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95-447: Young, ambitious actress Gloria Scott commits suicide by throwing herself off Waterloo Bridge into the Thames , which appears baffling given that she has just been cast in a breakthrough part in the latest historical film being produced. Fen's friend Inspector Humbleby of Scotland Yard travels to the film studios on the rural outskirts of the capital. While he and Fen are there, at

190-680: A Christian burial. In the Early Middle Ages , churches in Europe began staging dramatized versions of biblical events. By the middle of the 11th century, liturgical drama had spread from Russia to Scandinavia to Italy. The Feast of Fools encouraged the development of comedy. In the Late Middle Ages , plays were produced in 127 towns. These vernacular Mystery plays often contained comedy , with actors playing devils , villains , and clowns . The majority of actors in these plays were drawn from

285-480: A comedy. Aristotle claimed that Aeschylus added the second actor ( deuteragonist ), and that Sophocles introduced the third ( tritagonist ). Apparently, the Greek playwrights never used more than three actors based on what is known about Greek theatre. Tragedy and comedy were viewed as completely separate genres, and no plays ever merged aspects of the two. Satyr plays dealt with the mythological subject matter of

380-580: A hill, producing a natural viewing area known as the theatron (literally "seeing place"). In cities without suitable hills, banks of earth were piled up. At the foot of the hill was a flattened, generally circular performance space with an average diameter of 78 feet (24 m), known as the orchestra (literally "dancing place"), where a chorus of typically 12 to 15 people performed plays in verse accompanied by music. There were often tall, arched entrances called parodoi or eisodoi , through which actors and chorus members entered and exited

475-518: A play entitled The Fall of Miletus and produced it, the whole theatre fell to weeping; they fined Phrynichus a thousand drachmas for bringing to mind a calamity that affected them so personally and forbade the performance of that play forever." He is also thought to be the first to use female characters (though not female performers). Until the Hellenistic period , all tragedies were unique pieces written in honour of Dionysus and played only once; what

570-549: A play, such as the Furies in Aeschylus ' Eumenides and Pentheus and Cadmus in Euripides ' The Bacchae . Worn by the chorus, the masks created a sense of unity and uniformity, while representing a multi-voiced persona or single organism and simultaneously encouraged interdependency and a heightened sensitivity between each individual of the group. Only 2 to 3 actors were allowed on

665-536: A script conference, the cinematographer Maurice Crane collapses having been poisoned. Maurice was the brother of celebrated actress Madge Crane, the studio's leading star, and Nicholas, the film's director . Popular gossip suggests he had been having an affair with Gloria. Fen immediately believes the killing is an act of vengeance on behalf of the dead Gloria. He becomes convinced that the remaining Cranes are also under threat, particularly when it becomes clear that Madge had persuaded Nicholas to have Gloria removed from

760-458: A series. A co-star role is a small speaking role that usually only appears in one episode. A guest star is a larger role than a co-star role, and the character is often the central focus of the episode or integral to the plot. Radio drama is a dramatized, purely acoustic performance , broadcast on radio or published on audio media, such as tape or CD. With no visual component, radio drama depends on dialogue, music and sound effects to help

855-574: A shift in acting techniques between 1913 and 1921, influenced by techniques found in German silent film. This is mainly attributed to the influx of emigrants from the Weimar Republic , "including film directors, producers, cameramen, lighting and stage technicians, as well as actors and actresses". Film actors have to learn to get used to and be comfortable with a camera being in front of them. Film actors need to learn to find and stay on their "mark". This

950-531: A small minority of them were given speaking parts. The commedia dell'arte of Italy, however, allowed professional women to perform early on; Lucrezia Di Siena , whose name is on a contract of actors from 10 October 1564, has been referred to as the first Italian actress known by name, with Vincenza Armani and Barbara Flaminia as the first primadonnas and the first well-documented actresses in Italy (and in Europe). After

1045-575: A woman. Occasionally, the issue is further complicated, for example, by a woman playing a woman acting as a man—who then pretends to be a woman, such as Julie Andrews in Victor/Victoria , or Gwyneth Paltrow in Shakespeare in Love . In It's Pat: The Movie , film-watchers never learn the gender of the androgynous main characters Pat and Chris (played by Julia Sweeney and Dave Foley ). Similarly, in

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1140-422: Is a position on the floor marked with tape. This position is where the lights and camera focus are optimized. Film actors also need to learn how to prepare well and perform well on- screen tests . Screen tests are a filmed audition of part of the script. Unlike theater actors, who develop characters for repeat performances, film actors lack continuity, forcing them to come to all scenes (sometimes shot in reverse of

1235-411: Is derived, is a compound of two Greek words: τράγος , tragos or "goat" and ᾠδή , ode meaning "song", from ἀείδειν , aeidein , 'to sing'. This etymology indicates a link with the practices of the ancient Dionysian cults . It is impossible, however, to know with certainty how these fertility rituals became the basis for tragedy and comedy . The Ancient Greeks valued

1330-496: Is experiencing a revival. Theatre of ancient Greece A theatrical culture flourished in ancient Greece from 700 BC. At its centre was the city-state of Athens , which became a significant cultural, political, and religious place during this period, and the theatre was institutionalised there as part of a festival called the Dionysia , which honoured the god Dionysus . Tragedy (late 500 BC), comedy (490 BC), and

1425-539: Is no evidence that they produced anything but crude scenes. Traditionally, actors were not of high status; therefore, in the Early Middle Ages , traveling acting troupes were often viewed with distrust. Early Middle Ages actors were denounced by the Church during the Dark Ages , as they were viewed as dangerous, immoral, and pagan . In many parts of Europe, traditional beliefs of the region and time meant actors could not receive

1520-511: Is normally regarded as the Golden Age of Greek drama. The center-piece of the annual Dionysia , which took place once in winter and once in spring, was a competition between three tragic playwrights at the Theatre of Dionysus . Each submitted three tragedies, plus a satyr play (a comic, burlesque version of a mythological subject). Beginning in a first competition in 486 BC each playwright submitted

1615-460: Is particularly common in presentations of older plays, such as Shakespearean works with large numbers of male characters in roles where gender is inconsequential. Having an actor dress as the opposite sex for comic effect is also a long-standing tradition in comic theatre and film. Most of Shakespeare's comedies include instances of overt cross-dressing , such as Francis Flute in A Midsummer Night's Dream . The movie A Funny Thing Happened on

1710-531: Is presently known, was created in Athens around 532 BC, when Thespis was the earliest recorded actor. Being a winner of the first theatrical contest held in Athens, he was the exarchon , or leader, of the dithyrambs performed in and around Attica, especially at the Rural Dionysia . By Thespis' time, the dithyramb had evolved far away from its cult roots. Under the influence of heroic epic, Doric choral lyric and

1805-633: Is primarily extant today are the pieces that were still remembered well enough to have been repeated when the repetition of old tragedies became fashionable (the accidents of survival, as well as the subjective tastes of the Hellenistic librarians later in Greek history, also played a role in what survived from this period). After the Achaemenid destruction of Athens in 480 BC, the town and acropolis were rebuilt, and theatre became formalized and an even greater part of Athenian culture and civic pride. This century

1900-531: Is the Pronomos Vase where actors are painted at a show's after party. Costuming would give off a sense of character, as in gender, age, social status, and class. For example, characters of higher class would be dressed in nicer clothing, although everyone was dressed fairly nicely. Contrary to popular belief, they did not dress in only rags and sandals, as they wanted to impress. Some examples of Greek theatre costuming include long robes called chiton that reached

1995-582: Is unclear at best, but his name has been given a longer life in English as a common term for performer—i.e., a "thespian." The dramatic performances were important to the Athenians – this is made clear by the creation of a tragedy competition and festival in the City Dionysia (or Great Dionysia). This was organized possibly to foster loyalty among the tribes of Attica (recently created by Cleisthenes ). The festival

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2090-742: The BBC produces and broadcasts hundreds of new radio plays each year on Radio 3 , Radio 4 , and Radio 4 Extra . Podcasting has also offered the means of creating new radio dramas, in addition to the distribution of vintage programs. The terms "audio drama" or "audio theatre" are sometimes used synonymously with "radio drama" with one possible distinction: audio drama or audio theatre may not necessarily be intended specifically for broadcast on radio. Audio drama, whether newly produced or OTR classics, can be found on CDs , cassette tapes , podcasts , webcasts , and conventional broadcast radio. Thanks to advances in digital recording and Internet distribution, radio drama

2185-1081: The Edo period ; this convention continues. In some forms of Chinese drama such as Beijing opera , men traditionally performed all the roles, including female roles, while in Shaoxing opera women often play all roles, including male ones. In modern times, women occasionally played the roles of boys or young men. For example, the stage role of Peter Pan is traditionally played by a woman, as are most principal boys in British pantomime . Opera has several " breeches roles " traditionally sung by women, usually mezzo-sopranos . Examples are Hansel in Hänsel und Gretel , Cherubino in The Marriage of Figaro and Octavian in Der Rosenkavalier . Women playing male roles are uncommon in film, with notable exceptions. In 1982, Stina Ekblad played

2280-518: The English Restoration of 1660, women began to appear onstage in England. In modern times, particularly in pantomime and some operas, women occasionally play the roles of boys or young men. The first recorded case of a performing actor occurred in 534 BC (though the changes in the calendar over the years make it hard to determine exactly) when the Greek performer Thespis stepped onto the stage at

2375-566: The Golden Age such as the Danaids , Phoenician Women and Alcestis . He was the first poet we know of to use a historical subject – his Fall of Miletus , produced in 493–2, chronicled the fate of the town of Miletus after it was conquered by the Persians. Herodotus reports that "the Athenians made clear their deep grief for the taking of Miletus in many ways, but especially in this: when Phrynichus wrote

2470-535: The OED , the first occurrence of the term actress was in 1608 and is ascribed to Middleton . In the 19th century, many viewed women in acting negatively, as actresses were often courtesans and associated with promiscuity. Despite these prejudices, the 19th century also saw the first female acting "stars", most notably Sarah Bernhardt . In Japan, onnagata , or men taking on female roles, were used in kabuki theatre when women were banned from performing on stage during

2565-457: The Theatre Dionysus to become the first known person to speak words as a character in a play or story. Before Thespis' act, Grecian stories were only expressed in song , dance, and in third person narrative. In honor of Thespis, actors are commonly called Thespians . The exclusively male actors in the theatre of ancient Greece performed in three types of drama : tragedy , comedy , and

2660-440: The actor-managers , who formed their own companies and controlled the actors, the productions, and the financing. When successful, they built up a permanent clientele that flocked to their productions. They could enlarge their audience by going on tour across the country, performing a repertoire of well-known plays, such as those by Shakespeare. The newspapers, private clubs, pubs, and coffee shops rang with lively debates evaluating

2755-674: The medieval world , it was considered disgraceful for a woman to go on stage; nevertheless, women did perform in Ancient Rome, and again entered the stage in the Commedia dell'arte in Italy in the 16th century; Lucrezia Di Siena became the perhaps first professional actress since Ancient Rome. France and Spain, too, also had female actors in the 16th century. In William Shakespeare's England, however, women's roles were generally played by men or boys. When an eighteen-year Puritan prohibition of drama

2850-416: The satyr play were the three dramatic genres emerged there. Athens exported the festival to its numerous colonies. Modern Western theatre comes, in large measure, from the theatre of ancient Greece , from which it borrows technical terminology, classification into genres, and many of its themes , stock characters , and plot elements. The word τραγῳδία , tragodia , from which the word " tragedy "

2945-516: The satyr play . This developed and expanded considerably under the Romans . The theatre of ancient Rome was a thriving and diverse art form, ranging from festival performances of street theatre , nude dancing, and acrobatics, to the staging of situation comedies , to high-style , verbally elaborate tragedies . As the Western Roman Empire fell into decay through the 4th and 5th centuries,

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3040-504: The "...men on Forbes' list of top-paid actors for that year made ⁠2 + 1 / 2 ⁠ times as much money as the top-paid actresses. That means that Hollywood's best-compensated actresses made just 40 cents for every dollar that the best-compensated men made." Actors working in theatre , film , television , and radio have to learn specific skills. Techniques that work well in one type of acting may not work well in another type of acting. To act on stage, actors need to learn

3135-496: The 100 top-grossing films of 2014 featured a female lead or co-lead, while only 28.1 percent of characters in 100 top-grossing films were female...". "In the U.S., there is an "industry-wide [gap] in salaries of all scales. On average, white women earn 78 cents to every dollar a white man makes, while Hispanic women earn 56 cents to a white male's dollar, black women 64 cents and Native American women just 59 cents to that." Forbes' analysis of US acting salaries in 2013 determined that

3230-502: The 13th century. At the end of the Late Middle Ages , professional actors began to appear in England and Europe. Richard III and Henry VII both maintained small companies of professional actors. Beginning in the mid-16th century, Commedia dell'arte troupes performed lively improvisational playlets across Europe for centuries. Commedia dell'arte was an actor-centred theatre, requiring little scenery and very few props. Plays were loose frameworks that provided situations, complications, and

3325-466: The 1960s. Greek mask-maker Thanos Vovolis suggests that the mask serves as a resonator for the head, thus enhancing vocal acoustics and altering its quality. This leads to increased energy and presence, allowing for the more complete metamorphosis of the actor into his character. In a large open-air theatre, like the Theatre of Dionysus in Athens , the classical masks were able to create a sense of dread in

3420-776: The United States , the gender-neutral term "player" was common in film in the silent film era and the early days of the Motion Picture Production Code , but in the 2000s in a film context, it is generally deemed archaic . However, "player" remains in use in the theatre , often incorporated into the name of a theatre group or company, such as the American Players , the East West Players , etc. Also, actors in improvisational theatre may be referred to as "players". In 2015, Forbes reported that "...just 21 of

3515-540: The United States recognized the different limitations and freedoms of the mediums of stage and screen by the early 1910s. Silent films became less vaudevillian in the mid-1910s, as the differences between stage and screen became apparent. Due to the work of directors such as D W Griffith , cinematography became less stage-like, and the then-revolutionary close-up shot allowed subtle and naturalistic acting. In America, D.W. Griffith's company Biograph Studios , became known for its innovative direction and acting, conducted to suit

3610-761: The Way to the Forum stars Jack Gilford dressing as a young bride. Tony Curtis and Jack Lemmon famously posed as women to escape gangsters in the Billy Wilder film Some Like It Hot . Cross-dressing for comic effect was a frequently used device in most of the Carry On films . Dustin Hoffman and Robin Williams have each appeared in a hit comedy film ( Tootsie and Mrs. Doubtfire , respectively) in which they played most scenes dressed as

3705-474: The actors' voices could be heard throughout the theatre, including the very top row of seats. The Greek's understanding of acoustics compares very favorably with the current state of the art . There were several scenic elements commonly used in Greek theatre: The Ancient Greek term for a mask is prosopon (lit., "face"), and was a significant element in the worship of Dionysus at Athens likely used in ceremonial rites and celebrations. Many masks worshipped

3800-487: The aforementioned example of The Marriage of Figaro , there is a scene in which Cherubino (a male character portrayed by a woman) dresses up and acts like a woman; the other characters in the scene are aware of a single level of gender role obfuscation, while the audience is aware of two levels. A few modern roles are played by a member of the opposite sex to emphasize the gender fluidity of the role. Edna Turnblad in Hairspray

3895-400: The altar of Dionysus after performances. Nevertheless, the mask is known to have been used since the time of Aeschylus and considered to be one of the iconic conventions of classical Greek theatre. Masks were also made for members of the chorus, who play some part in the action and provide a commentary on the events in which they are caught up. Although there are twelve or fifteen members of

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3990-427: The article's talk page . Actress An actor or actress is a person who portrays a character in a production. The actor performs "in the flesh" in the traditional medium of the theatre or in modern media such as film , radio , and television . The analogous Greek term is ὑποκριτής ( hupokritḗs ), literally "one who answers". The actor's interpretation of a role—the art of acting —pertains to

4085-542: The audience creating large scale panic, especially since they had intensely exaggerated facial features and expressions. They enabled an actor to appear and reappear in several different roles, thus preventing the audience from identifying the actor to one specific character. Their variations help the audience to distinguish sex, age, and social status, in addition to revealing a change in a particular character's appearance, e.g., Oedipus , after blinding himself. Unique masks were also created for specific characters and events in

4180-469: The audio archives of collectors and museums, as well as several online sites such as Internet Archive . As of 2011 , radio drama has a minimal presence on terrestrial radio in the United States. Much of American radio drama is restricted to rebroadcasts or podcasts of programs from previous decades. However, other nations still have thriving traditions of radio drama. In the United Kingdom, for example,

4275-433: The bottom of the theatron where the chorus and actors performed; the word means "dancing space", as the chorus also danced in early periods. Originally unraised, Greek theatre would later incorporate a raised stage for easier viewing. This practice would become common after the advent of "New Comedy," which incorporated dramatic portrayal of individual characters. The coryphaeus was the head chorus member, who could enter

4370-500: The cinema rather than the stage. Griffith realized that theatrical acting did not look good on film and required his actors and actresses to go through weeks of film acting training. Lillian Gish has been called film's "first true actress" for her work in the period, as she pioneered new film performing techniques, recognizing the crucial differences between stage and screen acting. Directors such as Albert Capellani and Maurice Tourneur began to insist on naturalism in their films. By

4465-439: The concept of "frame". "The term frame refers to the area that the camera's lens is capturing." Within the acting industry, there are four types of television roles one could land on a show. Each type varies in prominence, frequency of appearance, and pay. The first is known as a series regular —the main actors on the show as part of the permanent cast. Actors in recurring roles are under contract to appear in multiple episodes of

4560-520: The elaborate masques frequently presented at court, also contributed to the shaping of public theatre. Since before the reign of Elizabeth I, companies of players were attached to the households of leading aristocrats and performed seasonally in various locations. These became the foundation for the professional players that performed on the Elizabethan stage . The development of the theatre and opportunities for acting ceased when Puritan opposition to

4655-492: The eyebrow to create a believable character." Some theatre stars "...have made the theater-to-cinema transition quite successfully ( Laurence Olivier , Glenn Close , and Julie Andrews , for instance), others have not..." "On a television set, there are typically several cameras angled at the set. Actors who are new to on-screen acting can get confused about which camera to look into." TV actors need to learn to use lav mics ( Lavaliere microphones ). TV actors need to understand

4750-457: The first time to appear on the English stage, exclusively in female roles. This period saw the introduction of the first professional actresses and the rise of the first celebrity actors. In the 19th century, the negative reputation of actors was largely reversed, and acting became an honored, popular profession and art. The rise of the actor as celebrity provided the transition, as audiences flocked to their favorite "stars". A new role emerged for

4845-454: The floor for actors playing gods, heroes, and old men. Actors playing goddesses and women characters that held a lot of power wore purple and gold. Actors playing queens and princesses wore long cloaks that dragged on the ground and were decorated with gold stars and other jewels, and warriors were dressed in a variety of armor and wore helmets adorned with plumes. Costumes were supposed to be colourful and obvious to be easily seen by every seat in

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4940-550: The higher power, the gods, making masks also very important for religion. Most of the evidence comes from only a few vase paintings of the 5th century BC, such as one showing a mask of the god suspended from a tree with decorated robe hanging below it and dancing and the Pronomos vase, which depicts actors preparing for a satyr play . No physical evidence remains available to us, as the masks were made of organic materials and not considered permanent objects, ultimately being dedicated at

5035-545: The innovations of the poet Arion , it had become a narrative, ballad-like genre. Because of these, Thespis is often called the "Inventor of Tragedy"; however, his importance is disputed, and Thespis is sometimes listed as late as 16th in the chronological order of Greek tragedians; the statesman Solon , for example, is credited with creating poems in which characters speak with their own voice, and spoken performances of Homer 's epics by rhapsodes were popular in festivals prior to 534 BC. Thus, Thespis's true contribution to drama

5130-431: The late 1920s, movies were silent films . Silent film actors emphasized body language and facial expression , so that the audience could better understand what an actor was feeling and portraying on screen. Much silent film acting is apt to strike modern-day audiences as simplistic or campy . The melodramatic acting style was in some cases a habit actors transferred from their former stage experience. Vaudeville theatre

5225-546: The listener imagine the characters and story: "It is auditory in the physical dimension but equally powerful as a visual force in the psychological dimension." Radio drama achieved widespread popularity within a decade of its initial development in the 1920s. By the 1940s, it was a leading international popular entertainment. With the advent of television in the 1950s, however, radio drama lost some of its popularity, and in some countries has never regained large audiences. However, recordings of OTR ( old-time radio ) survive today in

5320-511: The local population. Amateur performers in England were exclusively male, but other countries had female performers. There were several secular plays staged in the Middle Ages, the earliest of which is The Play of the Greenwood by Adam de la Halle in 1276. It contains satirical scenes and folk material such as faeries and other supernatural occurrences. Farces also rose in popularity after

5415-411: The masked actor from the theatrical character. The mask-makers were called skeuopoios or "maker of the props", thus suggesting that their role encompassed multiple duties and tasks. The masks were most likely made out of light weight, organic materials like stiffened linen, leather, wood, or cork, with the wig consisting of human or animal hair. Due to the visual restrictions imposed by these masks, it

5510-463: The mid-1920s many American silent films had adopted a more naturalistic acting style, though not all actors and directors accepted naturalistic, low-key acting straight away; as late as 1927, films featuring expressionistic acting styles, such as Metropolis , were still being released. According to Anton Kaes, a silent film scholar from the University of Wisconsin, American silent cinema began to see

5605-447: The mouth and an integrated wig. These paintings never show actual masks on the actors in performance. They are most often shown being handled by the actors before or after a performance. This demonstrates the way in which the mask was to 'melt' into the face and allow the actor to vanish into the role. Effectively, the mask transformed the actor as much as memorization of the text. Therefore, performance in ancient Greece did not distinguish

5700-593: The mysterious Ismael Retzinsky in Fanny and Alexander , and Linda Hunt received the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for playing Billy Kwan in The Year of Living Dangerously . In 2007, Cate Blanchett was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for playing Jude Quinn, a fictionalized representation of Bob Dylan in the 1960s, in I'm Not There . In the 2000s, women playing men in live theatre

5795-428: The neutral term dates to the post-war period of the 1950s and '60s, when the contributions of women to cultural life in general were being reviewed. When The Observer and The Guardian published their new joint style guide in 2010, it stated "Use ['actor'] for both male and female actors; do not use actress except when in name of award, e.g. Oscar for best actress". The guide's authors stated that "actress comes into

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5890-443: The orchestra and also served as an area where actors could change their costumes. After 425 BC a stone scene wall, called a paraskenia , became a common supplement to skené . The paraskenia was a long wall with projecting sides, which may have had doorways for entrances and exits. Just behind the paraskenia was the proskenion ("in front of the scene"), which is similar to the modern day proscenium . The upper story

5985-423: The orchestra. In some theatres, behind the orchestra, was a backdrop or scenic wall known as the skené . The term theatre eventually came to mean the whole area of theatron , orchestra , and skené . The theatron was the seating area, built into a hill to create a natural viewing space. The first seats in Greek theatres (other than just sitting on the ground) were wooden, but around 499 BC,

6080-423: The order in which they ultimately appear) with a fully developed character already. "Since film captures even the smallest gesture and magnifies it..., cinema demands a less flamboyant and stylized bodily performance from the actor than does the theater." "The performance of emotion is the most difficult aspect of film acting to master: ...the film actor must rely on subtle facial ticks, quivers, and tiny lifts of

6175-735: The other actors. The actors with comedic roles only wore a thin-soled shoe called a soccus or sock. For this reason, dramatic art is sometimes called " sock and buskin ." Male actors playing female roles would wear a wooden structure on their chests ( posterneda ) to imitate the look of breasts and another structure on their stomachs ( progastreda ) to make them appear softer and more lady like. They would also wear white body stockings under their costumes to make their skin appear fairer. Most costuming detail comes from pottery paintings from that time as costumes and masks were fabricated out of disposable material, so there are little to no remains of any costume from that time. The biggest source of information

6270-498: The outcome of the action, around which the actors improvised. The plays used stock characters . A troupe typically consisted of 13 to 14 members. Most actors were paid a share of the play's profits roughly equivalent to the sizes of their roles. Renaissance theatre derived from several medieval theatre traditions, such as the mystery plays , " morality plays ", and the "university drama" that attempted to recreate Athenian tragedy. The Italian tradition of Commedia dell'arte , as well as

6365-493: The power of star actors and celebrated roles to attract enthusiastic audiences. His knighthood in 1895 indicated full acceptance into the higher circles of British society. By the early 20th century, the economics of large-scale productions displaced the actor-manager model. It was too hard to find people who combined a genius at acting as well as management, so specialization divided the roles as stage managers and later theatre directors emerged. Financially, much larger capital

6460-498: The power of the spoken word, and it was their main method of communication and storytelling. Bahn and Bahn write, "To Greeks, the spoken word was a living thing and infinitely preferable to the dead symbols of a written language." Socrates himself believed that once something has been written down, it lost its ability for change and growth. For these reasons, among many others, oral storytelling flourished in Greece. Greek tragedy , as it

6555-442: The practice of inlaying stone blocks into the side of the hill to create permanent, stable seating became more common. They were called the prohedria and reserved for priests and a few of the most respected citizens. The diazoma separated the upper and lower seating areas. After 465 BC, playwrights began using a backdrop or scenic wall, called the skené (from which the word scene derives), that hung or stood behind

6650-562: The production due to her jealousy of her, something that apparently drove her impulsively to suicide in her disappointment. Matters come to a denouement at the country house of the Cranes near Aylesbury when Nicholas is stabbed to death. The murderer manages to escape through the maze , but Fen is able to work out their identity. This article about a 1950s novel is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . See guidelines for writing about novels . Further suggestions might be found on

6745-403: The reign of Charles II in part because he enjoyed watching actresses on stage. Specifically, Charles II issued letters patent to Thomas Killigrew and William Davenant , granting them the monopoly right to form two London theatre companies to perform "serious" drama, and the letters patent were reissued in 1662 with revisions allowing actresses to perform for the first time. According to

6840-406: The relative merits of the stars and the productions. Henry Irving (1838–1905) was the most successful of the British actor-managers. Irving was renowned for his Shakespearean roles, and for such innovations as turning out the house lights so that attention could focus more on the stage and less on the audience. His company toured across Britain, as well as Europe and the United States, demonstrating

6935-561: The role played, whether based on a real person or fictional character. This can also be considered an "actor's role", which was called this due to scrolls being used in the theaters. Interpretation occurs even when the actor is "playing themselves", as in some forms of experimental performance art . Formerly, in ancient Greece and the medieval world , and in England at the time of William Shakespeare , only men could become actors, and women's roles were generally played by men or boys. While Ancient Rome did allow female stage performers, only

7030-414: The same category as authoress, comedienne, manageress, 'lady doctor', 'male nurse' and similar obsolete terms that date from a time when professions were largely the preserve of one sex (usually men)." (See male as norm .) "As Whoopi Goldberg put it in an interview with the paper: 'An actress can only play a woman. I'm an actor – I can play anything. ' " The UK performers' union Equity has no policy on

7125-426: The seat of Roman power was moved eastward to Constantinople . Records show that mime , pantomime , scenes or recitations from tragedies and comedies , dances , and other entertainments were very popular. From the 5th century, Western Europe was plunged into a period of general disorder. Small nomadic bands of actors traveled around Europe throughout the period, performing wherever they could find an audience; there

7220-520: The second half of the 17th century, they did appear in Italy, Spain and France from the late 16th-century onward. Lucrezia Di Siena , whose name is on an acting contract in Rome from 10 October 1564, has been referred to as the first Italian actress known by name, with Vincenza Armani and Barbara Flaminia as the first primadonnas and the first well-documented actresses in Italy (and Europe). After 1660 in England, when women first started to appear on stage,

7315-435: The stage at one time, and masks permitted quick transitions from one character to another. There were only male actors, but masks allowed them to play female characters. The modern method to interpret a role by switching between a few simple characters goes back to changing masks in the theatre of ancient Greece. The actors in these plays that had tragic roles wore boots called cothurnus ( buskin ), that elevated them above

7410-517: The stage banned the performance of all plays within London. Puritans viewed the theatre as immoral. The re-opening of the theatres in 1660 signalled a renaissance of English drama. English comedies written and performed in the Restoration period from 1660 to 1710 are collectively called "Restoration comedy". Restoration comedy is notorious for its sexual explicitness. At this point, women were allowed for

7505-413: The stage directions that appear in the script, such as "Stage Left" and "Stage Right". These directions are based on the actor's point of view as they stand on the stage facing the audience. Actors also have to learn the meaning of the stage directions "Upstage" (away from the audience) and "Downstage" (towards the audience). Theatre actors need to learn blocking, which is "...where and how an actor moves on

7600-454: The stage during a play". Most scripts specify some blocking. The Director also gives instructions on blocking, such as crossing the stage or picking up and using a prop. Some theater actors need to learn stage combat , which is simulated fighting on stage. Actors may have to simulate hand-to-hand fighting or sword-fighting. Actors are coached by fight directors , who help them learn the choreographed sequence of fight actions. From 1894 to

7695-439: The story as a character able to interact with the characters of a play. Plays often began in the morning and lasted into the evening. The theatres were built on a large scale to accommodate a large number of performers on stage and in the audience—up to fourteen thousand . Physics and mathematics played a significant role in the construction of these theatres, as their designers had to be able to create acoustics in them such that

7790-458: The terms actor or actress were initially used interchangeably for female performers, but later, influenced by the French actrice , actress became the commonly used term for women in theater and film. The etymology is a simple derivation from actor with -ess added. When referring to groups of performers of both sexes, actors is preferred. Within the profession, the re-adoption of

7885-569: The tragedies, but in a purely comedic manner. The power of Athens declined following its defeat in the Peloponnesian War against Sparta . From that time on, the theatre started performing old tragedies again. Although its theatrical traditions seem to have lost their vitality, Greek theatre continued into the Hellenistic period (the period following Alexander the Great 's conquests in the fourth century BC). The primary Hellenistic theatrical form

7980-415: The tragic chorus, they all wear the same mask because they are considered to be representing one character. Stylized comedy and tragedy masks said to originate in ancient Greek theatre have come to widely symbolize the performing arts generally. Illustrations of theatrical masks from 5th century display helmet-like masks, covering the entire face and head, with holes for the eyes and a small aperture for

8075-460: The use of "actor" or "actress". An Equity spokesperson said that the union does not believe that there is a consensus on the matter and stated that the "...subject divides the profession". In 2009, the Los Angeles Times stated that "Actress" remains the common term used in major acting awards given to female recipients (e.g., Academy Award for Best Actress ). With regard to the cinema of

8170-477: Was a minority of actresses in Rome employed in speaking roles, and also those who achieved wealth, fame and recognition for their art, such as Eucharis , Dionysia , Galeria Copiola and Fabia Arete , and they also formed their own acting guild, the Sociae Mimae , which was evidently quite wealthy. The profession seemingly died out in late antiquity. While women did not begin to perform onstage in England until

8265-571: Was an especially popular origin for many American silent film actors. The pervading presence of stage actors in film was the cause of this outburst from director Marshall Neilan in 1917: "The sooner the stage people who have come into pictures get out, the better for the pictures". In other cases, directors such as John Griffith Wray required their actors to deliver larger-than-life expressions for emphasis. As early as 1914, American viewers had begun to make known their preference for greater naturalness on screen. Pioneering film directors in Europe and

8360-510: Was called the episkenion . Some theatres also had a raised speaking place on the orchestra called the logeion . By the end of the 5th century BC, around the time of the Peloponnesian War, the skené was two stories high. The death of a character was always heard behind the skené , for it was considered inappropriate to show a killing in view of the audience. Conversely, there are scholarly arguments that death in Greek tragedy

8455-409: Was created roughly around 508 BC. While no drama texts exist from the sixth century BC, the names of three competitors besides Thespis are known: Choerilus, Pratinas, and Phrynichus . Each is credited with different innovations in the field. Some information is known about Phrynichus. He won his first competition between 511 BC and 508 BC. He produced tragedies on themes and subjects later exploited in

8550-416: Was imperative that the actors hear in order to orient and balance themselves. Thus, it is believed that the ears were covered by substantial amounts of hair and not the helmet-mask itself. The mouth opening was relatively small, preventing the mouth being seen during performances. Vervain and Wiles posit that this small size discourages the idea that the mask functioned as a megaphone, as originally presented in

8645-478: Was lifted after the English Restoration of 1660, women began to appear on stage in England. Margaret Hughes is often credited as the first professional actress on the English stage. Previously, Angelica Martinelli , a member of a visiting Italian Commedia dell'arte company, did perform in England as early as 1578, but such foreign guest appearances had been rare exceptions and there had been no professional English actresses in England. This prohibition ended during

8740-408: Was not tragedy but New Comedy , comic episodes about the lives of ordinary citizens. The only extant playwright from the period is Menander . One of New Comedy's most important contributions was its influence on Roman comedy, an influence that can be seen in the surviving works of Plautus and Terence . Most ancient Greek cities lay on or near hills, so seating was generally built into the slope of

8835-511: Was played by Divine in the 1988 original film , Harvey Fierstein in the Broadway musical , and John Travolta in the 2007 movie musical . Eddie Redmayne was nominated for an Academy Award for playing Lili Elbe (a trans woman ) in 2015's The Danish Girl . In contrast to Ancient Greek theatre, Ancient Roman theatre did allow female performers. While the majority of them were seldom employed in speaking roles but rather for dancing, there

8930-399: Was portrayed off stage primarily because of dramatic considerations, and not prudishness or sensitivity of the audience. A temple nearby, especially on the right side of the scene, is almost always part of the Greek theatre complex. This could justify, as a transposition, the recurrence of the pediment with the later solidified stone scene. The orchestra was a circular piece of ground at

9025-545: Was required to operate out of a major city. The solution was corporate ownership of chains of theatres, such as by the Theatrical Syndicate , Edward Laurillard , and especially The Shubert Organization . By catering to tourists, theaters in large cities increasingly favored long runs of highly popular plays, especially musicals. Big name stars became even more essential. Formerly, in some societies, only men could become actors. In ancient Greece and ancient Rome and

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