern with irregular filling of the rows of the matrix, i.e. with some spaces intentionally left blank (or blackened out like in the Rasterschlüssel 44 ), or filled later with either another part of

1740-407: A mechanical system of producing a transposition cipher used by the ancient Greeks . The system consisted of a cylinder and a ribbon that was wrapped around the cylinder. The message to be encrypted was written on the coiled ribbon. The letters of the original message would be rearranged when the ribbon was uncoiled from the cylinder. However, the message was easily decrypted when the ribbon recoiled on

1856-459: A mechanism for variable stepping the Hagelin wheels. The device had six pin wheels which were mutually prime. The first five of these wheels had kicks of 1,2,4,8 and 10 respectively. The sixth wheel made these kicks positive and negative. The enciphering cycle of one letter, consisted of three elements: The original specifications called for a lightweight, durable machine to be used by units forward of

1972-658: A minority of 3.8%. About 0.9% of the Saxons belonged to an Evangelical free church ( Evangelische Freikirche , i.e. various Protestants outside the EKD), 0.3% to Orthodox churches and 1% to other religious communities, while 72.6% did not belong to any public-law religious society. The Moravian Church (see above) still maintains its religious centre in Herrnhut and it is there where 'The Daily Watchwords ' (Losungen) are selected each year which are in use in many churches worldwide. In particular in

2088-537: A patent for a "combined measuring apparatus for angles and lengths, the data [from which was] expressed in an enciphered form in a four-place combination of letters". After 12 years in the Signals Corps, where he had risen to the rank of Oberfunkmeister (a senior NCO rank), where his duties were to lick and seal hundreds of envelopes daily, he was eventually sent to OKW/Chi for testing. After his inclination and aptitude test for cryptanalysis work had been recognized at

2204-402: A sequence of "5,2,1,4,3,6" and cross out the 5th field of the matrix, then count again and cross out the second field, etc. The following example would be a matrix set up for columnar transposition with the columnar key "CRYPTO" and filled with crossed out fields according to the disruption key "SECRET" (marked with an asterisk), whereafter the message "we are discovered, flee at once" is placed in

2320-576: A transposition cipher. These include: The third method was developed in 1878 by mathematician Edward S. Holden and New-York Tribune journalists John R. G. Hassard and William M. Grosvenor who managed to deciphere telegrams between the Democratic Party and their operatives in the Southern states during the 1876 presidential election and thus prove facts of vote buying , influencing the 1878-1879 congressional elections . A detailed description of

2436-521: Is Dresden , and its largest city is Leipzig . Saxony is the tenth largest of Germany's sixteen states, with an area of 18,413 square kilometres (7,109 sq mi), and the sixth most populous , with more than 4 million inhabitants. The term Saxony has been in use for more than a millennium. It was used for the medieval Duchy of Saxony , the Electorate of Saxony of the Holy Roman Empire ,

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2552-523: Is a significant Buddhist community, which mainly caters to the population of Vietnamese origin, with one Buddhist temple built in 2008 and another one currently under construction. The Sikh faith also maintains a presence in Saxony's three largest cities with three (though small) Gurdwara . The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the state was 124.6 billion euros in 2018, accounting for 3.7% of German economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power

2668-509: Is also home to a minority of Sorbs , a West Slavic ethnic group native to the area, numbering an estimated 80,000 people. Saxony has a long history as a duchy , an electorate of the Holy Roman Empire (the Electorate of Saxony ), and finally as a kingdom (the Kingdom of Saxony ). In 1918, after Germany's defeat in World War I , its monarchy was overthrown and a republican form of government

2784-544: Is exercised through the Domowina . Former Minister President Stanislaw Tillich is of Sorbian ancestry and has been the first leader of a German state from a national minority. As of 2011, 72.6% of people are not affiliated with any religion. The Protestant Church in Germany represents the largest Christian denomination in the state, adhered to by 21.4% of the population. Members of the Roman Catholic Church formed

2900-435: Is located just across the border of Saxony-Anhalt . Leipzig shares, for instance, an S-train system (known as S-Bahn Mitteldeutschland ) and an airport with Halle. Saxony is a parliamentary democracy. A Minister President heads the government of Saxony. Michael Kretschmer has been Minister President since 13 December 2017. Gisela Reetz Ines Fröhlich Gesine Märtens Conrad Clemens Authorized representative of

3016-414: Is often combined with other techniques such as evaluation methods. For example, a simple substitution cipher combined with a columnar transposition avoids the weakness of both. Replacing high frequency ciphertext symbols with high frequency plaintext letters does not reveal chunks of plaintext because of the transposition. Anagramming the transposition does not work because of the substitution. The technique

3132-412: Is particularly powerful if combined with fractionation (see below). A disadvantage is that such ciphers are considerably more laborious and error prone than simpler ciphers. Transposition is particularly effective when employed with fractionation – that is, a preliminary stage that divides each plaintext symbol into two or more ciphertext symbols. For example, the plaintext alphabet could be written out in

3248-458: Is read off columnwise to give the ciphertext: If multiple messages of exactly the same length are encrypted using the same keys, they can be anagrammed simultaneously. This can lead to both recovery of the messages, and to recovery of the keys (so that every other message sent with those keys can be read). During World War I , the German military used a double columnar transposition cipher, changing

3364-511: Is the lowest with 1.49. Dresden's fertility rate of 1.58 is the highest of all German cities with more than 500,000 inhabitants. Saxony is home to the Sorbs . There are currently between 45,000 and 60,000 Sorbs living in Saxony (Upper Lusatia region). Today's Sorb minority is the remainder of the Slavic population that settled throughout Saxony in the early Middle Ages and over time slowly assimilated into

3480-596: Is unrelated to present-day Saxony but the name moved southwards due to certain historical events (see below). The territory of the Free State of Saxony became part of the Holy Roman Empire by the 10th century, when the dukes of Saxony were also kings (or emperors) of the Holy Roman Empire, comprising the Ottonian , or Saxon, dynasty. The Margravate of Meissen was founded in 985 as a frontier march , that soon extended to

3596-647: The Landesdirektion Sachsen  [ de ] . Saxony is a densely populated state if compared with more rural German states such as Bavaria or Lower Saxony . However, the population has declined over time. The population of Saxony began declining in the 1950s due to emigration, a process which accelerated after the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989. After bottoming out in 2013, the population has stabilized due to increased immigration and higher fertility rates. The cities of Leipzig, Dresden and Chemnitz, and

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3712-463: The Bundestag . Saxony is divided into 10 districts:   1. Bautzen (BZ)   2. Erzgebirgskreis (ERZ)   3. Görlitz (GR)   4. Leipzig (L)   5. Meissen (MEI) (Meissen)   6. Mittelsachsen (FG)   7. Nordsachsen (TDO)   8. Sächsische Schweiz-Osterzgebirge (PIR)   9. Vogtlandkreis (V) 10. Zwickau (Z) In addition, three cities have

3828-527: The Cottbus Bezirk . The Free State of Saxony was reconstituted with slightly altered borders in 1990, following German reunification . Besides the formerly Silesian area of Saxony, which was mostly included in the territory of the new Saxony, the free state gained further areas north of Leipzig that had belonged to Saxony-Anhalt until 1952. The highest mountain in Saxony is the Fichtelberg (1,215 m) in

3944-564: The Duchy of Magdeburg , the Altmark and some smaller territories to become the Prussian Province of Saxony , a predecessor of the modern state of Saxony-Anhalt . Lower Lusatia and part of the former Saxe-Wittenberg territory became part of the Province of Brandenburg and the northeastern part of Upper Lusatia became part of the Province of Silesia . The rump Kingdom of Saxony had roughly

4060-464: The Enigma cipher machine and those of Hagelin type cryptographic machinery. In the latter, all wheels stepped once with each encipherment with the cycle extended by the use of different length wheels. For the Enigma, motion was of the odometer -type, with the only variation being the starting point of the cycle on each rotors. Fritz Menzer's inventions were designed to make such motions unpredictable. It

4176-456: The Holy Roman Empire and established the Electorate of Saxony as a kingdom in exchange for military support. The Elector Frederick Augustus III accordingly became King Frederick Augustus I of Saxony . Frederick Augustus remained loyal to Napoleon during the wars that swept Europe in the following years; he was taken prisoner and his territories were declared forfeit by the allies in 1813, after

4292-484: The Kingdom of Saxony , and twice for a republic. The first Free State of Saxony was established in 1918 as a constituent state of the Weimar Republic . After World War II , it was under Soviet occupation before it became part of communist East Germany and was abolished by the government in 1952. Following German reunification , the Free State of Saxony was reconstituted with enlarged borders in 1990 and became one of

4408-554: The Kwisa (Queis) river to the east and as far as the Ore Mountains. In the process of Ostsiedlung , settlement of German farmers in the sparsely populated area was promoted. Around this time, the Billungs , a Saxon noble family, received extensive lands in Saxony. The emperor eventually gave them the title of dukes of Saxony . After Duke Magnus died in 1106, causing the extinction of

4524-578: The Oder-Neisse line was annexed by Poland and the Soviet Union, and, unlike in the aftermath of World War I , the annexing powers were allowed to expel the inhabitants. During the following three years, Poland and Czechoslovakia expelled German-speaking people from their territories, and some of these expellees came to Saxony. Only a small area of Saxony lying east of the Neisse River and centred around

4640-456: The Province of Schleswig-Holstein ). Saxe-Wittenberg, mostly in modern Saxony-Anhalt , became subject to the margravate of Meissen , ruled by the Wettin dynasty in 1423. This established a new and powerful state, occupying large portions of the present Free State of Saxony, Thuringia, Saxony-Anhalt and Bavaria (Coburg and its environs). Although the centre of this state was far to the southeast of

4756-611: The Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED). The new minister-president Rudolf Friedrichs (SED), had been a member of the SPD until April 1946. He met his Bavarian counterparts in the U.S. zone of occupation in October 1946 and May 1947, but died suddenly in mysterious circumstances the following month. He was succeeded by Max Seydewitz , a loyal follower of Joseph Stalin . The German Democratic Republic (East Germany), including Saxony,

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4872-586: The Soviet Military Administration in Germany (SVAG) merged this territory into Saxony. This former Silesian territory broadly corresponded with the Upper Lusatian territory annexed by Prussia in 1815. On 20 October 1946, SVAG organised elections for the Saxon state parliament ( Landtag ), but many people were arbitrarily excluded from candidacy and suffrage, and the Soviet Union openly supported

4988-583: The Western Ore Mountains . There are numerous rivers in Saxony. The Elbe is the most dominant one. The Neisse defines the border between Saxony and Poland. Other rivers include the Mulde and the White Elster . The largest cities and towns in Saxony according to the 31 July 2022 estimate are listed below. Leipzig forms a conurbation with Halle , known as Ballungsraum Leipzig/Halle . The latter city

5104-453: The 18th and 19th centuries Saxe-Lauenburg was colloquially called the Duchy of Lauenburg , which was held in a personal union by the Electorate of Hanover from the 18th century to the Napoleonic wars, and in a personal union with Denmark (along with neighbouring Holstein and Schleswig ) for much the 19th century. In 1876 it was absorbed into Prussia as the Duchy of Lauenburg district of

5220-659: The American army reached its location about 40 km south of Salzburg , they burned their documents or threw them into the Salzach . With the capitulation of the Wehrmacht on 8 May 1945, the service was terminated for all former members of the OKW. Menzer was captured and interned at the US camp Neufeld near Munich . On 17 June, he was released and travelled to the Soviet Zone of Occupation , first to

5336-779: The Army Signal School, he was transferred to the Cipher Department of the High Command of the Wehrmacht (OKW/Chi) in May 1933, where he was taught cryptanalysis techniques, among others by the head of the main group B, Wilhelm Fenner . A year later, in 1936, in a team led by Otto Buggisch , he had developed cryptanalytic methods to break the C-36 , a rotor-key cipher machine of the Sweden Boris Hagelin type. In addition, he developed

5452-653: The Free State of Saxony under a new constitution enacted on 1 November 1920. In October 1923, when the Communist Party of Germany entered the Social Democratic -led government in Dresden with hidden revolutionary intentions , the Reich government under Chancellor Gustav Stresemann used a Reichsexekution to send troops into Saxony to remove the Communists from the government. The state retained its name and borders during

5568-600: The German Army. Menzer stated at the time: His service as a soldier ended on 32 May 1938 with a rank of Senior Radio Technician. He stayed with the OKW/Chi as civilian. Two years later, in 1940, he was promoted as a government ( German : Regierungsinspektor ) inspector , and was entrusted with the management of Unit IIc of OKW/Chi, dealing with the development and manufacture of special encryption for government agencies such as Reich Security Main Office and Abwehr , as well as for

5684-463: The German industry. On 1 April 1940, he was promoted to the rank of Superior Government Inspector. With the increased emphasis on cryptographic security and long range communications, in early 1942, Menzer's section was broken up into three functional subsections. Later in 1942, Admiral Canaris gave Menzer the responsibility of testing the security of the Abwehr cryptographic systems. There is debate about

5800-476: The German speaking society. Many geographic names in Saxony are of Sorbic origin (including the three largest cities Chemnitz , Dresden and Leipzig ). The Sorbic language and culture are protected by special laws and cities and villages in eastern Saxony that are inhabited by a significant number of Sorbian inhabitants have bilingual street signs and administrative offices provide service in both, German and Sorbian. The Sorbs enjoy cultural self-administration which

5916-399: The May 1849 uprising in Dresden are depicted in the 1983 movie Wagner starring Richard Burton as Richard Wagner.) The May uprising in Dresden forced King Frederick Augustus II of Saxony to concede further reforms to the Saxon government. In 1854 Frederick Augustus II's brother, King John of Saxony , succeeded to the throne. A scholar, King John translated Dante . King John followed

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6032-549: The Nazi era as a Gau ( Gau Saxony ), but lost its quasi-autonomous status and its parliamentary democracy. During World War II , under the secret Nazi programme Aktion T4 , an estimated 15,000 people suffering from mental and physical disabilities, as well as a number of concentration camp inmates, were murdered at Sonnenstein killing centre near Pirna . Numerous subcamps of the Buchenwald , Flossenburg and Gross-Rosen concentration camps were operated in Saxony. As

6148-561: The Piast dynasty until 1472. The first medieval Duchy of Saxony was a late Early Middle Ages " Carolingian stem duchy ", which emerged around the start of the 8th century AD and grew to include the greater part of Northern Germany , what are now the modern German states of Bremen , Hamburg , Lower Saxony , North Rhine-Westphalia , Schleswig-Holstein and Saxony-Anhalt . Saxons converted to Christianity during this period, with Charlemagne outlawing pagan practices. This geographical region

6264-458: The Saxon coat of arms, in many towns of Thuringia, the coat of arms can still be found in historical buildings. The remaining Saxon state became still more powerful, receiving Upper and Lower Lusatia in the Peace of Prague (1635) . It also became known in the 18th century for its cultural achievements, although it was politically weaker than Prussia and Austria , states which oppressed Saxony from

6380-606: The Saxon duchies. However, Sigismund , King of the Romans , had already granted Margrave Frederick IV the Warlike of Meissen ( House of Wettin ) an expectancy of the Saxon electorate in order to remunerate his military support. On 1 August 1425 Sigismund enfeoffed the Wettinian Frederick as Prince-Elector of Saxony, despite the protests of Eric V. Thus the Saxon territories remained permanently separated. The Electorate of Saxony

6496-402: The Saxon postal system, railroads, military and foreign affairs. In the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, Saxon troops fought together with Prussian and other German troops against France. In 1871, Saxony joined the newly formed German Empire . After King Frederick Augustus III of Saxony abdicated on 13 November 1918, Saxony, remaining a constituent state of Germany ( Weimar Republic ), became

6612-440: The Schlüsselrad or Cipher Wheel, a hand cranked autoclave . He remained as an adviser cryptologist in the defense until the end of the war, which he did not experience in Berlin, but together with part of the OKW/Chi under the direction of Wilhelm Fenner in the south of the Reich, in Werfen . On 23 April 1945, OKW/Chi was officially disbanded and the staff was assigned to the General der Nachrichtenaufklärung (GdNA) Just before

6728-408: The Weser and the Elbe remained with the Guelphs, becoming later the Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg . The remaining eastern lands, together with the title of Duke of Saxony, passed to an Ascanian dynasty (descended from Eilika Billung , Wulfhild's younger sister) and were divided in 1260 into the two small states of Saxe-Lauenburg and Saxe-Wittenberg . The former state was also named Lower Saxony ,

6844-399: The alphabets. It would, however, have simplified recovery of the pin pattern after alphabet recovery. The solution of a single message was most unlikely Various methods of key generation were used. On Chilean links, an 11-letter key word was numbered as for a transposition key, with the first digit of a two-digit numbers dropped. This key was extended by appending a two-digit group count and

6960-430: The best manual ciphers known". The Rail Fence cipher is a form of transposition cipher that gets its name from the way in which it is encoded. In the rail fence cipher, the plaintext is written downward and diagonally on successive "rails" of an imaginary fence, then moves up when it gets to the bottom. The message is then read off in rows. For example, using three "rails" and a message of 'WE ARE DISCOVERED FLEE AT ONCE',

7076-449: The ciphertext humorous. In the middle of the 17th century, Samuel Morland introduced an early form of columnar transposition. It was further developed much later, becoming very popular in the later 19th century and 20th century, with French military, Japanese diplomats and Soviet spies all using the principle. In a columnar transposition, the message is written out in rows of a fixed length, and then read out again column by column, and

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7192-442: The city of Leipzig , and on 22 September to Zschopau , where he worked as a teacher from January 1946. Shortly afterwards, he was dismissed as unsuitable, due to his past in the Wehrmacht. In the turmoil of the beginning of the Cold War he again came in contact with the Americans in Berlin on 8 September 1947 and was taken to Camp King in Oberursel near Frankfurt . Menzer was released and returned to Zschopau on 12 September. He

7308-436: The close political and cultural relationship persisted well into the 19th century, with Saxony being the place of preparations for the Polish Kościuszko Uprising against the partitioning powers, and one of the chief destinations for Polish refugees from partitioned Poland, including the artistic and political elite, such as composer Frédéric Chopin , war hero Józef Bem and writer Adam Mickiewicz . In 1756, Saxony joined

7424-493: The columns are chosen in some scrambled order. Both the width of the rows and the permutation of the columns are usually defined by a keyword. For example, the keyword ZEBRAS is of length 6 (so the rows are of length 6), and the permutation is defined by the alphabetical order of the letters in the keyword. In this case, the order would be "6 3 2 4 1 5". In a regular columnar transposition cipher, any spare spaces are filled with nulls; in an irregular columnar transposition cipher,

7540-481: The cryptanalysis of a German transposition cipher can be found in chapter 7 of Herbert Yardley's "The American Black Chamber." A cipher used by the Zodiac Killer , called "Z-340", organized into triangular sections with substitution of 63 different symbols for the letters and diagonal "knight move" transposition, remained unsolved for over 51 years, until an international team of private citizens cracked it on December 5, 2020, using specialized software. Transposition

7656-437: The defeat of Napoleon. Prussia intended the annexation of Saxony but the opposition of Austria , France, and the United Kingdom to this plan resulted in the restoration of Frederick Augustus to his throne at the Congress of Vienna although he was forced to cede the northern part of the kingdom to Prussia, which led to the loss of nearly 60% of the Saxon territory, and 40% of its population. Most of these lands were merged with

7772-401: The division. Menzer designed it to provide a cipher tape, being keyboard operated in order to improve encryption speed. As a result of the keyboard operation, he was able to redesign the arrangement of letters on the print wheels to flatten the cipher frequency count. During the war there was shortages of aluminum and magnesium resulting in the machine weighing between 12 and 15 kilograms, which

7888-407: The double transposition cipher was used by Dutch Resistance groups, the French Maquis and the British Special Operations Executive (SOE), which was in charge of managing underground activities in Europe. It was also used by agents of the American Office of Strategic Services and as an emergency cipher for the German Army and Navy. Until the invention of the VIC cipher , double transposition

8004-477: The encipherment process can render the entire ciphertext meaningless. However, given the right conditions - long messages (e.g., over 100–200 letters), unpredictable contents, unique keys per message, strong transposition methods, and so on - guessing the right words could be computationally impossible without further information. In their book on codebreaking historical ciphers, Elonka Dunin and Klaus Schmeh describe double columnar transposition (see below) as "one of

8120-419: The encrypter writes out: Then reads off: (The cipher has broken this ciphertext up into blocks of five to help avoid errors. This is a common technique used to make the cipher more easily readable. The spacing is not related to spaces in the plaintext and so does not carry any information about the plaintext.) The rail fence cipher follows a pattern similar to that of the scytale , (pronounced "SKIT-uhl-ee")

8236-401: The extent to which Fritz Menzer can actually be regarded as an inventor of partly innovative key machines, such as the key machine 39 and the key device 41. OKW/Chi merely advised development and set requirements, but final control rested with the Armament Agencies and not OKW/Chi. Thus, Menzer was likely involved in the design of the machines and entrusted with their technical review, but not

8352-569: The first few months of World War One. Since transposition does not affect the frequency of individual symbols, simple transposition can be easily detected by the cryptanalyst by doing a frequency count. If the ciphertext exhibits a frequency distribution very similar to plaintext, it is most likely a transposition. In general, transposition methods are vulnerable to anagramming —sliding pieces of ciphertext around, then looking for sections that look like anagrams of words in English or whatever language

8468-592: The five new states of the Federal Republic of Germany. The area of the modern state of Saxony should not be confused with Old Saxony , the area inhabited by Saxons . Old Saxony corresponds roughly to the modern German states of Lower Saxony , Saxony-Anhalt , and the Westphalian portion of North Rhine-Westphalia . Historically the region of Saxony has sometimes been referred to as Upper Saxony or Obersachsen in German to distinguish it from Lower Saxony. The state

8584-563: The former Saxony, it came to be referred to as Upper Saxony and then simply Saxony , while the former Saxon territories in the north were now known as Lower Saxony (the modern term Niedersachsen deriving from this). In 1485, Saxony was split in the Treaty of Leipzig . A collateral line of the Wettin princes received what later became Thuringia and founded several small states there (see Ernestine duchies ). Since these princes were allowed to use

8700-403: The free state Saxony to the federal government of Germany In the 2024 European Parliament election , AfD received the highest percentage of votes in Saxony, winning 31.8% of the ballots. The other states where AfD has become the strongest party are Thuringia , Saxony-Anhalt , Mecklenburg-Vorpommern , and Brandenburg . These four states were part of East Germany like Saxony. Compared to

8816-404: The frequency of settings changes. Preliminary tests by Dr Doering and Otto Buggisch, gave the machine a high security rating. However it was just as bulky as the Enigma cipher device, and could not print letters, which was then the chief improvement desired. For these reasons it was rejected, and only a lab model was ever built. This cipher machine was based on Hagelin encipherment, but included

8932-410: The grid, and the ciphertext is written down the columns of the grid in the order given by the letters of the key. The plaintext appears on the rows. A partial decipherment of the above ciphertext, after writing in the first column: In a variation, the message is blocked into segments that are the key length long and to each segment the same permutation (given by the key) is applied. This is equivalent to

9048-557: The keys infrequently. The system was regularly solved by the French, naming it Übchi, who were typically able to quickly find the keys once they'd intercepted a number of messages of the same length, which generally took only a few days. However, the French success became widely known and, after a publication in Le Matin , the Germans changed to a new system on 18 November 1914. During World War II,

9164-657: The larger cities, there are numerous smaller religious communities. The international Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has a presence in the Freiberg Germany Temple which was the first of its kind in Germany, opened in 1985 even before its counterpart in Western Germany. It now also serves as a religious center for the church members in Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia , and Hungary . In Leipzig, there

9280-458: The last election, AfD increased their votes in Saxony which was 25.3% in the 2019 European Parliament election . CDU/CSU received 21.8% of the votes in Saxony and became the second strongest party in the 2024 EP election. BSW was in the third place by receiving 12.6% of the votes. The Left lost a significant proportion of their votes compared to the 2019 election. Their votes regressed from 11.7% to 4.9%. Saxony has 16 constituencies for

9396-448: The late 6th century became populated by Polabian Slavs (most prominently tribe of Sorbs ), being conquered by Francia which organized Sorbian March . A legacy of this period is the modern ethnic group of Sorbs in Saxony. Eastern and western parts of present Saxony were ruled by Bohemia at various times between 1075 and 1635 (with some intermissions), and Schirgiswalde (Upper Sorbian: Šěrachów ; Czech : Šerachov ) remained

9512-594: The latter Upper Saxony , thence the later names of the two Imperial Circles Saxe-Lauenburg and Saxe-Wittenberg. Both claimed the Saxon electoral privilege for themselves, but the Golden Bull of 1356 accepted only Wittenberg's claim, with Lauenburg nevertheless continuing to maintain its claim. In 1422, when the Saxon electoral line of the Ascanians became extinct, the Ascanian Eric V of Saxe-Lauenburg tried to reunite

9628-463: The leftover spaces. The resulting ciphertext (the columns read according to the transposition key) is "WCEEO ERET RIVFC EODN SELE ADA". Another form of transposition cipher uses grilles , or physical masks with cut-outs. This can produce a highly irregular transposition over the period specified by the size of the grille, but requires the correspondents to keep a physical key secret. Grilles were first proposed in 1550, and were still in military use for

9744-439: The letters are scrambled in each transposition step. While a single step only causes a minor rearrangement, the second step leads to a significant scrambling effect if the last row of the grid is incomplete. As an example, we can take the result of the irregular columnar transposition in the previous section, and perform a second encryption with a different keyword, STRIPE , which gives the permutation "564231": As before, this

9860-567: The male line of Billungs, oversight of the duchy was given to Lothar of Supplinburg , who also became emperor for a short time. In 1137, control of Saxony passed to the Guelph dynasty, descendants of Wulfhild Billung, eldest daughter of the last Billung duke, and the daughter of Lothar of Supplinburg. In 1180 large portions west of the Weser were ceded to the Bishops of Cologne , while some central parts between

9976-552: The mechanism. Pressing a button released the slide to move left. When at either or both of reading positions, A 1 {\displaystyle A_{1}} A 2 {\displaystyle A_{2}} , the pinks were all inactive, the slide stopped and the encipherment took place. If the step came from A 2 {\displaystyle A_{2}} alone, or A 1 {\displaystyle A_{1}} and A 2 {\displaystyle A_{2}} together,

10092-402: The message, a stylus was inserted into the hole corresponding to the first key digit, and the lower disk was rotated clockwise until the stylus was stopped by the end of the notch. The plain text was then found on the upper disk and its cypher value read off the lower disk. The stylus was then placed in the whole corresponding to the second digit of the key, and the same procedure was repeated for

10208-415: The message. The ciphertext is then read off as: In the irregular case, the columns are not completed by nulls: This results in the following ciphertext: To decipher it, the recipient has to work out the shape of the enciphering grid by dividing the message length by the key length to find the number of rows in the grid. The length of the grid's last line is given by the remainder. The key is written above

10324-506: The military intelligence service of the Wehrmacht. He was involved in the development and production of cryptographic devices and procedures, as well as the security control of their own methods. At the age of 18, he joined the Reichswehr as a mechanic and was assigned to a motorized battalion with a location in Leipzig . Menzer had already developed an interest in cryptography and was granted

10440-424: The motion when the crank was turned. Additional security was provided by using only 36 strips at one time, leaving about 4 slots blank. When these slots reached the enciphering position, a random letter was chosen and inserted in the cipher text, and the plain text letter was enciphered by the next strip that came to the enciphering position. No ideas were ever formulated on the total number of strips to be used, or

10556-565: The north and south, respectively. Between 1697 and 1763, two successive Electors of Saxony were also elected Kings of Poland in personal union . Many landmarks in Saxony date from this period and contain remnants of the former close Polish-Saxon relation, such as the coat of arms of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth on the facades and in the interiors of palaces, churches, edifices, etc. (e.g. Zwinger , Dresden Cathedral , Moritzburg Castle ), and on numerous mileposts, and

10672-444: The pin patterns with a crib of about 30 letters. Without the crib, computer assistance would have been necessary and large quantities of cipher would have been required to recover the alphabets. A modification was considered in which two 26-character alphabets were slid against one another, rather than the 13 character segments. This would have increased the device security considerably, since more text would have been required to recover

10788-409: The plaintext because there are many combinations of letters and words. By contrast, someone with the key could reconstruct the message easily: In practice, a message this short and with a predictable keyword would be broken almost immediately with cryptanalysis techniques . Transposition ciphers have several vulnerabilities (see the section on "Detection and cryptanalysis" below), and small mistakes in

10904-492: The plaintext or random letters. This method (attributed to Gen. Luigi Sacco ) starts a new row once the plaintext reaches a column whose key number is equal to the current row number. This produces irregular row lengths. For example, The columns are then taken off as per regular columnar transposition: TPRPN, KISAA, CHAIT, NBERT, EMATO, etc. Another simple option would be to use a password that places blanks according to its number sequence. E.g. "SECRET" would be decoded to

11020-563: The plaintext was written in, and solving the anagrams. Once such anagrams have been found, they reveal information about the transposition pattern, and can consequently be extended. Simpler transpositions often suffer from the property that keys very close to the correct key will reveal long sections of legible plaintext interspersed by gibberish. Consequently, such ciphers may be vulnerable to optimum seeking algorithms such as genetic algorithms and hill-climbing algorithms . There are several specific methods for attacking messages encoded using

11136-622: The same extent as the present state, albeit slightly smaller. Meanwhile, in 1815, the Kingdom of Saxony joined the German Confederation . In the politics of the Confederation, Saxony was overshadowed by Prussia and Austria. King Anthony of Saxony came to the throne of Saxony in 1827. Shortly thereafter, liberal pressures in Saxony mounted and broke out in revolt during 1830—a year of revolution in Europe. The revolution in Saxony resulted in

11252-514: The second letter of the text. Thus, the true key at any point in the same cypher was equal to the sum of all previous key inputs ( mod 26). Saxony Saxony , officially the Free State of Saxony , is a landlocked state of Germany , bordering the states of Brandenburg , Saxony-Anhalt , Thuringia , and Bavaria , as well as the countries of Poland and the Czech Republic . Its capital

11368-475: The slide took an additional step. When the slide stopped, either the top or the bottom alphabet would be in phase and the cipher value could be read off. Pressing the button again would allow the strip to slide left to its next stop. Many Enigma devices were planned to be replaced with the Schlüssselkasten. It had a fairly high level of security. Given the alphabets on the side rule, it was possible to recover

11484-506: The sole inventor. Later in 1942, Canaris commissioned Menzer to carry out security checks on their own cryptographic procedures. Menzer recognized blatant cryptographic weaknesses of the methods used, and in the summer of 1943 reworked all the manual methods used by the Abwehr. He introduced the ABC Schlüssel , Procedure 62 and Procedure 40 , which were all double transposition ( Transposition cipher ) and substitution systems, as well as

11600-431: The spaces are left blank. Finally, the message is read off in columns, in the order specified by the keyword. For example, suppose we use the keyword ZEBRAS and the message WE ARE DISCOVERED. FLEE AT ONCE . In a regular columnar transposition, we write this into the grid as follows: providing five nulls ( QKJEU ), these letters can be randomly selected as they just fill out the incomplete columns and are not part of

11716-422: The status of an urban district ( German : kreisfreie Städte ): Between 1990 and 2008, Saxony was divided into the three regions ( Regierungsbezirke ) of Chemnitz , Dresden , and Leipzig . After the 2008 Saxony district reform , these regions – with some alterations of their respective areas – were called Direktionsbezirke . In 2012, the authorities of these regions were merged into one central authority,

11832-464: The town of Reichenau (Bogatynia) was annexed by Poland. Traditional close relations of Saxony with neighbouring German-speaking Egerland were thus completely destroyed, making the border of Saxony along the Ore Mountains a linguistic border. Part of the former Prussian province of Lower Silesia lay west of the Oder-Neisse line and therefore was separated from the bulk of its former province;

11948-464: The towns of Radebeul and Markkleeberg in their vicinity, have seen their populations increase since 2000. The following tables illustrate the foreign resident populations and the population of Saxony from 1816 to 2022: The average number of children per woman in Saxony was 1.60 in 2018, the fourth-highest rate of all German states. Within Saxony, the highest is the Bautzen district with 1.77, while Leipzig

12064-614: The villages of Eythra and Zwenkau near Leipzig. The Germanic presence in the territory of today's Saxony is thought to have begun in the first century BC. Parts of Saxony were possibly under the control of the Germanic King Marobod during the Roman era. By the late Roman period, several tribes known as the Saxons emerged, from which the subsequent state(s) draw their name. The territory of modern day Saxony and partly of Thuringia since

12180-751: The war drew to its end, U.S. troops under General George Patton occupied the western part of Saxony in April 1945, while Soviet troops occupied the eastern part. That summer, the entire state was handed over to Soviet forces as agreed in the London Protocol of September 1944 . Britain, the US, and the USSR then negotiated Germany's future at the Potsdam Conference . Under the Potsdam Agreement , all German territory East of

12296-565: Was 28,100 euros or 93% of the EU27 average in the same year. The GDP per employee was 85% of the EU average. The GDP per capita was the highest of the states of the former GDR. Saxony has a "very high" Human Development Index value of 0.930 (2018), which is at the same level as Denmark. Within Germany Saxony is ranked 9th . Transposition cipher Plaintexts can be rearranged into a ciphertext using

12412-455: Was a form of Polyalphabetic cipher . The motion was governed by 3 (or possibly 4) with positive and negative lug settings as with the Hagelin machines. The motion was the sum of the positive settings, subject to an overlap principle, similar in principle to the M-209 device. Otto Buggisch did not know the cycle of the motion of the wheels, or the details of the construction by which they acted to vary

12528-673: Was arrested on 20 September by the Soviets, imprisoned in Dresden , and interrogated about his contacts with the Americans. Finally, on 13 March 1948, he was released after he had consented to spy for the Soviets. In April 1949, he decided to flee from the Soviet Zone and travelled to the Western occupation zones ( Allied-occupied Germany ) via West Berlin. His name last appeared in documents in 1951. In 1973, he

12644-454: Was attacked individually. A variant form of columnar transposition, proposed by Émile Victor Théodore Myszkowski in 1902, requires a keyword with recurrent letters. In usual practice, subsequent occurrences of a keyword letter are treated as if the next letter in alphabetical order, e.g., the keyword TOMATO yields a numeric keystring of "532164." In Myszkowski transposition, recurrent keyword letters are numbered identically, TOMATO yielding

12760-749: Was awarded the Federal Cross of Merit . A death notice from the Frankfurt area shows his death at the age of 97 years. According to this notice, he was buried on 5 November 2005 in Bad Homburg During Menzer's service with the OKW/Chi and the Abwehr between 1935 and 1945, he was responsible for a number of advances in the machine cryptography science. His technique was to adapt the use of Hagelin pin wheels to provide for irregular wheel motion in cryptographic machinery. Before World War II, there were two types of cipher machinery used by Germany. These were

12876-578: Was established in 1949 out of the Soviet zone of Occupied Germany , becoming a constitutionally socialist state , part of COMECON and the Warsaw Pact , under the leadership of the SED . In 1952 the government abolished the Free State of Saxony, and divided its territory into three Bezirke : Leipzig , Dresden , and Karl-Marx-Stadt (formerly and currently Chemnitz ). Areas around Hoyerswerda were also part of

12992-458: Was established under the current name. The state was broken up into smaller units during communist rule (1949–1989), but was re-established on 3 October 1990 on the reunification of East and West Germany . In prehistoric times, the territory of present-day Saxony was the site of some of the largest of the ancient central European monumental temples , dating from the fifth century BC. Notable archaeological sites have been discovered in Dresden and

13108-447: Was generally regarded as the most complicated cipher that an agent could operate reliably under difficult field conditions. The double transposition cipher can be treated as a single transposition with a key as long as the product of the lengths of the two keys. In late 2013, a double transposition challenge, regarded by its author as undecipherable, was solved by George Lasry using a divide-and-conquer approach where each transposition

13224-413: Was possibly for weather reports. Two alphabets were written on the slide rule, 13 characters of each on the fixed base, and 13 characters of each on the top and the bottom of the sliding strip. The latter were so written that only one alphabet at a time was in phase. Alphabets could be changed as often as required. In use, the slide was pulled to the right until it stopped, winding the spring that drove

13340-512: Was then merged with the much larger Wettinian Margraviate of Meissen ; however, it used the higher-ranking title Electorate of Saxony and even the Ascanian coat-of-arms for the entire monarchy. Thus Saxony came to include Dresden and Meissen . Hence, the territory of the modern Free State of Saxony shares the name with the old Saxon stem duchy for historical and dynastic reasons rather than any significant ethnic, linguistic or cultural connection. In

13456-401: Was too heavy for field use. Removal of the keyboard would have made the machine lighter, but the design of the print wheels prevented their being directly used for encipherment. Production stopped because no one knew what to do. About 1000 machines were built and these were distributed to the Abwehr, which began using them in 1944. The Luftwaffe supposedly used these for 10 figure traffic, which

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