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Frederick Rosier

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105-622: Air Chief Marshal Sir Frederick Rosier , GCB , CBE , DSO (13 October 1915 – 10 September 1998) was a senior Royal Air Force commander. Born in Wrexham on 13 October 1915, son of E. G. Rosier, a railway engine driver, Fred Rosier was educated at Grove Park School and played rugby for North Wales Schoolboys. He received a Short Service Commission in the Royal Air Force in 1935 and served with No. 43 Squadron flying Hawker Fury aircraft at Tangmere from 1936 to 1939. He

210-472: A "Neolithic Revolution" in human knowledge and handicraft skills. The culture is characterized as being one of the world's first to involve the widespread domestication of animals, particularly the horse, during the Neolithic period. Al-Magar statues were made from local stone, and it seems that the statues were fixed in a central building that might have had a significant role in the social and religious life of

315-625: A 20% control in Aramco, thereby decreasing US control over Saudi oil. In 1973, Saudi Arabia led an oil boycott against the Western countries that supported Israel in the Yom Kippur War against Egypt and Syria, leading to the quadrupling of oil prices. In 1975, Faisal was assassinated by his nephew, Prince Faisal bin Musaid and was succeeded by his half-brother King Khalid . By 1976, Saudi Arabia had become

420-564: A chairman and 60 members—all chosen by the King. Fahd made it clear that he did not have democracy in mind, saying: "A system based on elections is not consistent with our Islamic creed, which [approves of] government by consultation [shūrā]." In 1995, Fahd suffered a debilitating stroke, and the Crown Prince, Abdullah , assumed the role of de facto regent; however, his authority was hindered by conflict with Fahd's full brothers (known, with Fahd, as

525-464: A growth in unemployment have contributed to discontent and have been reflected in a rise in civil unrest, and discontent with the royal family. In response, a number of limited reforms were initiated by King Fahd. In March 1992, he introduced the " Basic Law ", which emphasized the duties and responsibilities of a ruler. In December 1993, the Consultative Council was inaugurated. It is composed of

630-574: A large statue dating to the Dilmunite period (mid 3rd millennium BC). The statue was locally made under the strong Mesopotamian influence on the artistic principle of Dilmun. By 2200 BC, the centre of Dilmun shifted for unknown reasons from Tarout and the Saudi Arabian mainland to the island of Bahrain, and a highly developed settlement emerged there, where a laborious temple complex and thousands of burial mounds dating to this period were discovered. By

735-778: A pan- Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire to create a united Arab state. Although the revolt failed in its objective, the Allied victory in World War I resulted in the end of Ottoman suzerainty and control in Arabia, and Hussein bin Ali became King of Hejaz . Ibn Saud avoided involvement in the Arab Revolt and instead continued his struggle with the Al Rashid. Following the latter's final defeat, he took

840-574: A score of 8 out of 100 for 2023. According to the 2023 V-Dem Democracy Indices , Saudi Arabia is the least democratic country in the Middle East . In the absence of national elections and political parties, politics in Saudi Arabia takes place in two distinct arenas: within the royal family, the Al Saud, and between the royal family and the rest of Saudi society. Outside of the Al Saud, participation in

945-507: A series of benefits for citizens amounting to $ 36 billion, of which $ 10.7 billion was earmarked for housing. No political reforms were included, though some prisoners indicted for financial crimes were pardoned. Abdullah also announced a package of $ 93 billion, which included 500 000 new homes to a cost of $ 67 billion, in addition to creating 60 000 new security jobs. Although male-only municipal elections were held on 29 September 2011 , Abdullah allowed women to vote and be elected in

1050-568: A series of conquests , beginning in 1902 with the capture of Riyadh , the ancestral home of his family, the House of Saud . Saudi Arabia has since been an absolute monarchy governed by an authoritarian regime without public input. In its Basic Law , Saudi Arabia defines itself as a sovereign Arab Islamic state with Islam as its official religion and Arabic as its official language. The ultraconservative Wahhabi religious movement within Sunni Islam

1155-576: Is about 60% of the annual precipitation. Saudi Arabia is home to five terrestrial ecoregions: Arabian Peninsula coastal fog desert , Southwestern Arabian foothills savanna , Southwestern Arabian montane woodlands , Arabian Desert , and Red Sea Nubo-Sindian tropical desert and semi-desert . Wildlife includes the Arabian leopard , Arabian wolf , striped hyena , mongoose , baboon , Cape hare , sand cat , and jerboa . Animals such as gazelles, oryx , leopards and cheetahs were relatively numerous until

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1260-463: Is appointed to the position of Chief of Defence Forces (formerly Supreme Commander), then he has always held the rank of air chief marshal. The last air chief marshal to be appointed Supreme Commander was Air Chief Marshal Voranat Aphichari who retired in 1994. In November 2007 it became known that Crown Prince Vajiralongkorn (now king of Thailand) had granted the title of Air Chief Marshal to his pet poodle Fufu . The dog died in 2015. Prior to

1365-609: Is evidence that human habitation in the Arabian Peninsula dates back to about 125 000 years ago. A 2011 study found that the first modern humans to spread east across Asia left Africa about 75 000 years ago across the Bab-el-Mandeb connecting the Horn of Africa and Arabia. The Arabian Peninsula is regarded as central to the understanding of evolution and dispersals of Man. Arabia underwent an extreme environmental fluctuation in

1470-533: Is normally a three-star air marshal. In March 1976, as part of a Pakistani Defence Ministry reorganization, the post of Chief of Air Staff , the head of the Pakistan Air Force, was upgraded from air marshal to air chief marshal rank. To date all Pakistani air chief marshals have been members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee . However, only Air Chief Marshal Farooq Feroze Khan has served as Chairman of

1575-774: Is normally translated as "the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia" in English, but literally means "the Saudi Arab Kingdom ", or "the Saudi Kingdom of Arabia " (compare the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan ). The word "Saudi" is derived from the element as-Suʿūdīyya in the Arabic name of the country, which is a type of adjective known as a nisba , formed from the dynastic name of the Saudi royal family,

1680-743: Is the current chief of the Australian Defence Force. In 2016 the Bangladeshi Chief of Air Staff position was upgraded from air marshal to air chief marshal rank. Since then the rank has been held by Abu Esrar , Masihuzzaman Serniabat , Shaikh Abdul Hannan , and Hasan Mahmood Khan . Throughout the 20th century history of the Royal Canadian Air Force , only two officers held the rank of air chief marshal. They were: Lloyd Samuel Breadner (promoted 1945) and Frank Robert Miller (promoted 1961). The rank existed on paper until

1785-490: Is the highest point in the country. Saudi Arabia is home to more than 2,000 dormant volcanoes. Lava fields in Hejaz, known locally by their Arabic name of harrat (the singular is harrah), form one of Earth's largest alkali basalt regions, covering some 180,000 square kilometres (69,000 sq mi). Except for the southwestern regions such as Asir, Saudi Arabia has a desert climate with very high day-time temperatures during

1890-637: Is undefined. The United Nations Statistics Division estimates 2 149 690  km ( 830 000  sq mi) and lists Saudi Arabia as the world's 12th largest state. It is geographically the largest country in the Middle East and on the Arabian Plate . Saudi Arabia's geography is dominated by the Arabian Desert , associated semi-desert, shrubland, steppes, several mountain ranges, volcanic lava fields and highlands. The 647 500  km ( 250 001  sq mi) Rub' al Khali ("Empty Quarter") in

1995-413: Is used by air forces of many countries that have historical British influence . This rank is also equivalent to an Admiral in a navy or a full general in an army or other nations' air forces. The rank of air chief marshal is immediately senior to the rank of air marshal but subordinate to marshal of the air force . Air chief marshals are sometimes generically considered to be air marshals. In

2100-443: Is worn on the lower sleeves of the service dress jacket or on the shoulders of the flying suit or working uniform. The command flag for an RAF air chief marshal is defined by the two broad red bands running through the centre of the flag. The vehicle star plate for an RAF air chief marshal depicts four white stars (air chief marshal is a four-star rank) on an air force blue background. Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia , officially

2205-435: The majlis . In many ways the approach to government differs little from the traditional system of tribal rule. Tribal identity remains strong, and outside of the royal family, political influence is frequently determined by tribal affiliation, with tribal sheikhs maintaining a considerable degree of influence over local and national events. In recent years there have been limited steps to widen political participation such as

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2310-525: The 2015 municipal elections , and also to be nominated to the Shura Council . Saudi Arabia occupies about 80% of the Arabian Peninsula (the world's largest peninsula), lying between latitudes 16° and 33° N , and longitudes 34° and 56° E . Because the country's southeastern and southern borders with the United Arab Emirates and Oman are not precisely marked, the exact size of the country

2415-511: The Al Saud ( Arabic : آل سعود ). Its inclusion expresses the view that the country is the personal possession of the royal family. Al Saud is an Arabic name formed by adding the word Al , meaning "family of" or "House of", to the personal name of an ancestor. In the case of Al Saud, this is Saud ibn Muhammad ibn Muqrin , the father of the dynasty's 18th-century founder, Muhammad bin Saud . There

2520-571: The Chief of Defence Staff holds an active four-star rank . Retiring Commanders of the Sri Lanka Air Force are promoted to the rank of air chief marshal as an outgoing honour. Air Chief Marshal Donald Perera was the first CDS appointed from the Air Force and Air Chief Marshal Roshan Goonetileke became the first serving Air Force Commander to be appointed to the rank of air chief marshal as part of

2625-617: The Gulf Cooperation Council , United Nations , Organisation of Islamic Cooperation , Arab League , and OPEC , as well as a dialogue partner of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation . Following the amalgamation of the Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd , Abdulaziz bin Saud issued a royal decree on 23 September 1932 naming the new state al-Mamlaka al-ʿArabiyya as-Suʿūdiyya ( Arabic المملكة العربية السعودية ), which

2730-678: The Gulf War (1990–1991). Saudi Arabia's relations with the West was one of the issues that led to an increase in Islamist terrorism in Saudi Arabia, as well as Islamist terrorist attacks in Western countries by Saudi nationals. Osama bin Laden was a Saudi citizen (until stripped of his citizenship in 1994) and was responsible for the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings in East Africa and the 2000 USS Cole bombing near

2835-477: The Human Development Index , Saudi Arabia offers tuition-free university education , no personal income tax, and free universal health care . With its dependency on foreign labour , Saudi Arabia has the world's third-largest immigrant population . Saudi Arabians are among the world's youngest people , with approximately half being under 25 years old. Saudi Arabia is an active and founding member of

2940-596: The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia ( KSA ), is a country in West Asia . Located in the centre of the Middle East , it is one of the countries situated in the Gulf region . It covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula and has a land area of about 2,150,000 km (830,000 sq mi), making it the fifth-largest country in Asia , the largest in the Middle East , and the 12th-largest in

3045-536: The Quaternary that led to profound evolutionary and demographic changes. Arabia has a rich Lower Paleolithic record, and the quantity of Oldowan -like sites in the region indicate a significant role that Arabia had played in the early hominin colonization of Eurasia. In the Neolithic period, prominent cultures such as Al-Magar , whose centre lay in modern-day southwestern Najd, flourished. Al-Magar could be considered

3150-665: The Quran , while the Quran and the Sunnah (the traditions of Muhammad) are declared to be the country's constitution. No political parties or national elections are permitted. While some critics consider it to be a totalitarian state, others regard it as lacking aspects of totalitarianism but nevertheless classify it as an authoritarian regime. The Economist ranked the Saudi government 150th out of 167 in its 2022 Democracy Index , and Freedom House gave it its lowest "Not Free" rating, giving it

3255-505: The Rashidun (632–661), Umayyad (661–750), Abbasid (750–1517), and Fatimid (909–1171) caliphates, as well as numerous other dynasties in Asia, Africa , and Europe . The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded in 1932 by King Abdulaziz (also known as Ibn Saud ), who united the regions of Hejaz , Najd , parts of Eastern Arabia (Al-Ahsa) and South Arabia ( 'Asir ) into a single state through

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3360-591: The Royal Australian Air Force , this rank is only used when the Chief of the Defence Force is an Air Force officer. When this is not the case, the senior ranking Air Force officer is the Chief of Air Force , holding the rank of air marshal . With the establishment of the Australian Air Board on 9 November 1920, Australian Air Corps officers dropped their army ranks in favour of those based on

3465-682: The third "Saudi state" . Ibn Saud gained the support of the Ikhwan , a tribal army inspired by Wahhabism and led by Faisal Al-Dawish , and which had grown quickly after its foundation in 1912. With the aid of the Ikhwan, Ibn Saud captured Al-Ahsa from the Ottomans in 1913. In 1916, with the encouragement and support of Britain (which was fighting the Ottomans in World War I ), the Sharif of Mecca, Hussein bin Ali , led

3570-521: The various tribes of the peninsula and created a single Islamic religious polity. Following his death in 632, his followers expanded the territory under Muslim rule beyond Arabia, conquering territory in the Iberian Peninsula in the west to parts of Central and South Asia in the east in a matter of decades. Arabia became a more politically peripheral region of the Muslim world as the focus shifted to

3675-524: The " Sudairi Seven "). Signs of discontent included, in 2003 and 2004, a series of bombings and armed violence in Riyadh, Jeddah, Yanbu and Khobar. In February–April 2005, the first-ever nationwide municipal elections were held in Saudi Arabia. Women were not allowed to take part. In 2005, King Fahd died and was succeeded by Abdullah, who continued the policy of minimum reform and clamping down on protests. The king introduced economic reforms aimed at reducing

3780-589: The 14th century. The Jabrids took control of the region after overthrowing the Jarwanids in the 15th century and clashed with Hormuz for more than two decades over the region for its economic revenues, until finally agreeing to pay tribute in 1507. Al-Muntafiq tribe later took over the region and came under Ottoman suzerainty . The Bani Khalid tribe later revolted against them in the 17th century and took control. Their rule extended from Iraq to Oman at its height, and they too came under Ottoman suzerainty. In

3885-552: The 16th century, the Ottomans added the Red Sea and Persian Gulf coast (the Hejaz, Asir and Al-Ahsa ) to the empire and claimed suzerainty over the interior. One reason was to thwart Portuguese attempts to attack the Red Sea (hence the Hejaz) and the Indian Ocean. The Ottoman degree of control over these lands varied over the next four centuries with the fluctuating strength or weakness of

3990-579: The 1968 unification of the Canadian Forces , when Army-type rank titles were adopted and the rank of air chief marshal was replaced by that of full general . As no serving officers held the rank in 1968, no Canadian air chief marshals were regraded to general and Miller, the then only living retired air chief marshal, retained his rank. When Miller died in 1997 the Canadian rank of air chief marshal effectively passed into history. The 21st century re-creation of

4095-440: The 19th century, when extensive hunting reduced these animals almost to extinction. The culturally important Asiatic lion occurred in Saudi Arabia until the late 19th century before it was hunted to extinction in the wild. Birds include falcons (which are caught and trained for hunting), eagles, hawks, vultures, sandgrouse , and bulbuls . There are several species of snakes, many of which are venomous. Domesticated animals include

4200-513: The Al Saud faces political opposition from four sources: Sunni Islamist activism; liberal critics; the Shi'ite minority —particularly in the Eastern Province; and long-standing tribal and regionalist particularistic opponents (for example in the Hejaz). Of these, the minority activists have been the most prominent threat to the government and have in recent years been involved in violent incidents in

4305-620: The American interests in Aramco. King Khalid died of a heart attack in June 1982. He was succeeded by his brother, King Fahd , who added the title "Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques" to his name in 1986 in response to considerable fundamentalist pressure to avoid the use of "majesty" in association with anything except God. Fahd continued to develop close relations with the United States and increased

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4410-520: The Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee , the supreme commandant of Pakistan Armed Forces. Originally, a Pakistani air chief marshal's rank insignia was essentially the same as the RAF insignia. In 2006 the Pakistan Air Force changed the rank insignia for its officers , abandoning the ring insignia in favor of a Turkish Air Force-style featuring four stars and a crossed swords and laurel device. In Sri Lanka, only

4515-588: The Persian Gulf, and most of its terrain consists of arid desert , lowland, steppe, and mountains . The capital and largest city is Riyadh ; other major cities include Jeddah and the two holiest cities in Islam , Mecca and Medina . With a population of almost 32.2 million , Saudi Arabia is the fourth most populous country in the Arab world . Pre-Islamic Arabia , the territory that constitutes modern-day Saudi Arabia,

4620-464: The Polish Order of Merit in 1998. For the last few years of his life he lived at Sun Bank, Trevor, near Llangollen . Sir Fred married Hettie Denise Blackwell of Wrexham in 1939; they had three sons and one daughter. Air Chief Marshal Air chief marshal ( Air Chf Mshl or ACM ) is a high-ranking air officer rank used by some air forces, with origins from the Royal Air Force . The rank

4725-820: The Qarmatians in Bahrain and al-Hasa with the help of the Seljuq Empire and founded the Uyunid dynasty . The Uyunid Emirate later underwent expansion with its territory stretching from Najd to the Syrian Desert . They were overthrown by the Usfurids in 1253. Usfurid rule was weakened after Persian rulers of Hormuz captured Bahrain and Qatif in 1320. The vassals of Ormuz, the Shia Jarwanid dynasty came to rule eastern Arabia in

4830-412: The RAF on 1 January 1927, no officer held the rank until Sir John Salmond was promoted on 1 January 1929. It has been used continuously ever since. In the RAF, the rank of air chief marshal is held by the serving Chief of the Air Staff (currently Sir Richard Knighton ). Additionally, RAF officers appointed to four-star tri-service posts hold the rank of air chief marshal. Throughout the history of

4935-400: The RAF's highest rank. Additionally, Lord Stirrup was granted an honorary promotion to marshal of the Royal Air Force in 2014. The marshals are still to be found on the RAF's active list even though they have for all practical purposes retired. The rank insignia consists of three narrow light blue bands (each on a slightly wider black band) over a light blue band on a broad black band. This

5040-417: The RAF, 141 RAF officers have held the rank and it has also been awarded in an honorary capacity to senior members of the British Royal Family and allied foreign monarchs. Although no serving RAF officer has been promoted to marshal of the Royal Air Force since the British defence cuts of the 1990s, British air chief marshals are not the most senior officers in the RAF as several officers continue to retain

5145-445: The Red Sea and Arabian Gulf. The main topographical feature is the central plateau which rises abruptly from the Red Sea and gradually descends into the Nejd and toward the Arabian Gulf. On the Red Sea coast, there is a narrow coastal plain, known as the Tihamah , parallel to which runs along an imposing escarpment. The southwest province of Asir is mountainous and contains the 3 002  m ( 9 849  ft) Jabal Ferwa , which

5250-565: The Royal Air Force. However, it was not until 1965 when Sir Frederick Scherger became Chairman of the Australian Chiefs of Staff Committee, and was promoted to air chief marshal that an RAAF officer attained the rank. Throughout the history of the RAAF, only four of its officers have held the rank. Apart from Scherger, they are Sir Neville McNamara (promoted 1982), Sir Angus Houston (promoted 2005) and Mark Binskin (promoted 2014). McNamara, Houston and Binskin are former Australian Defence Force chiefs; as of November 2024, Admiral David Johnston

5355-404: The Royal Canadian Air Force has not seen the rank revived and as of 2014 there are no plans for such a change. Army-style rank titles continue to be used although a return to the former insignia has been enacted. In official Canadian French usage, the rank title was maréchal en chef de l'air . In the Indian Air Force , the Chief of Air Staff (CAS) (currently ACM Amar Preet Singh ) holds

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5460-425: The UK in 1943 he became simultaneously Officer Commanding No. 52 Operational Training Unit and RAF Aston Down . He was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire mid that year, before being appointed to command RAF Northolt in 1944. He was appointed Officer Commanding RAF Horsham St Faith in 1947 and then went on an Exchange Officer posting with the United States Air Force in 1948 and on return to

5565-702: The UK was appointed an instructor at the Joint Services Staff College in 1950. He went on to be Group Captain Operations at Central Fighter Establishment in 1952, Group Captain Plans at RAF Fighter Command in 1954 and Aide-de-Camp to the Queen in 1956. He was made Director of Joint Plans at the Air Ministry in 1958, Air Officer Commanding Air Forces Middle East in 1961 and Senior Air Staff Officer at Headquarters Transport Command in 1964. His last appointments were as Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief at RAF Fighter Command in 1966, as UK Permanent Military Deputy at CENTRO in Ankara in 1968 and as Deputy Commander-in-Chief Allied Air Forces Central Europe in 1970. Rosier

5670-445: The United States to intervene. King Fahd allowed American and coalition troops to be stationed in Saudi Arabia. He invited the Kuwaiti government and many of its citizens to stay in Saudi Arabia, but expelled citizens of Yemen and Jordan because of their governments' support of Iraq . In 1991, Saudi Arabian forces were involved both in bombing raids on Iraq and in the land invasion that helped to liberate Kuwait, which became known as

5775-442: The adoption of RAF-specific rank titles in 1919, it was suggested that the RAF might use the Royal Navy 's officer ranks, with the word "air" inserted before the naval rank title. For example, the rank that later became air chief marshal would have been air admiral. The Admiralty objected to any use of their rank titles, including this modified form, and so an alternative proposal was put forward: air-officer ranks would be based on

5880-475: The air force . Only the Chief of the Defence Staff holds four-star rank . The first Nigerian Air Force officer to attain the rank of air chief marshal was Paul Dike upon his appointment as the Nigerian Chief of Defence Staff in 2008. Dike was succeeded as Chief of the Defence Staff in 2010 by Air Chief Marshal Oluseyi Petinrin . In 2014, Alex Sabundu Badeh was appointed Chief of Defence Staff and promoted to air chief marshal. The Nigerian Chief of Air Staff

5985-442: The air staff have held the rank. In the Indian Air Force the honorary promotion of Arjan Singh to marshal of the Indian Air Force in 2002 resulted in Indian air chief marshals no longer being the most senior IAF officers until Singh's death in 2017. In the Namibian Air Force , the rank is known as Chief air marshal. The Nigerian air chief marshal is the second highest-ranking officer in the Nigerian Air Force , below Marshal of

6090-458: The appointment of the country's first female deputy minister. On 29 January 2011, hundreds of protesters gathered in Jeddah in a rare display of criticism against the city's poor infrastructure after flooding killed 11 people. Police stopped the demonstration after about 15 minutes and arrested 30 to 50 people. Since 2011, Saudi Arabia has been affected by its own Arab Spring protests . In response, King Abdullah announced on 22 February 2011

6195-414: The beginning of the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire continued to control or have a suzerainty over most of the peninsula. Subject to this suzerainty, Arabia was ruled by a patchwork of tribal rulers, with the Sharif of Mecca having pre-eminence and ruling the Hejaz. In 1902, Abdul Rahman 's son, Abdul Aziz—later known as Ibn Saud —recaptured control of Riyadh bringing the Al Saud back to Nejd, creating

6300-399: The coast and occasional other features such as cylinders (such as the Blue Hole at Dahab ). These coastal reefs are also visited by pelagic species, including some of the 44 species of shark . There are many offshore reefs including several atolls . Many of the unusual offshore reef formations defy classic (i.e., Darwinian) coral reef classification schemes and are generally attributed to

6405-498: The corruption and un-Islamic nature of the Saudi government. The government regained control of the mosque after 10 days, and those captured were executed. Part of the response of the royal family was to enforce the much stricter observance of traditional religious and social norms in the country (for example, the closure of cinemas) and to give the ulema a greater role in government. Neither entirely succeeded as Islamism continued to grow in strength. In 1980, Saudi Arabia bought out

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6510-414: The country's reliance on oil revenue: limited deregulation , encouragement of foreign investment, and privatization . In February 2009, Abdullah announced a series of governmental changes to the judiciary, armed forces, and various ministries to modernize these institutions including the replacement of senior appointees in the judiciary and the Mutaween (religious police) with more moderate individuals and

6615-451: The danger of a direct conflict with the British. At the same time, the Ikhwan became disenchanted with Ibn Saud's domestic policies which appeared to favour modernization and the increase in the number of non-Muslim foreigners in the country. As a result, they turned against Ibn Saud and, after a two-year struggle, were defeated in 1929 at the Battle of Sabilla , where their leaders were massacred. On Ibn Saud's behalf, Prince Faisal declared

6720-461: The earliest exploiters of the domestication of camels that enabled them to navigate through the harsh terrains of the region. At the end of the 7th century BC, an emerging kingdom appeared in north-western Arabia. It started as a sheikdom of Dedan, which developed into the kingdom of Lihyan . During this period, Dedan transformed into a kingdom that encompassed a much wider domain. In the early 3rd century BC, with bustling economic activity between

6825-471: The early 11th century BC. Politically, the Midianites were described as having a decentralized structure headed by five kings (Evi, Rekem, Tsur, Hur, and Reba); the names appear to be toponyms of important Midianite settlements. It is common to view that Midian designated a confederation of tribes, the sedentary element settled in the Hijaz while its nomadic affiliates pastured and sometimes pillaged as far away as Palestine . The nomadic Midianites were one of

6930-459: The empire's central authority. These changes contributed to later uncertainties, such as the dispute with Transjordan over the inclusion of the sanjak of Ma'an , including the cities of Ma'an and Aqaba . The emergence of what was to become the Saudi royal family, known as the Al Saud, began at the town of Diriyah in Nejd in central Arabia with the accession as emir of Muhammad bin Saud on 22 February 1727. In 1744 he joined forces with

7035-485: The establishment of the Consultative Council in the early 1990s and the National Dialogue Forum in 2003. In 2005, the first municipal elections were held. In 2007, the Allegiance Council was created to regulate the succession. In 2009, the king made significant personnel changes to the government by appointing reformers to key positions and the first woman to a ministerial post; however, these changes have been criticized as being too slow or merely cosmetic. The rule of

7140-441: The high levels of tectonic activity that characterize the area. Reflecting the country's dominant desert conditions, plant life mostly consists of herbs, plants, and shrubs that require little water. The date palm ( Phoenix dactylifera ) is widespread. Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy ; however, according to the Basic Law of Saudi Arabia adopted by royal decree in 1992, the king must comply with Sharia (Islamic law) and

7245-443: The inhabitants. In November 2017, hunting scenes showing images of most likely domesticated dogs (resembling the Canaan Dog ) and wearing leashes were discovered in Shuwaymis, a hilly region of northwestern Saudi Arabia. These rock engravings date back more than 8 000 years, making them the earliest depictions of dogs in the world. At the end of the 4th millennium BC, Arabia entered the Bronze Age ; metals were widely used, and

7350-475: The kingdom has become the world's third-largest oil producer and leading oil exporter, controlling the world's second-largest oil reserves and the sixth-largest gas reserves . Saudi Arabia is categorized as a World Bank high-income economy and is the only Arab country among the G20 major economies. The Saudi economy is the largest in the Middle East and the world's nineteenth largest by nominal GDP and seventeenth largest by PPP . Ranking very high in

7455-405: The largest oil producer in the world. Khalid's reign saw economic and social development progress at an extremely rapid rate, transforming the infrastructure and educational system of the country; in foreign policy, close ties with the US were developed. In 1979, two events occurred which greatly concerned the government and had a long-term influence on Saudi foreign and domestic policy. The first

7560-602: The last 12 days of the Battle of Britain . He embarked with No. 229 Squadron for North Africa on board HMS  Furious and led the aircraft in a take-off from ship to North Africa via Malta . Promoted to wing commander in 1941, he took charge of No. 263 Wing where he had joint operational control of the Desert Air Force's fighter squadrons. In November 1941 he spotted an Australian Tomahawk aircraft being forced down by enemy fighters and landed his single-seater to rescue

7665-697: The late Bronze Age , a historically recorded people and land ( Midian and the Midianites) in the north-western portion of Saudi Arabia are well-documented in the Bible. Centred in Tabouk , it stretched from Wadi Arabah in the north to the area of al-Wejh in the south. The capital of Midian was Qurayyah, it consists of a large, fortified citadel encompassing 35 hectares and below it lies a walled settlement of 15 hectares. The city hosted as many as 12,000 inhabitants. The Bible recounts Israel 's two wars with Midian, somewhere in

7770-529: The legendary Arabian horse , Arabian camel , sheep, goats, cattle, donkeys, chickens, etc. The Red Sea is a rich and diverse ecosystem with more than 1,200 species of fish around 10% of which are endemic . This also includes 42 species of deep water fish . The rich diversity is partly owed to the 2 000  km ( 1 240  mi) of coral reef extending along the coastline; these fringing reefs are largely formed of stony acropora and porites corals. The reefs form platforms and sometimes lagoons along

7875-455: The major Dilmunite settlements of Umm an-Nussi and Umm ar-Ramadh in the interior and Tarout on the coast. It is likely that Tarout Island was the main port and the capital of Dilmun. Mesopotamian inscribed clay tablets suggest that, in the early period of Dilmun, a form of hierarchical organized political structure existed. In 1966, an earthwork in Tarout exposed an ancient burial field that yielded

7980-559: The newly conquered lands. Arabs originating from modern-day Saudi Arabia, the Hejaz in particular, founded the Rashidun (632–661), Umayyad (661–750), Abbasid (750–1517), and the Fatimid (909–1171) caliphates. From the 10th century to the early 20th century, Mecca and Medina were under the control of a local Arab ruler known as the Sharif of Mecca , but at most times the sharif owed allegiance to

8085-506: The oil fields began in 1941 under the US-controlled Aramco (Arabian American Oil Company) . Oil provided Saudi Arabia with economic prosperity and substantial political leverage internationally. Cultural life rapidly developed, primarily in the Hejaz, which was the centre for newspapers and radio. However, the large influx of foreign workers in Saudi Arabia in the oil industry increased the pre-existing propensity for xenophobia . At

8190-524: The period was characterized by its 2 m high burials which were simultaneously followed by the existence of numerous temples that included many free-standing sculptures originally painted with red colours. In May 2021, archaeologists announced that a 350 000 -year-old Acheulean site named An Nasim in the Hail region could be the oldest human habitation site in northern Saudi Arabia. 354 artefacts, including hand axes and stone tools, provided information about

8295-468: The pilot. Having got Sergeant Burney aboard, he attempted to take-off but suffered a burst tyre and crashed the aircraft. Both he and Burney walked across the desert for four days, avoiding large enemy patrols, to reach safety with a Guards unit. Rosier became the deputy commander of No. 211 Group and was awarded the Distinguished Service Order for operations over Libya in 1941. Returning to

8400-404: The political process is limited to a relatively small segment of the population and takes the form of the royal family consulting with the ulema, tribal sheikhs, and members of important commercial families on major decisions. This process is not reported by the Saudi media. By custom, all males of full age have a right to petition the king directly through the traditional tribal meeting known as

8505-455: The port of Aden , Yemen. 15 of the hijackers involved in the September 11 attacks were Saudi nationals. Many Saudis who did not support the Islamist terrorists were nevertheless deeply unhappy with the government's policies. Islamism was not the only source of hostility to the government. Although extremely wealthy by the 21st century, Saudi Arabia's economy was near stagnant. High taxes and

8610-433: The purchase of American and British military equipment. The vast wealth generated by oil revenues was beginning to have an even greater impact on Saudi society. It led to rapid technological (but not cultural) modernization, urbanization, mass public education, and the creation of new media. This and the presence of increasingly large numbers of foreign workers greatly affected traditional Saudi norms and values. Although there

8715-580: The rank of Air Chief Marshal. The position of the CAS was upgraded from Air Marshal to Air Chief Marshal in 1966. The first IAF officer to hold this rank was Air Chief Marshal Arjan Singh (later promoted to the five-star rank of marshal of the Indian Air Force ) who was promoted to the rank in 1966 while he served as the CAS. Post 1966, all the Indian air chiefs have held the rank. As of 2014, 19 Indian chiefs of

8820-530: The religious leader Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab , founder of the Wahhabi movement, a strict puritanical form of Sunni Islam. This alliance provided the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion and remains the basis of Saudi Arabian dynastic rule today. The Emirate of Diriyah established in the area around Riyadh rapidly expanded and briefly controlled most of the present-day territory of Saudi Arabia, sacking Karbala in 1802, and capturing Mecca in 1803. In 1818, it

8925-690: The ruler of one of the major Islamic empires based in Baghdad , Cairo or Istanbul . Most of the remainder of what became Saudi Arabia reverted to traditional tribal rule. For much of the 10th century, the Isma'ili -Shi'ite Qarmatians were the most powerful force in the Persian Gulf. In 930, the Qarmatians pillaged Mecca, outraging the Muslim world, particularly with their theft of the Black Stone . In 1077–1078, an Arab sheikh named Abdullah bin Ali Al Uyuni defeated

9030-433: The same time, the government became increasingly wasteful and extravagant. By the 1950s this had led to large governmental deficits and excessive foreign borrowing. In 1953, Saud of Saudi Arabia succeeded as the king of Saudi Arabia. In 1964 he was deposed in favour of his half brother Faisal of Saudi Arabia , after an intense rivalry, fuelled by doubts in the royal family over Saud's competence. In 1972, Saudi Arabia gained

9135-673: The south and north, Lihyan acquired large influence suitable to its strategic position on the caravan road. The Lihyanites ruled over a large domain from Yathrib in the south and parts of the Levant in the north. In antiquity, Gulf of Aqaba used to be called Gulf of Lihyan, a testimony to the extensive influence that Lihyan acquired. The Lihyanites fell into the hands of the Nabataeans around 65 BC upon their seizure of Hegra then marching to Tayma , and to their capital Dedan in 9 BC. The Nabataeans ruled large portions of north Arabia until their domain

9240-423: The southeastern part of the country is the world's largest contiguous sand desert. Though there are lakes in the country, Saudi Arabia is the largest country in the world by area with no permanent rivers. Wadis , non-permanent rivers, however, are very numerous throughout the kingdom . The fertile areas are to be found in the alluvial deposits in wadis, basins, and oases. There are approximately 1,300 islands in

9345-425: The succeeding millennium. The settlement of the region picks up again in the period of Dilmun in the early 3rd millennium. Known records from Uruk refer to a place called Dilmun, associated on several occasions with copper, and in later periods it was a source of imported woods in southern Mesopotamia. Scholars have suggested that Dilmun originally designated the eastern province of Saudi Arabia, notably linked with

9450-464: The summer and a sharp temperature drop at night. Average summer temperatures are around 45 °C (113 °F) but can be as high as 54 °C (129 °F). In the winter the temperature rarely drops below 0 °C (32 °F) with the exception of mostly the northern regions of the country where annual snowfall, in particular in the mountainous regions of Tabuk Province , is not uncommon. The lowest recorded temperature, −12.0 °C (10.4 °F),

9555-520: The term "ardian", which was derived from a combination of the Gaelic words for "chief" ( ard ) and "bird" ( eun ), with the unmodified word "ardian" being used specifically for the equivalent to full admiral and general. However, air chief marshal was preferred and was adopted in August 1919. The rank was first used on 1 April 1922 with the promotion of Sir Hugh Trenchard . With Trenchard's promotion to marshal of

9660-643: The title Sultan of Nejd in 1921. With the help of the Ikhwan, the Kingdom of Hejaz was conquered in 1924–25, and on 10 January 1926, Ibn Saud declared himself king of Hejaz. For the next five years, he administered the two parts of his dual kingdom as separate units. After the conquest of the Hejaz, the Ikhwan leadership's objective switched to expansion of the Wahhabist realm into the British protectorates of Transjordan, Iraq and Kuwait, and began raiding those territories. This met with Ibn Saud's opposition, as he recognized

9765-597: The tool-making traditions of the earliest living man who inhabited southwest Asia. Paleolithic artefacts are similar to material remains uncovered at the Acheulean sites in the Nefud Desert . The earliest sedentary culture in Saudi Arabia dates back to the Ubaid period at Dosariyah . Climatic change and the onset of aridity may have brought about the end of this phase of settlement, as little archaeological evidence exists from

9870-455: The unification on 23 September 1932, and the two kingdoms of Hejaz and Nejd were unified as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. That date is now a national holiday called Saudi National Day . The new kingdom was reliant on limited agriculture and pilgrimage revenues. In 1938, vast reserves of oil were discovered in the Al-Ahsa region along the coast of the Persian Gulf, and full-scale development of

9975-708: The victory celebrations. The officer appointed to command the Royal Thai Air Force has been promoted to the rank of air chief marshal ( Thai : พลอากาศเอก , romanized :  Phon Akat Ek ) since c.  1950 . The present commander is Air Chief Marshal Alongkorn Wannarot who is supported by the Deputy Commander-in-Chief (currently Air Chief Marshal Chanon Mungthanya) and the Assistant Commander-in-Chief (currently Air Chief Marshal Punpakdee Pattanakul). If an air force officer

10080-503: The world. It is bordered by the Red Sea to the west; Jordan , Iraq , and Kuwait to the north; the Persian Gulf , Bahrain , Qatar and the United Arab Emirates to the east; Oman to the southeast; and Yemen to the south. The Gulf of Aqaba in the northwest separates Saudi Arabia from Egypt and Israel . Saudi Arabia is the only country with a coastline along both the Red Sea and

10185-490: Was a dramatic change in the social and economic life of the country, political power continued to be monopolized by the royal family leading to discontent among many Saudis who began to look for wider participation in government. In the 1980s, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait spent $ 25 billion in support of Saddam Hussein in the Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988); however, Saudi Arabia condemned the invasion of Kuwait in 1990 and asked

10290-658: Was a flight commander with No. 229 Squadron RAF ( Hawker Hurricane aircraft) by May 1940, having helped form and convert the squadron from the Bristol Blenheim aircraft. He first saw active service during the Second World War in France where he commanded a detachment of No. 229 Squadron at Vitry-en-Artois near Arras and was shot down by a Messerschmitt Bf 109 , receiving facial burns. Returning to active service by October 1940 he commanded 229 Squadron from RAF Northolt for

10395-804: Was advanced to a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath in 1972, before he retired from the RAF the following year. In retirement he became a Military Advisor and Director of the Preston Division of the British Aircraft Corporation until 1977 when he was made Director in charge of the Saudi Arabia part of the company. He was the Chairman of the Polish Pilots Benevolent Fund and received

10500-580: Was annexed by the Roman Empire , which renamed it Arabia Petraea , and remained under the rule of the Romans until 630. Shortly before the advent of Islam, apart from urban trading settlements (such as Mecca and Medina), much of what was to become Saudi Arabia was populated by nomadic pastoral tribal societies. The Islamic prophet Muhammad was born in Mecca in about 570 CE . In the early 7th century, Muhammad united

10605-640: Was destroyed by the Ottoman viceroy of Egypt, Mohammed Ali Pasha . The much smaller Emirate of Nejd was established in 1824. Throughout the rest of the 19th century, the Al Saud contested control of the interior of what was to become Saudi Arabia with another Arabian ruling family, the Al Rashid , who ruled the Emirate of Jabal Shammar . By 1891, the Al Rashid were victorious and the Al Saud were driven into exile in Kuwait. At

10710-555: Was measured in Turaif . Of the Gulf states, Saudi Arabia is likely to experience snowfalls most frequently. In the spring and autumn the heat is temperate, temperatures average around 29 °C (84 °F). Annual rainfall is very low. The southern regions differ in that they are influenced by the Indian Ocean monsoons , usually occurring between October and March. An average of 300 mm (12 in) of rainfall occurs during this period, which

10815-606: Was the Iranian Islamic Revolution . It was feared that the country's Shi'ite minority in the Eastern Province (which is also the location of the oil fields) might rebel under the influence of their Iranian co-religionists. There were several anti-government uprisings in the region such as the 1979 Qatif Uprising . The second event was the Grand Mosque Seizure in Mecca by Islamist extremists. The militants involved were in part angered by what they considered to be

10920-460: Was the prevailing political and cultural force in the country until the 2000s. The Saudi government has attracted criticism for various policies such as its intervention in the Yemeni Civil War , alleged sponsorship of terrorism , and widespread human rights abuses. Saudi Arabia is considered both a regional and middle power. Since petroleum was discovered in the country in 1938 ,

11025-693: Was the site of several ancient cultures and civilizations; the prehistory of Saudi Arabia shows some of the earliest traces of human activity outside Africa. Islam , the world's second-largest religion, emerged in what is now Saudi Arabia in the early seventh century. Islamic prophet Muhammad united the population of the Arabian Peninsula and created a single Islamic religious polity. Following his death in 632, his followers expanded Muslim rule beyond Arabia, conquering territories in North Africa , Central , South Asia and Iberia within decades. Arab dynasties originating from modern-day Saudi Arabia founded

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