88-424: The freestream is the air far upstream of an aerodynamic body, that is, before the body has a chance to deflect, slow down or compress the air. Freestream conditions are usually denoted with a ∞ {\displaystyle \infty } symbol, e.g. V ∞ {\displaystyle V_{\infty }} , meaning the freestream velocity. This fluid dynamics –related article
176-522: A fuel for human consumption to provide energy for direct use (such as for cooking , heating or lighting ), to power heat engines (such as steam or internal combustion engines ) that can propel vehicles , or to generate electricity via steam turbine generators. Some fossil fuels are further refined into derivatives such as kerosene , gasoline and diesel , or converted into petrochemicals such as polyolefins ( plastics ), aromatics and synthetic resins . The origin of fossil fuels
264-634: A just transition and create policy that addresses the societal burdens created by the stranded assets of the fossil fuel industry. International policy, in the form of United Nations ' sustainable development goals for affordable and clean energy and climate action , as well as the Paris Climate Agreement , is designed to facilitate this transition at a global level. In 2021, the International Energy Agency concluded that no new fossil fuel extraction projects could be opened if
352-435: A boundary marked in most places by a temperature inversion (i.e. a layer of relatively warm air above a colder one), and in others by a zone that is isothermal with height. Although variations do occur, the temperature usually declines with increasing altitude in the troposphere because the troposphere is mostly heated through energy transfer from the surface. Thus, the lowest part of the troposphere (i.e. Earth's surface)
440-410: A complex mixture of high-molecular weight organic compounds, which yield synthetic crude oil when heated ( pyrolyzed ). With additional processing, they can be employed instead of other established fossil fuels. During the 2010s and 2020s there was disinvestment from exploitation of such resources due to their high carbon cost relative to more easily-processed reserves. Prior to the latter half of
528-505: A factor of 1/ e (0.368) every 7.64 km (25,100 ft), (this is called the scale height ) -- for altitudes out to around 70 km (43 mi; 230,000 ft). However, the atmosphere is more accurately modeled with a customized equation for each layer that takes gradients of temperature, molecular composition, solar radiation and gravity into account. At heights over 100 km, an atmosphere may no longer be well mixed. Then each chemical species has its own scale height. In summary,
616-511: A layer in which temperatures rise with increasing altitude. This rise in temperature is caused by the absorption of ultraviolet radiation (UV) from the Sun by the ozone layer, which restricts turbulence and mixing. Although the temperature may be −60 °C (−76 °F; 210 K) at the tropopause, the top of the stratosphere is much warmer, and may be near 0 °C. The stratospheric temperature profile creates very stable atmospheric conditions, so
704-425: A lesser extent oil and its derivatives, contributes to atmospheric particulate matter , smog and acid rain . Air pollution from fossil fuels in 2018 has been estimated to cost US$ 2.9 trillion, or 3.3% of the global gross domestic product (GDP). Climate change is largely driven by the release of greenhouse gases like CO 2 , and the burning of fossil fuels is the main source of these emissions. In most parts of
792-574: A mass of about 5.15 × 10 kg, three quarters of which is within about 11 km (6.8 mi; 36,000 ft) of the surface. The atmosphere becomes thinner with increasing altitude, with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km (62 mi) or 1.57% of Earth's radius, is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space. Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km (75 mi). Several layers can be distinguished in
880-485: A million miles away, were found to be reflected light from ice crystals in the atmosphere. When light passes through Earth's atmosphere, photons interact with it through scattering . If the light does not interact with the atmosphere, it is called direct radiation and is what you see if you were to look directly at the Sun. Indirect radiation is light that has been scattered in the atmosphere. For example, on an overcast day when you cannot see your shadow, there
968-754: A process known as catagenesis . Despite these heat-driven transformations, the energy released in combustion is still photosynthetic in origin. Terrestrial plants tended to form coal and methane. Many of the coal fields date to the Carboniferous period of Earth's history . Terrestrial plants also form type III kerogen , a source of natural gas. Although fossil fuels are continually formed by natural processes, they are classified as non-renewable resources because they take millions of years to form and known viable reserves are being depleted much faster than new ones are generated. Fossil fuels have been important to human development because they can be readily burned in
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#17328695350071056-733: A protective buffer between the Earth's surface and outer space , shields the surface from most meteoroids and ultraviolet solar radiation , keeps it warm and reduces diurnal temperature variation (temperature extremes between day and night ) through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ), redistributes heat and moisture among different regions via air currents , and provides the chemical and climate conditions allowing life to exist and evolve on Earth. By mole fraction (i.e., by quantity of molecules ), dry air contains 78.08% nitrogen , 20.95% oxygen , 0.93% argon , 0.04% carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other trace gases . Air also contains
1144-406: A result of anaerobic decomposition . Over geological time this organic matter , mixed with mud , became buried under further heavy layers of inorganic sediment. The resulting high temperature and pressure caused the organic matter to chemically alter , first into a waxy material known as kerogen , which is found in oil shales , and then with more heat into liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons in
1232-483: A result of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer use. According to head of a fertilizers commodity price agency, "50% of the world's food relies on fertilisers." The burning of fossil fuels has a number of negative externalities – harmful environmental impacts where the effects extend beyond the people using the fuel. These effects vary between different fuels. All fossil fuels release CO 2 when they burn, thus accelerating climate change . Burning coal, and to
1320-445: A variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1% at sea level, and 0.4% over the entire atmosphere. Air composition, temperature and atmospheric pressure vary with altitude . Within the atmosphere, air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and respiration of terrestrial animals is found only within 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) from the ground. Earth's early atmosphere consisted of accreted gases from
1408-544: Is 14 °C (57 °F; 287 K) or 15 °C (59 °F; 288 K), depending on the reference. The average atmospheric pressure at sea level is defined by the International Standard Atmosphere as 101325 pascals (760.00 Torr ; 14.6959 psi ; 760.00 mmHg ). This is sometimes referred to as a unit of standard atmospheres (atm) . Total atmospheric mass is 5.1480×10 kg (1.135×10 lb), about 2.5% less than would be inferred from
1496-504: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Atmosphere of Earth The atmosphere of Earth is composed of a layer of gas mixture that surrounds the Earth 's planetary surface (both lands and oceans ), known collectively as air , with variable quantities of suspended aerosols and particulates (which create weather features such as clouds and hazes ), all retained by Earth's gravity . The atmosphere serves as
1584-521: Is a net increase of many billion tonnes of atmospheric CO 2 per year. Although methane leaks are significant, the burning of fossil fuels is the main source of greenhouse gas emissions causing global warming and ocean acidification . Additionally, most air pollution deaths are due to fossil fuel particulates and noxious gases, and it is estimated that this costs over 3% of the global gross domestic product and that fossil fuel phase-out will save millions of lives each year. Recognition of
1672-408: Is about 1.2 kg/m (1.2 g/L, 0.0012 g/cm ). Density is not measured directly but is calculated from measurements of temperature, pressure and humidity using the equation of state for air (a form of the ideal gas law ). Atmospheric density decreases as the altitude increases. This variation can be approximately modeled using the barometric formula . More sophisticated models are used to predict
1760-414: Is about 28.946 or 28.96 g/mol. This is decreased when the air is humid. The relative concentration of gases remains constant until about 10,000 m (33,000 ft). In general, air pressure and density decrease with altitude in the atmosphere. However, temperature has a more complicated profile with altitude and may remain relatively constant or even increase with altitude in some regions (see
1848-500: Is an attempt to reduce climate change by exerting social, political, and economic pressure for the institutional divestment of assets including stocks, bonds, and other financial instruments connected to companies involved in extracting fossil fuels . Fossil fuel divestment campaigns emerged on college and university campuses in the United States in 2011 with students urging their administrations to turn endowment investments in
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#17328695350071936-442: Is because clouds (H 2 O) are strong absorbers and emitters of infrared radiation. This is also why it becomes colder at night at higher elevations. The greenhouse effect is directly related to this absorption and emission effect. Some gases in the atmosphere absorb and emit infrared radiation, but do not interact with sunlight in the visible spectrum. Common examples of these are CO 2 and H 2 O. The refractive index of air
2024-1429: Is called paleoclimatology . The three major constituents of Earth's atmosphere are nitrogen , oxygen , and argon . Water vapor accounts for roughly 0.25% of the atmosphere by mass. The concentration of water vapor (a greenhouse gas) varies significantly from around 10 ppm by mole fraction in the coldest portions of the atmosphere to as much as 5% by mole fraction in hot, humid air masses, and concentrations of other atmospheric gases are typically quoted in terms of dry air (without water vapor). The remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases, among which are other greenhouse gases , principally carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Besides argon, other noble gases , neon , helium , krypton , and xenon are also present. Filtered air includes trace amounts of many other chemical compounds . Many substances of natural origin may be present in locally and seasonally variable small amounts as aerosols in an unfiltered air sample, including dust of mineral and organic composition, pollen and spores , sea spray , and volcanic ash . Various industrial pollutants also may be present as gases or aerosols, such as chlorine (elemental or in compounds), fluorine compounds and elemental mercury vapor. Sulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) may be derived from natural sources or from industrial air pollution. Mole fraction
2112-447: Is close to, but just greater than, 1. Systematic variations in the refractive index can lead to the bending of light rays over long optical paths. One example is that, under some circumstances, observers on board ships can see other vessels just over the horizon because light is refracted in the same direction as the curvature of Earth's surface. The refractive index of air depends on temperature, giving rise to refraction effects when
2200-477: Is mainly composed of extremely low densities of hydrogen, helium and several heavier molecules including nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide closer to the exobase. The atoms and molecules are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of kilometres without colliding with one another. Thus, the exosphere no longer behaves like a gas, and the particles constantly escape into space . These free-moving particles follow ballistic trajectories and may migrate in and out of
2288-445: Is no direct radiation reaching you, it has all been scattered. As another example, due to a phenomenon called Rayleigh scattering , shorter (blue) wavelengths scatter more easily than longer (red) wavelengths. This is why the sky looks blue; you are seeing scattered blue light. This is also why sunsets are red. Because the Sun is close to the horizon, the Sun's rays pass through more atmosphere than normal before reaching your eye. Much of
2376-404: Is now considered a very valuable resource. Natural gas deposits are also the main source of helium . Heavy crude oil , which is much more viscous than conventional crude oil, and oil sands , where bitumen is found mixed with sand and clay, began to become more important as sources of fossil fuel in the early 2000s. Oil shale and similar materials are sedimentary rocks containing kerogen ,
2464-513: Is so tenuous that some scientists consider it to be part of interplanetary space rather than part of the atmosphere). It extends from the thermopause (also known as the "exobase") at the top of the thermosphere to a poorly defined boundary with the solar wind and interplanetary medium . The altitude of the exobase varies from about 500 kilometres (310 mi; 1,600,000 ft) to about 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) in times of higher incoming solar radiation. The upper limit varies depending on
2552-481: Is sometimes referred to as volume fraction ; these are identical for an ideal gas only. ppm: parts per million by molecular count The concentration of CO 2 has been increasing in recent decades , as has that of CH 4 . Water vapor is about 0.25% by mass over full atmosphere Water vapor varies significantly locally The average molecular weight of dry air, which can be used to calculate densities or to convert between mole fraction and mass fraction,
2640-501: Is sometimes transported by diesel-powered locomotives, while crude oil is typically transported by tanker ships, requiring the combustion of additional fossil fuels. A variety of mitigating efforts have arisen to counter the negative effects of fossil fuels. This includes a movement to use alternative energy sources, such as renewable energy . Environmental regulation uses a variety of approaches to limit these emissions; for example, rules against releasing waste products like fly ash into
2728-528: Is the anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms, whose organic molecules were produced by photosynthetic carbon fixation and sequestered / biomagnified by the food web , creating an underground carbon sink . The conversion from these organic materials to high-carbon fossil fuels typically requires a geological process of millions of years. Due to the length of time it takes nature to form them, fossil fuels are considered non-renewable resources . In 2022, over 80% of primary energy consumption in
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2816-456: Is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It extends from Earth's surface to an average height of about 12 km (7.5 mi; 39,000 ft), although this altitude varies from about 9 km (5.6 mi; 30,000 ft) at the geographic poles to 17 km (11 mi; 56,000 ft) at the Equator , with some variation due to weather. The troposphere is bounded above by the tropopause ,
2904-412: Is too low to conduct a significant amount of energy to or from the skin. This layer is completely cloudless and free of water vapor. However, non-hydrometeorological phenomena such as the aurora borealis and aurora australis are occasionally seen in the thermosphere. The International Space Station orbits in this layer, between 350 and 420 km (220 and 260 mi). It is this layer where many of
2992-475: Is typically the warmest section of the troposphere. This promotes vertical mixing (hence, the origin of its name in the Greek word τρόπος, tropos , meaning "turn"). The troposphere contains roughly 80% of the mass of Earth's atmosphere. The troposphere is denser than all its overlying layers because a larger atmospheric weight sits on top of the troposphere and causes it to be most severely compressed. Fifty percent of
3080-464: Is used in the construction of roads . The energy for the Green Revolution was provided by fossil fuels in the form of fertilizers (natural gas), pesticides (oil), and hydrocarbon -fueled irrigation . The development of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer has significantly supported global population growth ; it has been estimated that almost half of the Earth's population are currently fed as
3168-641: Is waging war on nature. This is suicidal. Nature always strikes back – and it is already doing so with growing force and fury." He also claimed there is still cause for hope, anticipating the US plan to join other large emitters like China and the EU in adopting targets to reach net zero emissions by 2050. Fossilflation is a term that describes the impact of fossil fuels on inflation . According to Vox in August 2022 , "Economists have pointed to energy prices as
3256-577: The F-layer of the ionosphere where they encounter enough atmospheric drag to require reboosts every few months, otherwise, orbital decay will occur resulting in a return to Earth. Depending on solar activity, satellites can experience noticeable atmospheric drag at altitudes as high as 700–800 km. The division of the atmosphere into layers mostly by reference to temperature is discussed above. Temperature decreases with altitude starting at sea level, but variations in this trend begin above 11 km, where
3344-459: The climate crisis , pollution and other negative impacts caused by fossil fuels has led to a widespread policy transition and activist movement focused on ending their use in favor of renewable and sustainable energy . Because the fossil-fuel industry is so heavily integrated in the global economy and heavily subsidized , this transition is expected to have significant economic impacts. Many stakeholders argue that this change needs to be
3432-599: The fossil fuel industry into investments in clean energy and communities most impacted by climate change . In 2012, Unity College in Maine became the first institution of higher learning to divest its endowment from fossil fuels. By 2015, fossil fuel divestment was reportedly the fastest growing divestment movement in history. As of July 2023, more than 1593 institutions with assets totalling more than $ 40.5 trillion in assets worldwide had begun or committed some form of divestment of fossil fuels. In 2019, Saudi Aramco
3520-407: The health risks of air pollution , and would greatly reduce global carbon emissions thus helping to limit climate change . As of 2021 , policy researchers estimate that substantially more money is spent on fossil fuel subsidies than on environmentally harmful agricultural subsidies or environmentally harmful water subsidies . The International Energy Agency says: "High fossil fuel prices hit
3608-588: The infrared to around 1100 nm. There are also infrared and radio windows that transmit some infrared and radio waves at longer wavelengths. For example, the radio window runs from about one centimetre to about eleven-metre waves. Emission is the opposite of absorption, it is when an object emits radiation. Objects tend to emit amounts and wavelengths of radiation depending on their " black body " emission curves, therefore hotter objects tend to emit more radiation, with shorter wavelengths. Colder objects emit less radiation, with longer wavelengths. For example,
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3696-406: The internal combustion engine and its use in automobiles and trucks greatly increased the demand for gasoline and diesel oil , both made from fossil fuels. Other forms of transportation, railways and aircraft, also require fossil fuels. The other major use for fossil fuels is in generating electricity and as feedstock for the petrochemical industry . Tar , a leftover of petroleum extraction,
3784-433: The magnetosphere or the solar wind. Every second, the Earth loses about 3 kg of hydrogen, 50 g of helium, and much smaller amounts of other constituents. The exosphere is too far above Earth for meteorological phenomena to be possible. However, Earth's auroras —the aurora borealis (northern lights) and aurora australis (southern lights)—sometimes occur in the lower part of the exosphere, where they overlap into
3872-402: The mesopause that marks the top of this middle layer of the atmosphere. It is the coldest place on Earth and has an average temperature around −85 °C (−120 °F ; 190 K ). Just below the mesopause, the air is so cold that even the very scarce water vapor at this altitude can condense into polar-mesospheric noctilucent clouds of ice particles. These are the highest clouds in
3960-451: The solar nebula , but the atmosphere changed significantly over time, affected by many factors such as volcanism , impact events , weathering and the evolution of life (particularly the photoautotrophs ). Recently, human activity has also contributed to atmospheric changes , such as climate change (mainly through deforestation and fossil fuel -related global warming ), ozone depletion and acid deposition . The atmosphere has
4048-428: The temperature section). Because the general pattern of the temperature/altitude profile, or lapse rate , is constant and measurable by means of instrumented balloon soundings , the temperature behavior provides a useful metric to distinguish atmospheric layers. This atmospheric stratification divides the Earth's atmosphere into five main layers: The exosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere (though it
4136-511: The tropopause . This layer extends from the top of the troposphere at roughly 12 km (7.5 mi; 39,000 ft) above Earth's surface to the stratopause at an altitude of about 50 to 55 km (31 to 34 mi; 164,000 to 180,000 ft). The atmospheric pressure at the top of the stratosphere is roughly 1/1000 the pressure at sea level . It contains the ozone layer , which is the part of Earth's atmosphere that contains relatively high concentrations of that gas. The stratosphere defines
4224-487: The 18th century, windmills and watermills provided the energy needed for work such as milling flour, sawing wood or pumping water, while burning wood or peat provided domestic heat. The wide-scale use of fossil fuels, coal at first and petroleum later, in steam engines enabled the Industrial Revolution . At the same time, gas lights using natural gas or coal gas were coming into wide use. The invention of
4312-418: The 21st century. Combustion of fossil fuels generates sulfuric and nitric acids , which fall to Earth as acid rain, impacting both natural areas and the built environment. Monuments and sculptures made from marble and limestone are particularly vulnerable, as the acids dissolve calcium carbonate . Fossil fuels also contain radioactive materials, mainly uranium and thorium , which are released into
4400-605: The COVID-19 pandemic, some argued for the possibility of a base effect phenomenon due to cheaper than normal prices, such as for oil, at the onset of the pandemic, followed by above-average prices which exacerbated the perceived inflation. While not expected to provide much short-term relief, the Inflation Reduction Act seeks to make the United States less dependent on fossil fuels and their ability to cause inflation in
4488-558: The Kármán line, significant atmospheric effects such as auroras still occur. Meteors begin to glow in this region, though the larger ones may not burn up until they penetrate more deeply. The various layers of Earth's ionosphere , important to HF radio propagation, begin below 100 km and extend beyond 500 km. By comparison, the International Space Station and Space Shuttle typically orbit at 350–400 km, within
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#17328695350074576-459: The Sun is approximately 6,000 K (5,730 °C ; 10,340 °F ), its radiation peaks near 500 nm, and is visible to the human eye. Earth is approximately 290 K (17 °C; 62 °F), so its radiation peaks near 10,000 nm, and is much too long to be visible to humans. Because of its temperature, the atmosphere emits infrared radiation. For example, on clear nights Earth's surface cools down faster than on cloudy nights. This
4664-538: The United States production. In addition to the effects that result from burning, the harvesting, processing, and distribution of fossil fuels also have environmental effects. Coal mining methods, particularly mountaintop removal and strip mining , have negative environmental impacts, and offshore oil drilling poses a hazard to aquatic organisms. Fossil fuel wells can contribute to methane release via fugitive gas emissions . Oil refineries also have negative environmental impacts, including air and water pollution. Coal
4752-420: The aptly-named thermosphere above 90 km. Because in an ideal gas of constant composition the speed of sound depends only on temperature and not on pressure or density, the speed of sound in the atmosphere with altitude takes on the form of the complicated temperature profile (see illustration to the right), and does not mirror altitudinal changes in density or pressure. The density of air at sea level
4840-421: The atmosphere also cools by emitting radiation, as discussed below. The combined absorption spectra of the gases in the atmosphere leave "windows" of low opacity , allowing the transmission of only certain bands of light. The optical window runs from around 300 nm ( ultraviolet -C) up into the range humans can see, the visible spectrum (commonly called light), at roughly 400–700 nm and continues to
4928-399: The atmosphere and may be visible to the naked eye if sunlight reflects off them about an hour or two after sunset or similarly before sunrise. They are most readily visible when the Sun is around 4 to 16 degrees below the horizon. Lightning-induced discharges known as transient luminous events (TLEs) occasionally form in the mesosphere above tropospheric thunderclouds . The mesosphere is also
5016-489: The atmosphere based on characteristics such as temperature and composition, namely the troposphere , stratosphere , mesosphere , thermosphere (formally the ionosphere ) and exosphere . The study of Earth's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science (aerology), and includes multiple subfields, such as climatology and atmospheric physics . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann . The study of historic atmosphere
5104-458: The atmosphere. In December 2020, the United Nations released a report saying that despite the need to reduce greenhouse emissions, various governments are " doubling down " on fossil fuels, in some cases diverting over 50% of their COVID-19 recovery stimulus funding to fossil fuel production rather than to alternative energy. The UN secretary general António Guterres declared that "Humanity
5192-532: The atmosphere. In 2000, about 12,000 tonnes of thorium and 5,000 tonnes of uranium were released worldwide from burning coal. It is estimated that during 1982, US coal burning released 155 times as much radioactivity into the atmosphere as the Three Mile Island accident . Burning coal also generates large amounts of bottom ash and fly ash . These materials are used in a wide variety of applications (see Fly ash reuse ), utilizing, for example, about 40% of
5280-637: The average sea level pressure and Earth's area of 51007.2 megahectares, this portion being displaced by Earth's mountainous terrain. Atmospheric pressure is the total weight of the air above unit area at the point where the pressure is measured. Thus air pressure varies with location and weather . If the entire mass of the atmosphere had a uniform density equal to sea level density (about 1.2 kg per m ) from sea level upwards, it would terminate abruptly at an altitude of 8.50 km (27,900 ft). Air pressure actually decreases exponentially with altitude, dropping by half every 5.6 km (18,000 ft) or by
5368-414: The blue light has been scattered out, leaving the red light in a sunset. Different molecules absorb different wavelengths of radiation. For example, O 2 and O 3 absorb almost all radiation with wavelengths shorter than 300 nanometres . Water (H 2 O) absorbs at many wavelengths above 700 nm. When a molecule absorbs a photon, it increases the energy of the molecule. This heats the atmosphere, but
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#17328695350075456-711: The data show that fossil fuels cause the highest levels of greenhouse gas emissions and are the most dangerous for human health. In contrast, modern renewable energy sources appear to be safer for human health and cleaner. The death rates from accidents and air pollution in the EU are as follows per terawatt-hour (TWh): As the data shows, coal, oil, natural gas, and biomass cause higher death rates and higher levels of greenhouse gas emissions than hydropower, nuclear energy, wind, and solar power. Scientists propose that 1.8 million lives have been saved by replacing fossil fuel sources with nuclear power. Fossil fuel divestment or fossil fuel divestment and investment in climate solutions
5544-415: The definition. Various authorities consider it to end at about 10,000 kilometres (6,200 mi) or about 190,000 kilometres (120,000 mi)—about halfway to the moon, where the influence of Earth's gravity is about the same as radiation pressure from sunlight. The geocorona visible in the far ultraviolet (caused by neutral hydrogen) extends to at least 100,000 kilometres (62,000 mi). This layer
5632-931: The economy. Moody's estimates that by 2030, the bill could reduce the typical American household's spending on energy by more than $ 300 each year, in 2022 dollars. Environmental pollution from fossil fuels impacts humans because particulates and other air pollution from fossil fuel combustion may cause illness and death when inhaled. These health effects include premature death, acute respiratory illness, aggravated asthma, chronic bronchitis and decreased lung function. The poor, undernourished, very young and very old, and people with preexisting respiratory disease and other ill health are more at risk. Global air pollution deaths due to fossil fuels have been estimated at over 8 million people (2018, nearly 1 in 5 deaths worldwide) at 10.2 million (2019), and 5.13 million excess deaths from ambient air pollution from fossil fuel use (2023). While all energy sources inherently have adverse effects,
5720-434: The gas molecules are so far apart that its temperature in the usual sense is not very meaningful. The air is so rarefied that an individual molecule (of oxygen , for example) travels an average of 1 kilometre (0.62 mi; 3300 ft) between collisions with other molecules. Although the thermosphere has a high proportion of molecules with high energy, it would not feel hot to a human in direct contact, because its density
5808-474: The global economy and society wants to avoid the worst impacts of climate change and meet international goals for climate change mitigation . The theory that fossil fuels formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants by exposure to heat and pressure in Earth's crust over millions of years was first introduced by Andreas Libavius "in his 1597 Alchemia [Alchymia]" and later by Mikhail Lomonosov "as early as 1757 and certainly by 1763". The first use of
5896-465: The importance of energy, transport and chemical industries to local, national and international economies, these lobbies have the capacity and money to attempt to have outsized influence on governmental policy. In particular, the lobbies have been known to obstruct policy related to environmental protection , environmental health and climate action . Lobbies are active in most fossil-fuel intensive economies with democratic governance, with reporting on
5984-403: The layer where most meteors burn up upon atmospheric entrance. It is too high above Earth to be accessible to jet-powered aircraft and balloons, and too low to permit orbital spacecraft. The mesosphere is mainly accessed by sounding rockets and rocket-powered aircraft . The stratosphere is the second-lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It lies above the troposphere and is separated from it by
6072-631: The lobbies most prominent in Canada, Australia, the United States and Europe, however the lobbies are present in many parts of the world. Big Oil companies such as ExxonMobil , Shell , BP , TotalEnergies , Chevron Corporation , and ConocoPhillips are among the largest corporations associated with the fossil fuels lobby. The American Petroleum Institute is a powerful industry lobbyist for Big Oil with significant influence in Washington, D.C. In Australia, Australian Energy Producers , formerly known as
6160-485: The main reason for high inflation," noting that "energy prices indirectly affect virtually every part of the economy". Sectors that raise prices significantly as a result of higher fossil fuel prices include transportation, food, and shipping. Mark Zandi of Moody's says that fossil fuel prices have driven every big episode of inflation since WWII. The economic impact of the Russian Invasion of Ukraine in 2022
6248-482: The mass of Earth's atmosphere is distributed approximately as follows: By comparison, the summit of Mount Everest is at 8,848 m (29,029 ft); commercial airliners typically cruise between 10 and 13 km (33,000 and 43,000 ft) where the lower density and temperature of the air improve fuel economy; weather balloons reach 30.4 km (100,000 ft) and above; and the highest X-15 flight in 1963 reached 108.0 km (354,300 ft). Even above
6336-463: The open atmosphere to produce heat. The use of peat as a domestic fuel predates recorded history. Coal was burned in some early furnaces for the smelting of metal ore , while semi-solid hydrocarbons from oil seeps were also burned in ancient times, they were mostly used for waterproofing and embalming . Commercial exploitation of petroleum began in the 19th century. Natural gas, once flared-off as an unneeded byproduct of petroleum production,
6424-504: The orbital decay of satellites. The average mass of the atmosphere is about 5 quadrillion (5 × 10 ) tonnes or 1/1,200,000 the mass of Earth. According to the American National Center for Atmospheric Research , "The total mean mass of the atmosphere is 5.1480 × 10 kg with an annual range due to water vapor of 1.2 or 1.5 × 10 kg, depending on whether surface pressure or water vapor data are used; somewhat smaller than
6512-408: The poor hardest, but subsidies are rarely well-targeted to protect vulnerable groups and tend to benefit better-off segments of the population." The fossil fuels lobby includes paid representatives of corporations involved in the fossil fuel industry ( oil , gas , coal ), as well as related industries like chemicals , plastics , aviation and other transportation. Because of their wealth and
6600-523: The previous estimate. The mean mass of water vapor is estimated as 1.27 × 10 kg and the dry air mass as 5.1352 ±0.0003 × 10 kg." Solar radiation (or sunlight) is the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Earth also emits radiation back into space, but at longer wavelengths that humans cannot see. Part of the incoming and emitted radiation is absorbed or reflected by the atmosphere. In May 2017, glints of light, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite
6688-422: The satellites orbiting the Earth are present. The mesosphere is the third highest layer of Earth's atmosphere, occupying the region above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere. It extends from the stratopause at an altitude of about 50 km (31 mi; 160,000 ft) to the mesopause at 80–85 km (50–53 mi; 260,000–280,000 ft) above sea level. Temperatures drop with increasing altitude to
6776-447: The stratosphere lacks the weather-producing air turbulence that is so prevalent in the troposphere. Consequently, the stratosphere is almost completely free of clouds and other forms of weather. However, polar stratospheric or nacreous clouds are occasionally seen in the lower part of this layer of the atmosphere where the air is coldest. The stratosphere is the highest layer that can be accessed by jet-powered aircraft . The troposphere
6864-484: The temperature gradient is large. An example of such effects is the mirage . Fossil fuel A fossil fuel is a carbon compound - or hydrocarbon -containing material formed naturally in the Earth's crust from the buried remains of prehistoric organisms ( animals , plants or planktons ), a process that occurs within geological formations . Reservoirs of such compound mixtures , such as coal , petroleum and natural gas , can be extracted and burnt as
6952-444: The temperature stabilizes over a large vertical distance through the rest of the troposphere. In the stratosphere , starting above about 20 km, the temperature increases with height, due to heating within the ozone layer caused by the capture of significant ultraviolet radiation from the Sun by the dioxygen and ozone gas in this region. Still another region of increasing temperature with altitude occurs at very high altitudes, in
7040-686: The term "fossil fuel" occurs in the work of the German chemist Caspar Neumann , in English translation in 1759. The Oxford English Dictionary notes that in the phrase "fossil fuel" the adjective "fossil" means "[o]btained by digging; found buried in the earth", which dates to at least 1652, before the English noun "fossil" came to refer primarily to long-dead organisms in the early 18th century. Aquatic phytoplankton and zooplankton that died and sedimented in large quantities under anoxic conditions millions of years ago began forming petroleum and natural gas as
7128-442: The thermopause varies considerably due to changes in solar activity. Because the thermopause lies at the lower boundary of the exosphere, it is also referred to as the exobase . The lower part of the thermosphere, from 80 to 550 kilometres (50 to 342 mi) above Earth's surface, contains the ionosphere . The temperature of the thermosphere gradually increases with height and can rise as high as 1500 °C (2700 °F), though
7216-429: The thermosphere. The exosphere contains many of the artificial satellites that orbit Earth. The thermosphere is the second-highest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It extends from the mesopause (which separates it from the mesosphere) at an altitude of about 80 km (50 mi; 260,000 ft) up to the thermopause at an altitude range of 500–1000 km (310–620 mi; 1,600,000–3,300,000 ft). The height of
7304-419: The total mass of the atmosphere is located in the lower 5.6 km (3.5 mi; 18,000 ft) of the troposphere. Nearly all atmospheric water vapor or moisture is found in the troposphere, so it is the layer where most of Earth's weather takes place. It has basically all the weather-associated cloud genus types generated by active wind circulation, although very tall cumulonimbus thunder clouds can penetrate
7392-430: The tropopause from below and rise into the lower part of the stratosphere. Most conventional aviation activity takes place in the troposphere, and it is the only layer accessible by propeller-driven aircraft . Within the five principal layers above, which are largely determined by temperature, several secondary layers may be distinguished by other properties: The average temperature of the atmosphere at Earth's surface
7480-560: The world and over 60% of its electricity supply were from fossil fuels. The large-scale burning of fossil fuels causes serious environmental damage . Over 70% of the greenhouse gas emissions due to human activity in 2022 was carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) released from burning fossil fuels. Natural carbon cycle processes on Earth, mostly absorption by the ocean , can remove only a small part of this, and terrestrial vegetation loss due to deforestation , land degradation and desertification further compounds this deficiency. Therefore, there
7568-491: The world climate change is negatively impacting ecosystems . This includes contributing to the extinction of species and reducing people's ability to produce food, thus adding to the problem of world hunger . Continued rises in global temperatures will lead to further adverse effects on both ecosystems and people; the World Health Organization has said that climate change is the greatest threat to human health in
7656-480: Was a major recent example of fossil fuels causing inflation. Some economists, including Isabel Schnabel , believe that dependence on fossil fuels is the main driver of the 2021-2022 inflation spike . Gernot Wagner argues that commodities are undesirable energy sources because they are susceptible to volatile price swings that technologies like renewable energy are not. He also argues that technologies improve and get relatively cheaper over time. Coming out of
7744-753: Was listed and it reached a US$ 2 trillion valuation on its second day of trading, after the world's largest initial public offering. Fossil fuel subsidies are energy subsidies on fossil fuels, and in 2023 totalled over 1 trillion dollars. They may be tax breaks on consumption , such as a lower sales tax on natural gas for residential heating ; or subsidies on production , such as tax breaks on exploration for oil . Or they may be free or cheap negative externalities ; such as air pollution or climate change due to burning gasoline , diesel and jet fuel . Some fossil fuel subsidies are via electricity generation , such as subsidies for coal-fired power stations . Eliminating fossil fuel subsidies would reduce
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