64-681: François Massialot (1660, in Limoges – 1733, in Paris ) was a French chef who served as chef de cuisine ( officier de bouche ) to various illustrious personages, including Philippe I, Duke of Orléans , the brother of Louis XIV, and his son Philippe II, Duke of Orléans , who was first duc de Chartres then the Regent, as well as the duc d'Aumont, the Cardinal d’Estrées , and the marquis de Louvois . His Le cuisinier roïal et bourgeois first appeared, anonymously, as
128-455: A fish stock makes a surprisingly late appearance, in 1703. Meringues make their first appearance under their familiar name in Massialot, who is also credited with crème brûlée , in which the sugar topping was melted and burnt with a red-hot fire shovel. Massialot's works, translated into English as The Court and Country Cook (1702) and often reprinted, were used by professional chefs until
192-560: A basaltic rock in Kivu ( Zaïre ), they noted how the occurrence of kaolinite depended on the "degrée de drainage" of the area involved. A clear distinction was found between areas with good drainage (i.e., areas with a marked difference between wet and dry seasons) and those areas with poor drainage (i.e., perennially swampy areas). Kaolinite was only found in the areas with distinct seasonal alternations between wet and dry. The possible significance of alternating wet and dry conditions on
256-500: A basketball club, Limoges CSP , which has won several French championships and the European championship in 1993. Because of its heritage policy, it has held the label "City of Art and History" since 2008. Economic activities include butchering , electrical equipment for the building industry , and luxury goods. It is home to porcelain houses and art workshops working with enamel or stained glass . This craft expertise led it to join
320-539: A flourishing artistic centre. It was home to an important school of medieval music composition, which is usually called the St. Martial School ; its most famous member was the 13th-century troubadour Bertran de Born . In the 13th century, at the peak of its splendour, central Limoges consisted of two fortified settlements. In 1370, Limoges was occupied by Edward, the Black Prince , who massacred some 300 residents, "perhaps
384-572: A horse and a young porcelain worker, Camille Vardelle. During World War II , many Jews from Alsace were evacuated to and around Limoges. Limoges experiences an oceanic climate ( Köppen climate classification : Cfb ) common to much of Western France. Most precipitation occurs between October and February. On 27 December 1999, winds reached 148 km/h (92 mph). On average, the city experiences 41 days of frost and 18 days of snow each winter. In June, July and August, precipitation tends to come only from violent thunderstorms coming from
448-417: A lack of convincing results in their own experiments, La Iglesia and Van Oosterwijk-Gastuche (1978) had to conclude, however, that there were other, still unknown, factors involved in the low-temperature nucleation of kaolinite. Because of the observed very slow crystallization rates of kaolinite from solution at room temperature Fripiat and Herbillon (1971) postulated the existence of high activation energies in
512-414: A layer structure. From the following equation (as given by Gastuche and DeKimpe, 1962) for kaolinite formation it can be seen that five molecules of water must be removed from the reaction for every molecule of kaolinite formed. Field evidence illustrating the importance of the removal of water from the kaolinite reaction has been supplied by Gastuche and DeKimpe (1962). While studying soil formation on
576-606: A low shrink–swell capacity and a low cation-exchange capacity (1–15 meq/100 g). Rocks that are rich in kaolinite, and halloysite , are known as kaolin ( / ˈ k eɪ . ə l ɪ n / ) or china clay . In many parts of the world kaolin is colored pink-orange-red by iron oxide , giving it a distinct rust hue. Lower concentrations of iron oxide yield the white, yellow, or light orange colors of kaolin. Alternating lighter and darker layers are sometimes found, as at Providence Canyon State Park in Georgia, United States. Kaolin
640-561: A new ceramics industry was developed, and Limoges porcelain became famous during the 19th century. However, Limoges porcelain is a generic term for porcelain produced in Limoges rather than at a specific factory (there are still several porcelain factories in and around Limoges). More than 50% of all porcelain made in France comes from Limoges. Limoges hosts the national ceramics school École d'ingénieurs ENSIL-ENSCI , created in 1893, and also
704-492: A review on the formation of kaolinite, raised the fundamental question how a disordered material (i.e., the amorphous fraction of tropical soils) could ever be transformed into a corresponding ordered structure. This transformation seems to take place in soils without major changes in the environment, in a relatively short period of time, and at ambient temperature (and pressure ). Low-temperature synthesis of clay minerals (with kaolinite as an example) has several aspects. In
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#1732852568631768-419: A series of alternations of periodically changing conditions (by definition, taking place in an open system) will bring about the low-temperature formation of more and more of the stable phase kaolinite instead of (ill-defined) amorphous alumino-silicates. In 2009, up to 70% of kaolin was used in the production of paper . Following reduced demand from the paper industry, resulting from both competing minerals and
832-464: A single volume in 1691, and was expanded to two (1712) then three volumes, in the revised edition of 1733–34. His lesser cookbook, Nouvelle instruction pour les confitures, les liqueurs et les fruits , (Paris, Charles de Sercy), appeared, also anonymously, in 1692. Massialot describes himself in his preface as "a cook who dares to qualify himself royal, and it is not without cause, for the meals which he describes...have all been served at court or in
896-401: A sixth of the normal population", with another 60 members of the garrison of 140 dead as well. The porcelain industry started to develop, favoured by the presence of kaolinite which was discovered near Limoges in 1768 (near St Yrieix, south-west of Limoges). Many of the inhabitants became employed in the new sector or in connected activities (including the lumbering of wood needed for firing
960-544: A tetrahedral ( T ) sheet composed of silicon and oxygen ions bonded to an octahedral ( O ) sheet composed of oxygen, aluminium, and hydroxyl ions. The T sheet is so called because each silicon ion is surrounded by four oxygen ions forming a tetrahedron. The O sheet is so called because each aluminium ion is surrounded by six oxygen or hydroxyl ions arranged at the corners of an octahedron. The two sheets in each layer are strongly bonded together via shared oxygen ions, while layers are bonded via hydrogen bonding between oxygen on
1024-406: Is Al 2 Si 2 O 5 (OH) 4 , however, in ceramics applications the same formula is typically written in terms of oxides, thus giving Al 2 O 3 ·2SiO 2 ·2H 2 O . Compared with other clay minerals, kaolinite is chemically and structurally simple. It is described as a 1:1 or TO clay mineral because its crystals consist of stacked TO layers. Each TO layer consists of
1088-419: Is an important raw material in many industries and applications. Commercial grades of kaolin are supplied and transported as powder, lumps, semi-dried noodle or slurry . Global production of kaolin in 2021 was estimated to be 45 million tonnes, with a total market value of US $ 4.24 billion. The English name kaolin was borrowed in 1727 from François Xavier d'Entrecolles 's 1712 French reports on
1152-501: Is called the "white gold" belt; Sandersville is known as the "Kaolin Capital of the World" due to its abundance of kaolin. In the late 1800s, an active kaolin surface-mining industry existed in the extreme southeast corner of Pennsylvania, near the towns of Landenberg and Kaolin , and in what is present-day White Clay Creek Preserve. The product was brought by train to Newark, Delaware , on
1216-446: Is highlighted by the outbreak of several riots, including that of July–November 1830 and April 1848. The first French confederation of workers, Confédération Générale du Travail (CGT) ( General Confederation of Labour ), was created in Limoges in 1895. In early 1905, strikes began in another local industry, shoe factories soon followed in the porcelain factories. Barricades were built, the army intervened. There would be two casualties:
1280-407: Is lost. Above around 400 °C hydroxyl ions (OH ) are lost from the kaolinite crystal structure in the form of water: the material cannot now be plasticised by absorbing water. This is irreversible, as are subsequent transformations; this is referred to as calcination . Endothermic dehydration of kaolinite begins at 550–600 °C producing disordered metakaolin , but continuous hydroxyl loss
1344-551: Is observed up to 900 °C (1,650 °F). Although historically there was much disagreement concerning the nature of the metakaolin phase, extensive research has led to a general consensus that metakaolin is not a simple mixture of amorphous silica ( SiO 2 ) and alumina ( Al 2 O 3 ), but rather a complex amorphous structure that retains some longer-range order (but not strictly crystalline ) due to stacking of its hexagonal layers. Further heating to 925–950 °C converts metakaolin to an aluminium-silicon spinel which
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#17328525686311408-587: Is one of the most common minerals; it is mined, as kaolin, in Australia , Brazil , Bulgaria , China , Czech Republic , France , Germany , India , Iran , Malaysia , South Africa , South Korea , Spain , Tanzania , Thailand , United Kingdom , United States and Vietnam . Mantles of kaolinite are common in Western and Northern Europe. The ages of these mantles are Mesozoic to Early Cenozoic. Kaolinite clay occurs in abundance in soils that have formed from
1472-413: Is operated by Société de transports en commun de Limoges Métropole (STCL). The Limoges urban bus network includes the Limoges trolleybus system , one of only four such systems currently operating in France. Limoges is twinned with: Kaolinite Kaolinite ( / ˈ k eɪ . ə l ə ˌ n aɪ t , - l ɪ -/ KAY -ə-lə-nyte, -lih- ; also called kaolin ) is a clay mineral , with
1536-465: Is sometimes also referred to as a gamma-alumina type structure: Upon calcination above 1050 °C, the spinel phase nucleates and transforms to platelet mullite and highly crystalline cristobalite : Finally, at 1400 °C the "needle" form of mullite appears, offering substantial increases in structural strength and heat resistance. This is a structural but not chemical transformation. See stoneware for more information on this form. Kaolinite
1600-449: Is that the aluminium cations must be hexacoordinated with respect to oxygen (Caillère and Hénin, 1947; Caillère et al., 1953; Hénin and Robichet, 1955 ). Gastuche et al. (1962) and Caillère and Hénin (1962) have concluded that kaolinite can only ever be formed when the aluminium hydroxide is in the form of gibbsite . Otherwise, the precipitate formed will be a "mixed alumino-silicic gel" (as Millot, 1970, p. 343 put it). If it were
1664-535: Is the centre of the modern Limoges. Starting from the construction of the Abbey of St. Martial (9th century), another settlement grew around the tomb of the saint, while a third area, next to the residence of the viscount (the future Castle of Saint Martial), seems to have been populated from the 10th century. Starting from the 11th century, thanks to the presence of the Abbey of St. Martial and its large library, Limoges became
1728-414: Is the name of a section of Pictures at an Exhibition by Modest Mussorgsky . In 1768, kaolin , a rock rich in fine, white clay which is used for making porcelain , was discovered at Saint-Yrieix-la-Perche , 30 km south of Limoges. Under the impetus of the progressive economist Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune , who had been appointed intendant of this impoverished and isolated region,
1792-535: The Bay of Biscay . In 2018, the population of the commune proper was 131,479, and of the Limoges functional urban area 323,789. Inhabitants of Limoges are called limougeauds in French. The population data in the table and graph below refer to the commune of Limoges proper, in its geography at the given years. The commune of Limoges absorbed the former commune of Beaune-les-Mines in 1962. "Le marché de Limoges" (Limoges market)
1856-609: The COVID-19 pandemic . Their home games were played at Stade St. Lazare. USA Limoges is an amateur rugby union club, based in Limoges. Currently competing in Fédérale 1, the top level of the French amateur rugby pyramid and one level below the professional leagues. The main railway station of Limoges is the Limoges-Bénédictins station . It offers direct connections with Paris , and Toulouse, and several regional destinations. Limoges
1920-563: The Espluga Freda area of Spain were enriched with kaolinite from a detrital source due to denudation . Difficulties are encountered when trying to explain kaolinite formation under atmospheric conditions by extrapolation of thermodynamic data from the more successful high-temperature syntheses. La Iglesia and Van Oosterwijk-Gastuche (1978) thought that the conditions under which kaolinite will nucleate can be deduced from stability diagrams, based as they are on dissolution data. Because of
1984-595: The Newark-Pomeroy line, along which can still be seen many open-pit clay mines. The deposits were formed between the late Cretaceous and early Paleogene , about 100 to 45 million years ago, in sediments derived from weathered igneous and metakaolin rocks. Kaolin production in the United States during 2011 was 5.5 million tons. During the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum sediments deposited in
François Massialot - Misplaced Pages Continue
2048-580: The UNESCO Creative Cities Network in 2017 in the thematic category "Crafts and Popular Arts". Scarce remains of pre-urban settlements have been found in the area of Limoges. The capital of the Gaulish people of the Lemovices , who lived in the area, was probably either near Villejoubert , some kilometres south-east of Saint-Léonard-de-Noblat , or St Gence, just west of Limoges. The city proper
2112-611: The University of Limoges . The city is one of France's basketball capitals. The Palais des Sports de Beaublanc , has been host for international basketball events such as the EuroBasket 1983 and serves as home court for the professional team CSP Limoges (Cercle St Pierre). Since 1983, the club has been French champion 11 times (1983, 1984, 1985, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1993, 1994, 2000, 2014, 2015) and 5 European titles (1982, 1983, 2000 ( Korac Cup ), 1988 (FIBA Saporta Cup), 1993 (Euroleague)). It
2176-416: The silicic acid must be present in concentrations below the maximum solubility of amorphous silica. The principle behind this prerequisite can be found in structural chemistry: "Since the polysilicate ions are not of uniform size, they cannot arrange themselves along with the metal ions into a regular crystal lattice." (Iler, 1955, p. 182 ) The second aspect of the low-temperature synthesis of kaolinite
2240-427: The area around changed into " Limousin ". Limoges was evangelized by Saint Martial , who came to the city around 250 with two companions, Alpinianus and Austriclinienus. However, in the late 3rd century it was increasingly abandoned, due to unsafe conditions created by the invasions of various Germanic tribes. The population was concentrated instead in a more easily fortifiable site, the modern Puy Saint-Étienne, which
2304-460: The chemical weathering of rocks in hot, moist climates ; for example in tropical rainforest areas. Comparing soils along a gradient towards progressively cooler or drier climates, the proportion of kaolinite decreases, while the proportion of other clay minerals such as illite (in cooler climates) or smectite (in drier climates) increases. Such climatically related differences in clay mineral content are often used to infer changes in climates in
2368-426: The chemical composition Al 2 Si 2 O 5 ( OH ) 4 . It is a layered silicate mineral , with one tetrahedral sheet of silica ( SiO 4 ) linked through oxygen atoms to one octahedral sheet of alumina ( AlO 6 ). Kaolinite is a soft, earthy, usually white, mineral (dioctahedral phyllosilicate clay ), produced by the chemical weathering of aluminium silicate minerals like feldspar . It has
2432-642: The city are called the Limougeauds. Founded around 10 BC under the name of Augustoritum, it became an important Gallo-Roman city. During the Middle Ages Limoges became a large city, strongly marked by the cultural influence of the Abbey of Saint-Martial , where the Dukes of Aquitaine were invested and crowned. From the 12th century onwards, its enamels were exported throughout the Christian world. In 1765, during
2496-413: The daily titrations with hydrochloric acid or sodium hydroxide during at least 60 days will have introduced the necessary element of periodicity. Only now the actual role of what has been described as the "aging" ( Alterung ) of amorphous alumino-silicates (as for example Harder, 1978 had noted) can be fully understood. As such, time is not bringing about any change in a closed system at equilibrium; but
2560-509: The effect of digital media, in 2016 the market share was reported to be: paper, 36%; ceramics, 31%; paint, 7% and other, 26%. According to the USGS , in 2021 the global production of kaolin was estimated to be around 45 million tonnes. Global production of kaolin by country in 2012 was estimated to be: Some selected typical properties of various ceramic grade kaolins are: Kaolin is generally recognized as safe , but may cause mild irritation of
2624-451: The first place the silicic acid to be supplied to the growing crystal must be in a monomeric form, i.e., silica should be present in very dilute solution (Caillère et al., 1957; Caillère and Hénin, 1960; Wey and Siffert, 1962; Millot, 1970 ). In order to prevent the formation of amorphous silica gels precipitating from supersaturated solutions without reacting with the aluminium or magnesium cations to form crystalline silicates ,
François Massialot - Misplaced Pages Continue
2688-581: The former Limousin region. Situated on the first western foothills of the Massif Central , Limoges is crossed by the river Vienne , of which it was originally the first ford crossing point. The second most populated town in the New Aquitaine region after Bordeaux , a university town , an administrative centre and intermediate services with all the facilities of a regional metropolis, it has an urban area of 323,789 inhabitants in 2018. The inhabitants of
2752-592: The geological past, where ancient soils have been buried and preserved. In the Institut National pour l'Étude Agronomique au Congo Belge (INEAC) classification system, soils in which the clay fraction is predominantly kaolinite are called kaolisol (from kaolin and soil). In the United States, the main kaolin deposits are found in central Georgia , on a stretch of the Atlantic Seaboard fall line between Augusta and Macon . This area of thirteen counties
2816-466: The houses of princes, and of people of the first rank." Places where Massialot served banquets included the Château de Sceaux , the Château de Meudon , and Versailles . An innovation in Massialot's book was the alphabetisation of recipes, "a step toward the first culinary dictionary" Barbara Wheaton observes; Wheaton has compared the changes made in the various editions of Massialot: a glass of white wine in
2880-520: The industrial revolution, the discovery of a deposit of kaolin in the Saint-Yrieix-la-Perche region enabled the development of the Limoges porcelain industry. It is sometimes nicknamed "the red city" or "the Rome of socialism" because of its tradition of voting on the left and the workers' events it experienced from the 19th to the beginning of the 20th century. Since the 1990s, the city has had
2944-405: The low-temperature nucleation of kaolinite. At high temperatures, equilibrium thermodynamic models appear to be satisfactory for the description of kaolinite dissolution and nucleation , because the thermal energy suffices to overcome the energy barriers involved in the nucleation process. The importance of syntheses at ambient temperature and atmospheric pressure towards the understanding of
3008-604: The manufacture of Jingdezhen porcelain . D'Entrecolles was transcribing the Chinese term 高嶺土 , now romanized as gāolǐngtǔ in pinyin , taken from the name of the village of Gaoling ("High Ridge") near Ehu in Fuliang County , now part of Jiangxi Province 's Jingdezhen Prefecture . The area around the village had become the main source of Jingdezhen's kaolin over the course of the Qing dynasty . The mineralogical suffix -ite
3072-415: The mechanism involved in the nucleation of clay minerals lies in overcoming these energy barriers. As indicated by Caillère and Hénin (1960) the processes involved will have to be studied in well-defined experiments, because it is virtually impossible to isolate the factors involved by mere deduction from complex natural physico-chemical systems such as the soil environment. Fripiat and Herbillon (1971), in
3136-469: The middle of the 18th century. Limoges Limoges ( / l ɪ ˈ m oʊ ʒ / lih- MOHZH , US also / l iː ˈ -/ lee- , French: [limɔʒ] ; Occitan : Lemòtges , locally Limòtges [liˈmɔdzes] ) is a city and commune , and the prefecture of the Haute-Vienne department in west-central France . It was the administrative capital of
3200-441: The only requirement, large amounts of kaolinite could be harvested simply by adding gibbsite powder to a silica solution. Undoubtedly a marked degree of adsorption of the silica in solution by the gibbsite surfaces will take place, but, as stated before, mere adsorption does not create the layer lattice typical of kaolinite crystals. The third aspect is that these two initial components must be incorporated into one mixed crystal with
3264-526: The outer face of the T sheet of one layer and hydroxyl on the outer face of the O sheet of the next layer. A kaolinite layer has no net electrical charge and so there are no large cations (such as calcium, sodium, or potassium) between layers as with most other clay minerals. This accounts for kaolinite's relatively low ion exchange capacity. The close hydrogen bonding between layers also hinders water molecules from infiltrating between layers, accounting for kaolinite's nonswelling character. When moistened,
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#17328525686313328-418: The plates hydrogen bond directly to each other, so that the dried clay is rigid but still fragile. If the clay is moistened again, it will once more become plastic. Kaolinite group clays undergo a series of phase transformations upon thermal treatment in air at atmospheric pressure. High-energy milling of kaolin results in the formation of a mechanochemically amorphized phase similar to metakaolin , although
3392-616: The porcelain) in manufacture and exporting needed for European distribution of Limoges Boxes , dinnerware, and other porcelain wares. Because the Limousin region has had a long history of breeding (Baronet sheep and Limousine cows ), the leather industry also settled in and around Limoges along the banks of the Vienne–the river providing the necessary water and power. Factories in Limoges and St Junien still produce luxury leather shoes, gloves, and bags. The city and castle were united in 1792 to form
3456-432: The properties of this solid are quite different. The high-energy milling process is highly inefficient and consumes a large amount of energy. Below 100 °C, exposure to low humidity air will result in the slow evaporation of any liquid water in the kaolin. At low moisture content the mass can be described leather dry , and at near 0% moisture it is referred to as bone dry . Above 100 °C any remaining free water
3520-413: The role of periodicity becomes convincingly clear. DeKimpe et al. (1961) had used daily additions of alumina (as AlCl 3 ·6 H 2 O ) and silica (in the form of ethyl silicate ) during at least two months. In addition, adjustments of the pH took place every day by way of adding either hydrochloric acid or sodium hydroxide . Such daily additions of Si and Al to the solution in combination with
3584-512: The single city of Limoges. During the French Revolution several religious edifices, considered symbols of the Ancien Régime , were destroyed by the population: these included the Abbey of St. Martial itself. In the 19th century Limoges saw strong construction activity, which included the destruction and rebuilding of much of the city centre. The unsafe conditions of the poorer population
3648-568: The skin or mucous membranes. Kaolin products may also contain traces of crystalline silica , a known carcinogen if inhaled. In the US, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit ( permissible exposure limit ) for kaolin exposure in the workplace as 15 mg/m total exposure and 5 mg/m respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set
3712-421: The tiny platelike crystals of kaolinite acquire a layer of water molecules that cause crystals to adhere to each other and give kaolin clay its cohesiveness. The bonds are weak enough to allow the plates to slip past each other when the clay is being molded, but strong enough to hold the plates in place and allow the molded clay to retain its shape. When the clay is dried, most of the water molecules are removed, and
3776-864: The transition of allophane into kaolinite has been stressed by Tamura and Jackson (1953). The role of alternations between wetting and drying on the formation of kaolinite has also been noted by Moore (1964). Syntheses of kaolinite at high temperatures (more than 100 °C [212 °F]) are relatively well known. There are for example the syntheses of Van Nieuwenberg and Pieters (1929); Noll (1934); Noll (1936); Norton (1939); Roy and Osborn (1954); Roy (1961); Hawkins and Roy (1962); Tomura et al. (1985); Satokawa et al. (1994) and Huertas et al. (1999). Relatively few low-temperature syntheses have become known (cf. Brindley and DeKimpe (1961); DeKimpe (1969); Bogatyrev et al. (1997) ). Laboratory syntheses of kaolinite at room temperature and atmospheric pressure have been described by DeKimpe et al. (1961). From those tests
3840-474: Was founded as Augustoritum by the Romans , around 10 BC: "rito-" is Gaulish for " ford ". The foundation was part of the reorganization of the province by the emperor Augustus , hence the new name. The Roman city included an amphitheatre measuring 136 x 115 metres, a theatre, a forum , baths and several sanctuaries. According to tradition, a temple consecrated to Venus , Diana , Minerva and Jupiter
3904-499: Was later added to generalize the name to cover nearly identical minerals from other locations. Kaolinite is also occasionally discussed under the archaic names lithomarge and lithomarga from Latin lithomarga , a combination of litho- ( Ancient Greek : λίθος ， líthos , "stone") and marga (" marl "). In more proper modern use, lithomarge now refers specifically to a compacted and massive form of kaolin. The chemical formula for kaolinite as written in mineralogy
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#17328525686313968-460: Was located near the modern cathedral. The city was on the typical Roman square plan, with two main streets crossing in the centre. It had a Senate and a currency of its own, a sign of its importance in the imperial age. Later, like many towns and cities in Gaul, it was renamed after the tribe (here the Lemovices ) whose chief town it was; "Lemovices" subsequently evolved into "Limoges", and "Lemovicinus" for
4032-516: Was the first French club team to become European champion in a collective sport. The team currently plays in Pro A , the French first basketball professional league. Limoges Hand 87 is a French handball team based in Limoges, France, which is currently playing in the Division 2 of Ligue Nationale de Handball. Limoges FC was the major city association football team before the club folded in 2020 during
4096-414: Was the last major urban centre of Metropolitan France to be connected to the national motorway system; since the early 1990s, the motorway A20 connects Limoges with Châteauroux , Vierzon , Orléans and Paris to the north, and Brive-la-Gaillarde , Cahors , Montauban and Toulouse to the south. The nearest airport is Limoges – Bellegarde Airport . Urban transport in Limoges and its metropolitan area
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