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221-506: In the political arena, Francisco Morazán was recognized as a visionary and great thinker, as he attempted to transform Central America into one large and progressive nation. He enacted liberal reforms in the new Federal Republic of Central America , including freedom of the press , freedom of speech and freedom of religion . Morazán also limited church power by making marriage secular and abolishing government-aided tithing. These reforms made him some powerful enemies, and his period of rule

442-609: A UNESCO World Heritage Site . This city was destroyed by several earthquakes in 1773–1774. The King of Spain authorized moving the capital to its current location in the Ermita Valley, which is named after a Catholic church dedicated to the Virgen del Carmen . This new capital was founded on 2 January 1776. On 15 September 1821, Gabino Gainza Fernandez de Medrano and the Captaincy General of Guatemala , an administrative region of

663-562: A caste system , with Spaniards at the top, mixed-race individuals in the middle, and Africans and indigenous Central Americans at the bottom. Spaniards owned most of the region's land and wealth, and indigenous people composed most of its labor force. The Catholic Church dominated all aspects of Central American society during Spanish colonial rule. Although the region's indigenous inhabitants were gradually forced by colonial officials to convert to Catholicism, they retained many of their cultural traditions. The Spanish king Ferdinand VII

884-597: A 20th-century Costa Rican lawyer and rector of the University of Costa Rica , described the presidency of the Federal Republic of Central America as "merely decorative". The Supreme Court of Justice was established on 2 August 1824 as the federal republic's judicial branch. It consisted of six justices, two of whom were elected every two years. The first justices took office on 29 April 1825. The Supreme Court could not enforce its rulings on unconstitutional laws passed by

1105-480: A Peruvian division, at a time when his country was at war with Chile. But Morazán declined, because he found this war very confusing and troubling. Peru, Bolivia, Colombia and Chile were all involved in a twelve-year war, which brought about a train of baneful stages of chaos, among all countries involved. In Peru, Morazán was fortunate to find good friends with whom he shared the same ideals. These included Generals José Rufino Echenique and Pedro Bermudez. Around 1841,

1326-402: A bomb exploded near his carriage. It has been suggested that the extreme despotic characteristics of Estrada did not emerge until after an attempt on his life in 1907. Guatemala City was badly damaged in the 1917 Guatemala earthquake . Estrada Cabrera continued in power until forced to resign after new revolts in 1920. By that time his power had declined drastically and he was reliant upon

1547-543: A congress to determine the region's future. The Mexican Constituent Congress  [ es ] ordered Mexican forces in Central America to cease hostilities on 1 April, and the Central American congress convened on 24 June. Except for the state of Chiapas , it declared Central American independence from Mexico on 1 July. At Central America's independence from Mexico, the Central American congress established

1768-575: A criollo caudillo like Morazán, who was able to crush the peasant rebellion. Morazán used the proceeds to support Los Altos and then replaced Valenzuela with Mariano Rivera Paz , a member of the Aycinena clan, although he did not return to that clan any property confiscated in 1829. In revenge, Juan José de Aycinena y Piñol voted to dissolve the Central American Federation in San Salvador

1989-584: A dangerous jungle infested with jaguars to meet his former friend. Zavala not only did not capture him, he agreed to serve under his orders, thus sending a strong message to both liberal and conservatives in Guatemala City that they would have to negotiate with Carrera or battle on two fronts – Quetzaltenango and Jalapa. Carrera went back to the Quetzaltenango area, while Zavala remained in Suchitepéquez as

2210-577: A decree dissolving the Federal Republic of Central America; the Federal Congress accepted his decree on 14 July. On 30 January 1841, El Salvador declared independence from the Federal Republic of Central America. At the fall of the federal republic, four of its five successor states were led by opponents of federal rule and proponents of their respective states' secession: Braulio Carrillo (Costa Rica), Francisco Malespín (El Salvador), Carrera (Guatemala), and Francisco Ferrera (Honduras). According to

2431-732: A detachment in Jutiapa and got a small amount of booty which he gave to the volunteers who accompanied him. He then prepared to attack Petapa near Guatemala City, where he was victorious, although with heavy casualties. In September of that year, Carrera attempted an assault on the capital of Guatemala, but the liberal general Carlos Salazar Castro defeated him in the fields of Villa Nueva and Carrera had to retreat. After unsuccessfully trying to take Quetzaltenango , Carrera found himself both surrounded and wounded. He had to capitulate to Mexican General Agustín Guzmán , who had been in Quetzaltenango since Vicente Filísola 's arrival in 1823. Morazán had

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2652-500: A friend: "Now he is the king of the Indians, indeed!" Guzmán then left for Jalapa, where he struck a deal with the rebels, while Luis Batres Juarros convinced President Paredes to deal with Carrera. Back in Guatemala City within a few months, Carrera was commander-in-chief, backed by military and political support of the Indian communities from the densely populated western highlands. During

2873-782: A government to succeed Spanish colonial rule. On November 18, a note from General Agustín de Iturbide arrived in Guatemala City suggesting a union between the Captaincy and the Mexican Empire , pursuant to the Plan of Iguala and the Treaty of Córdoba . The members of the Interim Advisory Board, after reviewing the issue, stated they were not empowered nor deputized to decide on this matter, but suggested forums be held in different cities to hear

3094-406: A great knowledge of the structure and operation of the public administration of the province. This job also allowed him to get in close contact with the problems of post-colonial society. In November 1821, shortly after the Captaincy had declared its independence from Spain, a group of dignitaries and politicians known as the 'Interim Advisory Board' sat in Guatemala City in the process of organizing

3315-450: A huge column of Quetzaltenango and Totonicapán indigenous people came down from the mountains to vote for him. Reyna was elected president. José María Reina Barrios was president between 1892 and 1898. During Barrios's first term in office, the power of the landowners over the rural peasantry increased. He oversaw the rebuilding of parts of Guatemala City on a grander scale, with wide, Parisian-style avenues. He oversaw Guatemala hosting

3536-611: A letter to Mexican President Vicente Guerrero in November 1829 with the same request; Guerrero did not respond either. After Central American Minister of Relations Manuel Julián Ibarra sent a third request to the Mexican government to extradite the refugees in December 1829, Mexico said that it could grant the Central American request. Arce threatened to invade the Federal Republic of Central America in late 1831 from Soconusco (a territory along

3757-456: A letter to the Mexican minister of external relations falsely claiming that Central American refugees fleeing to Mexico were actually enemy forces who sought to "chain and submit their towns to the Spanish yoke" (" encadenar y someter sus pueblos al yugo español "). He asked the Mexican government to extradite the refugees back to Central America. Receiving no reply, José Francisco Barrundia sent

3978-482: A little later, forcing Morazán to return to El Salvador to fight for his federal mandate. Along the way, Morazán increased repression in eastern Guatemala, as punishment for helping Carrera. Knowing that Morazán had gone to El Salvador, Carrera tried to take Salamá with the small force that remained, but was defeated, and lost his brother Laureano in combat. With just a few men left, he managed to escape, badly wounded, to Sanarate . After recovering somewhat, he attacked

4199-496: A los mayores peligros "). The federal republic consisted of five states: Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua. Each state was subdivided into 45 partidos (districts). From 7 February 1835 to 3 May 1839, the Federal District was centered around San Salvador as the national capital. Briefly, from 1838 to 1839, the federal government considered separating Los Altos from Guatemala and elevating it to

4420-462: A member of the Liberal Party , he sought to encourage development of the nation's infrastructure of highways , railroads , and sea ports for the sake of expanding the export economy. By the time Estrada Cabrera assumed the presidency there had been repeated efforts to construct a railroad from the major port of Puerto Barrios to the capital, Guatemala City. Owing to lack of funding exacerbated by

4641-533: A native revolt, much like that of 1840; their only request from Carrera was to keep the natives under control. The altenses did not comply, and led by Guzmán and his forces, they started chasing Carrera; the caudillo hid, helped by his native allies and remained under their protection when the forces of Miguel Garcia Granados arrived from Guatemala City looking for him. On learning that officer José Víctor Zavala had been appointed as Corregidor in Suchitepéquez, Carrera and his hundred jacalteco bodyguards crossed

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4862-624: A peasant. With Salazar gone, Carrera reinstated Rivera Paz as head of state. Between 1838 and 1840 a secessionist movement in the city of Quetzaltenango founded the breakaway state of Los Altos and sought independence from Guatemala. The most important members of the Liberal Party of Guatemala and liberal enemies of the conservative régime moved to Los Altos, leaving their exile in El Salvador. The liberals in Los Altos began severely criticizing

5083-683: A political leader, others simply hoped to get something for their efforts after the war ended. This was the combination of forces that joined Morazán in their fight against federal troops. While the Salvadoran army battled the Federal forces in San Salvador, Morazán positioned himself in the eastern part of the state. On July 6, Morazán defeated Col. Vicente Dominguez's Federal troops at the 'El Gualcho' ranch in Nuevo Gualcho . In his memoirs, Morazán described

5304-690: A rebellion in San Juan Nonualco and Santiago Nonualco in response to indigenous killings by Ladinos (mixed-race people) the month before. Aquino and 2,000 supporters (known as the Liberation Army) marched on San Vicente , capturing it the following day. The Liberation Army proclaimed him as San Vicente's political chief. Indigenous Salvadorans in Cojutepeque, Ilopango , San Martín , San Pedro Perulapán , and Soyapango supported Aquino's rebellion. Initial efforts by Salvadoran soldiers to suppress

5525-651: A rebellion in San Salvador against Spanish rule which was defeated by loyalist forces. Additional independence rebellions occurred in December 1811 in Nicaragua  [ es ] ; in 1813 in Guatemala; and in 1814 in San Salvador  [ es ] . All were defeated by loyalist forces, but pro-independence sentiment spread among Central American leaders. The Cortes of Cádiz (a Spanish constitutional congress in Cádiz ) drafted

5746-424: A rebellion against conservative Nicaraguan political leader Miguel González Saravia y Colarte  [ es ] , capturing several cities. Ordóñez's rebellion continued after Central America declared its independence from Mexico. On 19 March 1823, Iturbide abdicated the Mexican throne. When news of Iturbide's abdication reached Filísola on 29 March, he called for Central American political leaders to establish

5967-426: A result, which led to liberals continuing to accuse him of betraying the liberal cause. Juan Barrundia  [ es ] , José Francisco Barrundia's brother, opposed the federal government and was one of Arce's foremost critics. He moved Guatemala's capital back to Guatemala City from Antigua Guatemala in mid-1825 (reversing the 1823 move) and seized private property to establish state government offices, since

6188-435: A smaller army, he was beaten by Morazán. This incident raised the morale of Morazán's men once again. After the victory of San Miguelito, Morazán's army grew larger when Guatemalan volunteers joined his ranks. On March 15 when Morazán was on his way to occupy his former positions, he was intercepted by Col. Prado's Federal troops at the 'Las Charcas' ranch. Morazán, with a superior position, crushed Prado's army. The battlefield

6409-437: A society based upon general education, religious liberty and social and political equality. In 1831 Morazán and Governor Mariano Gálvez turned Guatemala into a testing ground for these ' enlightenment -like' policies. They oversaw the building of schools and roads, enacted free trade policies, invited foreign capital and immigrants, allowed secular marriage and divorce and freedom of speech, tried to make public lands available to

6630-481: A tactical maneuver. Carrera received a visit from a cabinet member of Paredes and told him that he had control of the native population and that he assured Paredes that he would keep them appeased. When the emissary returned to Guatemala City, he told the president everything Carrera said, and added that the native forces were formidable. Guzmán went to Antigua to meet with another group of Paredes emissaries; they agreed that Los Altos would rejoin Guatemala, and that

6851-437: A treaty of alliance against Morazán's government. Carrera called on the Salvadoran people to rise against their government. These calls resulted in small uprisings within El Salvador, but these were quickly put down without much effort by Morazán. When Carrera's attempt failed, Morazán's enemies formed an army of Nicaraguan and Honduran troops. On September 25, 1839, these forces invaded El Salvador and faced Morazán's army during

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7072-447: A young Rafael Carrera . Carrera was an illiterate, but shrewd and charismatic swineherd turned highwayman, whom the rebels wanted as their leader. The priests proclaimed to the natives that he was their protecting angel Rafael, descended from the heavens to take vengeance on the heretics, Liberals and foreigners and to restore their ancient dominion. They devised various tricks to favor the delusion, which were heralded as miracles. A letter

7293-566: Is characterized by urbanisation, the emergence of independent city-states, and contact with other Mesoamerican cultures. This lasted until approximately 900 AD, when the Classic Maya civilization collapsed . The Maya abandoned many of the cities of the central lowlands or were killed by a drought-induced famine . The cause of the collapse is debated, but the drought theory is gaining currency, supported by evidence such as lakebeds, ancient pollen, and others. A series of prolonged droughts in what

7514-720: Is otherwise a seasonal desert is thought to have decimated the Maya, who relied on regular rainfall to support their dense population. The Post-Classic period is represented by regional kingdoms, such as the Itza , Kowoj , Yalain and Kejache in Petén, and the Mam , Ki'che' , Kackchiquel , Chajoma , Tz'utujil , Poqomchi' , Q'eqchi' and Ch'orti' peoples in the highlands. Their cities preserved many aspects of Maya culture. The Maya civilization shares many features with other Mesoamerican civilizations due to

7735-624: Is the most populous city in Central America. The name "Guatemala" comes from the Nahuatl word Cuauhtēmallān , or "place of many trees", a derivative of the K'iche' Mayan word for "many trees" or, perhaps more specifically, for the Cuate/Cuatli tree Eysenhardtia . This name was originally used by the Mexica to refer to the Kaqchikel city of Iximche , but was extended to refer to the whole country during

7956-552: The 8th and 18th parallel north . On 5 May 1824, the National Constituent Assembly ordered each of the federal republic's five states to draft a constitution and install state-level legislative, executive, and judicial branches similar to those of the federal government. Each state could elect legislators, a governor, and judicial officials in indirect elections. Like the Senate at the federal level, each state's Senate

8177-701: The Battle of La Trinidad on 10 November 1827, recapturing Comayagua and Tegucigalpa. Arce offered to hold a presidential election in early 1828 in an attempt to appease the liberals, who declined his offer. He resigned the presidency on 14 February and fled to Mexico; Beltranena succeeded Arce as interim president. Morazán invaded El Salvador in June 1828 with an army of Honduran and Nicaraguan soldiers, capturing San Salvador on 23 October. In late 1828, Morazán raised 4,000 soldiers for an invasion of Guatemala. Beltranena's government warned its citizens that Morazán's primary objective

8398-625: The First Central American Civil War without a formal declaration of war. Honduras supported El Salvador's invasion, but Arce's federal soldiers defeated the invasion in a 23 March battle at Arrazola (near Guatemala City). Arce launched a counter-invasion into El Salvador and was defeated on 18 May at Milingo, near San Salvador. While Arce was campaigning in El Salvador, he sent a division of soldiers commanded by Colonel José Justo Milla into Honduras to arrest liberal Honduran Governor Dionisio de Herrera . Milla's forces captured

8619-572: The First Mexican Empire on 1 July 1823, was the United Provinces of Central America ( Spanish : Provincias Unidas del Centro de América ). Upon the adoption of the country's constitution on 22 November 1824, the United Provinces of Central America changed its name to the Federal Republic of Central America ( República Federal de Centro América ). In the years shortly after independence, some official government documents referred to

8840-582: The Isthmus of Tehuantepec and south to the Isthmus of Panama . Spain transferred control of the Yucatán Peninsula to New Spain (modern-day Mexico ) in 1560, and transferred control of Panama to Peru seven years later. In 1568, the Central American audiencia was reorganized as the Captaincy General of Guatemala . The captaincy was subdivided into corregimientos , gobiernos , greater mayorships , and intendancies . Central America had

9061-517: The Maya area . Many outside influences are found in Maya art and architecture, which are thought to have resulted from trade and cultural exchange rather than direct external conquest. After they arrived in the New World , the Spanish started several expeditions to Guatemala, beginning in 1519. Before long, Spanish contact resulted in an epidemic that devastated native populations. Hernán Cortés , who had led

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9282-776: The Quiché region in the Highlands, and Sipacate and Escuintla on the central Pacific coast. Archaeologists divide the pre-Columbian history of Mesoamerica into the Preclassic period (3000 BC to 250 AD), the Classic period (250 to 900 AD), and the Postclassic period (900 to 1500 AD). Until recently, the Preclassic was regarded by researchers as a formative period, in which the peoples typically lived in huts in small villages of farmers, with few permanent buildings. This notion has been challenged since

9503-652: The Republic of Guatemala , is a country in Central America . It is bordered to the north and west by Mexico , to the northeast by Belize , to the east by Honduras , and to the southeast by El Salvador . It is hydrologically bordered to the south by the Pacific Ocean and to the northeast by the Gulf of Honduras . The territory of modern Guatemala hosted the core of the Maya civilization , which extended across Mesoamerica ; in

9724-515: The Spanish Constitution of 1812 , which made Spain a constitutional monarchy . Ferdinand repealed the liberal constitution after returning to power in 1814, since he wanted to rule as an absolute monarch . His refusal to rule as a constitutional monarch and the desire of colonial leaders for greater local autonomy led to independence rebellions throughout Spain's American colonies. The rebellions were primarily led by liberals who supported

9945-530: The Spanish conquest of Mexico , granted a permit to Captains Gonzalo de Alvarado and his brother, Pedro de Alvarado , to conquer this land. Alvarado at first allied himself with the Kaqchikel nation to fight against their traditional rivals the K'iche' (Quiché) nation . Alvarado later turned against the Kaqchikel, and eventually brought the entire region under Spanish domination. During the colonial period, Guatemala

10166-465: The United Provinces of Central America ( Provincias Unidas del Centro de América ), was a sovereign state in Central America that existed between 1823 and 1839/1841. The republic was composed of five states ( Costa Rica , El Salvador , Guatemala , Honduras , and Nicaragua ), and a Federal District from 1835 to 1839. Guatemala City was its capital city until 1834, when the seat of government

10387-476: The United Provinces of Central America . In 1840, Belgium began to act as an external source of support for Carrera's independence movement, in an effort to exert influence in Central America. The Compagnie belge de colonisation (Belgian Colonization Company), commissioned by Belgian King Leopold I , became the administrator of Santo Tomas de Castilla replacing the failed British Eastern Coast of Central America Commercial and Agricultural Company . Even though

10608-554: The United States . In 1944, authoritarian leader Jorge Ubico was overthrown by a pro-democratic military coup, initiating a decade-long revolution that led to social and economic reforms. In 1954, a US-backed military coup ended the revolution and installed a dictatorship. From 1960 to 1996, Guatemala endured a bloody civil war fought between the US-backed government and leftist rebels, including genocidal massacres of

10829-443: The late 1833 presidential election , the electoral college chose Valle as Central America's next president. Valle defeated Morazán because many voters and politicians opposed Morazán's use of military force to settle disputes between liberals and conservatives, and saw Valle as a moderate who could offer peace. Valle died of illness on 2 March 1834 while he was traveling to Guatemala to become president. As Morazán finished second in

11050-483: The 16th century, most of this was conquered by the Spanish and claimed as part of the viceroyalty of New Spain . Guatemala attained independence from Spain and Mexico in 1821. From 1823 to 1841, it was part of the Federal Republic of Central America . For the latter half of the 19th century, Guatemala suffered instability and civil strife. From the early 20th century, it was ruled by a series of dictators backed by

11271-506: The 1812 constitution's Enlightenment ideals. Conservatives joined the independence movements in 1820, when Ferdinand was forced by Colonel Rafael del Riego to restore the 1812 constitution. On 15 September 1821, Central American colonial leaders declared independence from Spain and signed the Act of Independence of Central America . They established the Consultive Junta to temporarily govern

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11492-714: The American Pacific Coast, Guatemala became a supplementary node to the Transpacific Manila Galleon trade connecting Latin America to Asia via the Spanish owned Philippines. On 11 September 1541, the new capital was flooded when the lagoon in the crater of the Agua Volcano collapsed due to heavy rains and earthquakes; the capital was then moved 6 km (4 mi) to Antigua in the Panchoy Valley, now

11713-566: The Army Marshall rank, even though that rank did not exist and it does not exist in the Guatemalan military. The Marshall called himself President of the Republic, but in reality he was the foreman of oppressed and savaged people, cowardly enough that they had not dared to tell the dictator to leave threatening him with a revolution. The State and Church were a single unit, and the conservative régime

11934-461: The Atlantic side. In 1906 Estrada faced serious revolts against his rule; the rebels were supported by the governments of some of the other Central American nations, but Estrada succeeded in putting them down. Elections were held by the people against the will of Estrada Cabrera and thus he had the president-elect murdered in retaliation. In 1907 Estrada narrowly survived an assassination attempt when

12155-573: The Caribbean coast in case Spain attempted to reassert control of the region. George Alexander Thompson, a British diplomat who visited Central America in 1825, said that the federal army would only have been able to resist a Spanish invasion with guerrilla warfare . By the end of 1829, the Central American federal army (now called the Protector Allied Army of the Law) totaled 4,000 soldiers. That year,

12376-455: The Cathedral of Comayagua on December 30, 1825. They had one daughter, Adela Morazán Lastiri, born in San Salvador in 1838. Lastiri belonged to one of the wealthiest families in province of Honduras. Her father was the Spanish trader Juan Miguel Lastiri, who played an important part in the commercial development of Tegucigalpa. Her mother was Margarita Lozano, member of a powerful Creole family in

12597-431: The Central American government was unable to pay its debts to the military. Although Ariza pledged his loyalty to the National Constituent Assembly, many assembly members fled the city and called on soldiers from Chiquimula , Quetzaltenango , and San Salvador to suppress the insurrection. Neither Ariza's rebels nor Colonel José Rivas and his 750 soldiers from San Salvador wanted a battle. Conservatives took advantage of

12818-489: The Conservative government of Rivera Paz. Los Altos was the region with the main production and economic activity of the former state of Guatemala. Without Los Altos, conservatives lost many of the resources that had given Guatemala hegemony in Central America. The government of Guatemala tried to reach a peaceful solution, but two years of bloody conflict followed. On 17 April 1839, Guatemala declared itself independent from

13039-600: The Consultive Junta to join the First Mexican Empire in November 1821, and the junta voted for annexation on 5 January 1822. The Mexicans sent Brigadier General Vicente Filísola to enforce the annexation. Liberals in Costa Rica, El Salvador, and Nicaragua resisted Mexican attempts to annex the region. Liberals and conservatives fought in Costa Rica's Ochomogo War , which ended with the liberals gaining control of

13260-904: The English began to intervene in the Mosquito territory, located between Honduras and Nicaragua. This intervention prompted Morazán to end his self-imposed Peruvian exile, and he decided that it was time to return to Central America. With the financial backing of General Pedro Bermudez, he departed from Callao on board the "Crusader" in late December 1841. On that trip he was accompanied by General Cabañas and Saravia, and five other officers. He and his companions made stops in Guayaquil, Ecuador and Chiriqui where he met with his family before returning to Central America. Federal Republic of Central America The Federal Republic of Central America ( Spanish : República Federal de Centro América ), initially known as

13481-405: The Federal Congress declared all legislation passed after September 1826 null and void. Many leading conservatives were imprisoned or exiled under threat of death after the civil war, and many also had their property confiscated. Morazán also cracked down on the church. He expelled many members of the clergy from the country for supporting the conservatives, confiscated Church properties, and forced

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13702-446: The Federal Congress reduced the maximum size of the federal army to 2,000 soldiers due to general distrust by the states of the power and influence of the federal army. Each state was instructed to provide soldiers to the federal army. The federal peacetime army, as established by the Federal Congress in 1829, consisted of three infantry brigades, one artillery brigade, and one cavalry regiment. By 1831, only 800 federal soldiers remained;

13923-656: The Federal Congress, since its rulings were subject to Federal Congress review. The Federal Republic of Central America found it difficult to maintain its federal army. Before Central American independence, few Central Americans pursued a military career. Guatemalan historian Manuel Montúfar y Coronado wrote that "military influence was unknown in Central America; before Independence, there was no military career" (" el influjo militar fue desconocido en Centro América; antes de la Independencia, no había carrera militar "). The Central American federal army originated as rebel groups who resisted annexation to Mexico in 1822 and 1823, and

14144-560: The Federal Congress; the liberals began impeachment proceedings against him on 2 June 1826. Salvadoran liberals, still loyal to Arce, did not attend the impeachment proceedings and prevented the congress from reaching the quorum necessary to begin them. Ten days later, the Guatemalan liberals abandoned their impeachment attempt. Arce sent federal soldiers to arrest Raoul in July 1826, accusing him of insubordination by sending letters to Arce calling for his resignation. Juan Barrundia sought to defend Raoul and sent 300 Guatemalan soldiers to arrest

14365-567: The Federal District around the city on 7 February 1835 in accordance with article 65 of the federal constitution, which called for a federal district in the country's capital when "circumstances permitted". The district covered a 20-mile (32 km) radius around San Salvador and extended 10 miles (16 km) south to the Pacific Ocean. All federal-government offices relocated to the Federal District. El Salvador temporarily moved its state government from San Salvador to Cojutepeque before permanently relocating to San Vicente on 21 September. During

14586-433: The Federal Republic ended, he was left without political or military power. On July 13, 1839, however, the general was elected Chief of State of El Salvador. When Rafael Carrera and the Guatemalan conservatives learned about Morazán's new role, they declared war on El Salvador. Francisco Morazán personified the 'Old Federation' itself and for that reason alone they vowed to defeat him. On July 24, Guatemala and Nicaragua signed

14807-455: The Federal Republic. A year later Morazán's uncle Dionisio de Herrera , was elected Head of State in Honduras. On September 28, 1824, he appointed Morazán as his secretary general. The Central American Federation (1824–1838) comprised the republics of Central America—Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and El Salvador. United under a captaincy general in Spanish colonial times, they gained independence in 1821 and were briefly annexed to

15028-591: The General had to expel from the country archbishop Ramon Casaus and certain members of the monastic orders, because they were under suspicion of opposing independence. They used their influence against him and the Liberal Party during the civil war. They also had opposed the reforms, particularly those in the interest of general education which the Liberals were determined to push. In March 1832, another conflict erupted in El Salvador. Chief of State, José María Cornejo had rebelled against some federal decrees, which prompted President Morazán to act. The commander in chief at

15249-572: The Guatemalan conservatives and that would establish a centralized government. Arce called for an extraordinary congress to convene in Cojutepeque on 10 October to reestablish constitutional order, since the Federal Congress consistently failed to reach a quorum after Juan Barrundia's arrest. The call for an extraordinary congress was unconstitutional, because it exceeded Arce's presidential duties. On 6 December, in response to Arce's call for an extraordinary congress, Mariano Prado (the liberal acting governor of El Salvador) called for delegates from all

15470-408: The Guatemalan government and placed the department of Sacatepéquez under Morazán's protection. This prompted Morazán to invade Guatemala with his 'Protector Army of the law'. Morazán situated his men in the village of Pinula near the capital city. Military operations on the capital began with small skirmishes in front of government fortifications. On February 15 one of Morazán's largest divisions under

15691-417: The Guatemalan government in several different ways. José Francisco Barrundia established a liberal newspaper for that specific purpose. Vasconcelos supported a rebel faction named "La Montaña" in eastern Guatemala, providing and distributing money and weapons. By late 1850, Vasconcelos was getting impatient at the slow progress of the war with Guatemala and decided to plan an open attack. Under that circumstance,

15912-667: The Guatemalans suffered a severe defeat , which was followed by a truce. Honduras joined with El Salvador, and Nicaragua and Costa Rica with Guatemala. The contest was finally settled in favor of Carrera, who besieged and occupied San Salvador , and dominated Honduras and Nicaragua. He continued to act in concert with the Clerical Party, and tried to maintain friendly relations with European governments. Before he died, Carrera nominated his friend and loyal soldier, Army Marshall Vicente Cerna y Cerna , as his successor. Vicente Cerna y Cerna

16133-654: The Honduran capital of Comayagua on 10 May 1827 after a 36-day siege, and captured Herrera. Francisco Morazán —secretary general of Honduras in 1824, a Honduran state senator, and a military officer—was captured shortly afterwards in Tegucigalpa ; Morazán escaped and fled to Nicaragua, where he rallied an army of Honduran exiles to oppose Arce. his forces were supported by Nicaraguan rebels led by Ordóñez, who launched an anti-Arce rebellion in León. Morazán's army defeated Milla's army at

16354-482: The Indians continued to die. The church viewed this as an opportunity to strike back at the liberal government of Mariano Gálvez . The local priests spread the rumor that the government had poisoned the rivers and streams for the purpose of wiping out the indigenous population, and repopulating it with foreigners. In proof, they pointed to a recent grant of territory in Vera Paz made to a British colonization company. A cry

16575-405: The Indians of the district of Mita, influenced by their priests, were much perturbed over the system of trial by jury (incomprehensible to them) which was being introduced. The disease spread rapidly and the government of Mariano Galvez, hoping to alleviate the situation, dispatched the available physicians, medical students and remedies for distribution. But these measures were of little help because

16796-406: The Maya population perpetrated by the Guatemalan military. The United Nations negotiated a peace accord, resulting in economic growth and successive democratic elections. Guatemala's abundance of biologically significant and unique ecosystems includes many endemic species and contributes to Mesoamerica's designation as a biodiversity hotspot . Although rich in export goods, around a quarter of

17017-561: The Mexican Empire formed by Agustín de Iturbide in 1822. On July 1, 1823, these nations regained their independence, and joined together in a loose federal state. In the following year, the Constituent Congress of Central America met in Guatemala City, to decide which system of government to adopt for the young nation. In debates two different proposals emerged. The Liberal Party wanted a federalist government, similar to that of

17238-461: The Mexican Empire was short-lived, with the collapse of the Mexican Empire and the subsequent creation of the Federal Republic of Central America on April 1, 1823. That same year, the Constituent Congress in Guatemala appointed Morazán as a member of a commission to study the affairs of the Federation. That same commission determined the electoral districts, district boards and the departmental boards of

17459-469: The Pacific coast claimed by Central America and Mexico over which neither had full control) to reclaim the presidency. General Ramón Guzmán, mayor of the Honduran city of Omoa , declared a state of rebellion in November 1831, raised a Spanish flag in the city, and sent ships to Cuba to ask for support from conservative archbishop Ramón Casaus y Torres  [ es ] (exiled by Morazán in 1829). This

17680-518: The Salvadorean head of state started a campaign against the conservative Guatemalan regime, inviting Honduras and Nicaragua to participate in the alliance; only the Honduran government led by Juan Lindo accepted. In 1851 Guatemala defeated an Allied army from Honduras and El Salvador at the Battle of La Arada . In 1854 Carrera was declared "supreme and perpetual leader of the nation" for life, with

17901-630: The Spanish Empire consisting of Chiapas , Guatemala, El Salvador , Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Honduras, officially proclaimed its independence from Spain at a public meeting in Guatemala City. Independence from Spain was gained, and the Captaincy General of Guatemala joined the First Mexican Empire under Agustín de Iturbide . Under the First Empire, Mexico reached its greatest territorial extent, stretching from northern California to

18122-445: The Spanish colonial period. The first evidence of human habitation in Guatemala dates to 12,000 BC. Archaeological evidence, such as obsidian arrowheads found in various parts of the country, suggests a human presence as early as 18,000 BC. There is archaeological proof that early Guatemalan settlers were hunter-gatherers . Maize cultivation had been developed by the people by 3500 BC. Sites dating to 6500 BC have been found in

18343-510: The State in the hands of director José Antonio Canas and directed a proclamation to the people of El Salvador. Morazán did not want to cause any more problems for the Salvadorans. With Francisco Morazán's final defeat, the hopes of a Central American federation vanished. On April 8, 1840, General Francisco Morazán went into exile. He left from the port of La Libertad in El Salvador, and embarked on

18564-472: The United Provinces of Central America. The following day, the congress reorganized as the National Constituent Assembly and tasked itself with drafting a constitution for newly-independent Central America. José Matías Delgado was Central America's provisional president until 10 July 1823, when the National Constituent Assembly appointed a triumvirate  [ es ] consisting of Arce, Juan Vicente Villacorta and Pedro Molina Mazariegos . Since Arce

18785-704: The United States , the United States Declaration of Independence , and the Spanish Constitution of 1812. On 22 November, the constitution was formally adopted after all 64 members of the assembly signed it. The National Constituent Assembly dissolved itself on 23 January 1825, and was succeeded by the Federal Congress on 6 February. On 14 September 1823, Captain Rafael Ariza y Torres began an insurrection in Guatemala City (the capital city) because

19006-444: The United States of 1789. This type of government would provide every state significant autonomy of self-administration, freedom to create its own laws and reforms, among other things, but always under the supervision of the federal government, keeper of the constitution. The Conservatives on the other hand, wanted a centralist government. In this system, the decisions and laws adopted by the central government would apply equally to all

19227-444: The action.... The Salvadorans assistants... arrived in time to pursue the dispersed..." enemy soldiers. Morazán kept on fighting around San Miguel , defeating every platoon dispatched by General Arzu from San Salvador. This prompted Arzu to leave Col. Montufar in charge of San Salvador and personally deal with Morazán. When the 'liberal caudillo' learned about this, he left for Honduras to recruit more troops. On September 20, Gen. Arzu

19448-556: The allied army. On April 12, Guatemala's Chief of State, Mariano Aycinena, capitulated and the next day the Central Plaza was occupied by Morazán's troops. Immediately thereafter President Arce, Mariano Aycinena, Mariano Beltranena, and all the officials who had had some role in the war were sent to prison. After these events, the General ran the country dictatorially, until senator Juan Barrundia took over on June 25, 1829. After overthrowing

19669-429: The army to raise 10,000 soldiers to defend their country against a European invasion. The Congress of Deputies approved Arce's plan; the Senate vetoed it, however, citing a lack of funding. In mid-1826, Arce reduced his troop requirement to 4,000. Guatemalan liberals in the Federal Congress contacted French military officer Nicolás Raoul  [ es ] to help draft a military code to prevent Arce from controlling

19890-452: The assembly was functioning. On 12 October 1823, Rivas determined that the National Constituent Assembly was suppressing civil liberties and marched back into the city. On 17 October, believing that Rivas was acting on behalf of El Salvador, 200 soldiers from Quetzaltenango arrived in Guatemala City and skirmished with his forces. After a few days, the assembly drafted an agreement to appease both sides. Rivas' forces withdrew to El Salvador, and

20111-652: The authorities of that city. In order to offset Tinoco's aggressiveness and to defend their independence, an army of volunteers organized in Tegucigalpa. It was during these events, that Francisco Morazán enlisted as a volunteer at the service of the authorities in Tegucigalpa. He was appointed captain of one of the companies, by decision of the organizers of the militias. Thus began Morazán's military life and his struggle against conservative interests. Tegucigalpa could not maintain its opposition, however, and recognized its annexation to Mexico on August 22, 1822. The annexation to

20332-479: The battle like this: "At 12 midnight I undertook my march... but the rain didn't let me turn the day, and I was forced to wait in El Gualcho.... At 3 o'clock in the morning, the rain stopped, I put two companies of hunters on the hill overlooking to the left of the ranch.... At 5 o'clock I learned the position occupied by the enemy.... I could not go back under these circumstances.... It was no longer possible to continue

20553-531: The battle of San Pedro Perulapán . The general only needed 600 Salvadorans to defeat 2,000 men commanded by generals Francisco Ferrera , Nicolás de Espinosa, and Manuel Quijano. After their defeat, the humiliated generals and their troops fled to neighboring states, leaving behind over three hundred dead. On March 18, 1840 Morazán made a last attempt to restore the 'Union'. He gathered what he thought were enough Salvadoran forces to face Carrera, and with them marched to Guatemala. Once positioned, Morazán moved in from

20774-448: The besieged capital in the company of colonels Remigio Díaz and José Antonio Márquez, with the purpose of getting reinforcements in Tegucigalpa. Their plan was to return, and to liberate the state capital. Upon their return from Tegucigalpa, his men clashed with Milla's forces on the ranch 'La Maradiaga'. This confrontation, had no major consequences for either side; Milla remained in charge of Honduras, and Morazán left for Ojojona where he

20995-505: The capital's temporary relocation to Sonsonate as a threat. After nearly all of the Salvadoran state assembly resigned on 15 May 1834 due to rising tensions between San Martín and Morazán, San Martín announced his intention to resign; however, he retained his gubernatorial powers. In late May, Morazán invaded El Salvador to force San Martín out of office. Morazán captured San Salvador on 6 June, and San Martín resigned six days later. San Martín

21216-557: The challenge. He placed Diego Vigil as Honduras's new head of state and left for Texiguat, where he prepared the Salvadoran campaign. In April 1828, Morazán headed to El Salvador with a force of 1,400 men. This group of militants, known as the "Army Protector of the Law", was composed of small groups of Hondurans, Nicaraguans, and Salvadorans, who brought their own tools of war; others had the support of Indians who served as infantry. Some volunteers continued his liberal convictions, others worked for

21437-494: The church to reduce the number of priests and nuns in the country. Morazán ran for president in the 1830 federal election . Although he finished first, with 202 electoral votes, he did not win a majority. Similar to 1825, the Federal Congress was given the authority to elect the president; the liberal-dominated congress voted for Morazán, and he took office on 16 September. The Federal Congress elected liberal Mariano Prado as Morazán's vice president. In May 1829, Morazán sent

21658-463: The citizenry; moreover, they resented some of these reforms. This was the case with the Livingston Code , which changed the system of taxation, among other reforms. As for the 'Liberals', they were too busy fighting among themselves that even former liberal president, José Francisco Barrundia had joined Rafael Carrera. Morazán's defeat was so decisive that on March 27, he deposited the headquarters of

21879-455: The city after Corregidor general Mariano Paredes was called to Guatemala City to take over the presidential office. They declared on 26 August 1848 that Los Altos was an independent state once again. The new state had the support of Doroteo Vasconcelos ' régime in El Salvador and the rebel guerrilla army of Vicente and Serapio Cruz, who were sworn enemies of Carrera. The interim government

22100-514: The city of León, Nicaragua , where he met with the commander-in-chief of the Nicaraguan armed forces, José Anacleto "Cleto" Ordóñez . For Morazán the meeting paid off; the Nicaraguan leader provided him with weapons and a contingent of 135 men. These men were joined by Colonel Zepeda's troops from El Salvador, and some columns of Honduran volunteers in Choluteca , Honduras. When Justo Milla discovered

22321-433: The city. María Josefa was a widow who had first married the landowner Esteban Travieso, with whom she had 4 children. Upon his death, she inherited a fortune. Her fortune and the new circle of powerful and influential friends, that came out of this marriage only enhanced Morazán's own business, and thus his political and military projects. Outside his marriage, Francisco Morazán fathered a son, Francisco Morazán Moncada, who

22542-709: The civil war and Cornejo earlier in 1832. Prado imposed a tax to help raise funds for the state government. The tax was unpopular with Salvadorans – particularly indigenous Salvadorans, who saw it as a restoration of tribute to the white population that was abolished in 1811. San Salvador rebelled against Prado on 24 October, forcing his government to temporarily move to Cojutepeque. Similar rebellions against Prado broke out in Ahuachapán, Chalatenango , Izalco , San Miguel , Tejutla and Zacatecoluca , but were quickly suppressed by Salvadoran soldiers. On 14 February 1833, indigenous laborer Anastasio Aquino launched

22763-453: The collapse of the internal coffee trade, the railway fell 100 kilometres (60 mi) short of its goal. Estrada Cabrera decided, without consulting the legislature or judiciary, that striking a deal with the UFCO was the only way to finish the railway. Cabrera signed a contract with UFCO's Minor Cooper Keith in 1904 that gave the company tax exemptions, land grants, and control of all railroads on

22984-399: The colony eventually crumbled, Belgium continued to support Carrera in the mid-19th century, although Britain continued to be the main business and political partner to Carrera. Rafael Carrera was elected Guatemalan Governor in 1844. On 21 March 1847, Guatemala declared itself an independent republic and Carrera became its first president. During the first term as president, Carrera brought

23205-610: The command of Cayetano de la Cerda was defeated in Mixco by federal troops. Due to this defeat Morazán lifted the siege of the city and concentrated his forces in Antigua. A strong division of federal troops followed him from the capital under the command of Col. Pacheco, heading towards Sumpango and Tejar with the purpose of attacking Morazán in Antigua. But Pacheco spread his forces, leaving some of them in Sumpango . When he went into San Miguelito with

23426-498: The country as the Federated States of Central America ( Estados Federados del Centro de América ). The federal republic has also been referred to as the Federation of Central America ( Federación de Centro América ). The Spanish conquered Central America in the 16th century. The region was divided into several audiencias (jurisdictions) until, in 1542, it was organized into a single audiencia extending north to

23647-495: The country back from extreme conservatism to a traditional moderation; in 1848, the liberals were able to drive him from office, after the country had been in turmoil for several months. Carrera resigned of his own free will and left for México. The new liberal regime allied itself with the Aycinena family and swiftly passed a law ordering Carrera's execution if he returned to Guatemalan soil. The liberal criollos from Quetzaltenango were led by general Agustín Guzmán who occupied

23868-544: The country to war in an unsuccessful attempt to attain it, losing his life on the battlefield in 1885 against forces in El Salvador. Manuel Barillas was president from 16 March 1886 to 15 March 1892. Manuel Barillas was unique among liberal presidents of Guatemala between 1871 and 1944: he handed over power to his successor peacefully. When election time approached, he sent for the three Liberal candidates to ask them what their government plan would be. Happy with what he heard from general Reyna Barrios , Barillas made sure that

24089-493: The country's first president . Arce subsequently aligned himself with the country's conservatives due to liberal opposition to the concessions he granted conservatives to secure his election as president. The republic was politically unstable, experiencing civil wars, rebellions, and insurrections by liberals and conservatives. From 1827 to 1829, it fell into a civil war between conservatives who supported Arce and liberals who opposed him. Liberal politician Francisco Morazán led

24310-511: The country. Liberal rebels in El Salvador, led by Delgado and Arce, resisted two invasions by Filísola in 1822 and 1823. The former ended with an armistice and Mexican withdrawal; the latter resulted in Filísola overthrowing Delgado as the political leader of El Salvador (forcing Arce to flee to the United States) and capturing the city of San Salvador . General José Anacleto Ordóñez launched

24531-428: The different enactments varied. Some laws were intended to protect the state from the clergy ... others aimed to help the recoup the public treasure, and at the same time sweep away aristocratic privilege; while still other legislation – especially that of latter date – was enacted for the punishment of opposition to earlier acts and of intrigues against the government" when Francisco Morazán first came to power. Back then,

24752-513: The economics of the time, and therefore land management. From 1839 to 1871, the Consulado held a consistent monopolistic position in the regime. Guatemala's "Liberal Revolution" came in 1871 under the leadership of Justo Rufino Barrios , who worked to modernize the country, improve trade, and introduce new crops and manufacturing. During this era coffee became an important crop for Guatemala. Barrios had ambitions of reuniting Central America and took

24973-430: The election and retained the presidency; on 2 June, the federal government called for a new presidential election the following year. On 2 February 1835, the electoral college re-elected Morazán as Central America's president and José Gregorio Salazar as Morazán's vice president; they were sworn in on 14 February. On 30 May 1838, the Federal Congress convened and declared that each of the federal republic's five states

25194-509: The expanding cochineal economy, separated church from state, abolished tithes , proclaimed religious liberties, confiscated church property, suppressed religious orders, and removed education from church control, among other policies. All of this new approved legislation struck a blow at the heart of the Guatemalan oligarchy. But more importantly, it stripped the Spanish clergy of their privileges, and curtailed their power. According to historian Mary Wilhelmine Williams: "The immediate reasons for

25415-712: The federal congress and called a meeting to be held in Cojutepeque , on October 10, 1826, to elect an extraordinary congress. This unconstitutional move was rejected by the Honduran head of state , Dionisio de Herrera . But President Arce did not recognize Herrera's authority, claiming that Herrera's provisional mandate had expired, and that he was in power illegitimately. For this reason, the National Assembly had called for new elections in Honduras, but Herrera had ignored this decree and remained in power. For these reasons, but under

25636-434: The federal constitution, the government of the Federal Republic of Central America was "popular, representative, and federal". All elected officials were appointed with indirect elections ; voters chose electors who would vote on their behalf, rather than voting directly for candidates seeking public office. In presidential, vice-presidential and legislative elections, there were three rounds of voting; voters chose electors in

25857-473: The federal government still occupied the state's government buildings. After Juan Barrundia threatened to raise an army to "contain the despotism of a tyrant" (referring to Arce), the Federal Congress agreed to vacate the building used by the federal treasury and give it to the Guatemalan state government. In August 1825, in response to the arrival of 28 French warships in the Caribbean Sea , Arce called for

26078-453: The federal government was unable to repay its foreign loans, despite favorable terms. Central America's economic troubles were caused in part by the federal government inability to collect taxes and inadequate interstate infrastructure. Central American politicians, writers, and intellectuals have called for the reunification of Central America since the dissolution of the Federal Republic of Central America. There have been several attempts by

26299-555: The federal republic in February 1831 after recognizing Morazán as Central America's president and renouncing its declaration of secession. Morazán defeated July 1829 rebellions in Honduras and Nicaragua, and a rebellion in Honduras in January 1830. In May 1832, Prado resigned as vice president of Central America to become the governor of El Salvador; however, he was not popular among El Salvador's residents for helping Morazán overthrow Arce in

26520-407: The federal republic in January 1832. The federal government moved the national capital from Guatemala City to the Salvadoran city of Sonsonate on 5 February 1834, but Salvadoran politicians did not want it to move the capital to the city. Salvadoran Governor Joaquín de San Martín believed that Morazán's moving the federal capital to San Salvador was an attempt to remove him as governor, and saw

26741-564: The federal republic on 7 January 1832. On 24 February 1832, Raoul led federal soldiers into Soconusco and fought Arce's rebel army in the town of Escuintla . He defeated Arce's outnumbered army, and the victorious soldiers looted the town. After this defeat, Arce fled back to Mexico. Morazán invaded El Salvador in mid-March and captured San Salvador on 28 March, proclaiming himself the provisional governor of El Salvador on 3 April. Cornejo and 38 other Salvadoran political leaders were arrested and imprisoned in Guatemala for their involvement in

26962-413: The federal republic until the federal constitution was reformed. That month, Costa Rica proposed establishing a National Constituent Assembly to pass a constitutional reform; th assembly began on 20 April 1833. On 13 February 1835, the Federal Congress approved constitutional reforms drafted by the National Constituent Assembly. The reforms were minor, and only Nicaragua (which renounced its secession after

27183-408: The federal republic. In response to Barrundia's arrest, Lieutenant Governor Cirilo Flores  [ es ] moved the Guatemalan state government to Quetzaltenango and passed several anti-clerical laws. An indigenous mob, spurred by conservatives and the church, attacked and killed Cirilo on 13 October for passing the laws. Arce invaded Quetzaltenango and defeated those who continued to support

27404-445: The federal soldiers' commander, arguing that the federal government needed a state governor's permission to move soldiers within a state. When Arce sought to formally condemn Juan Barrundia, liberal Guatemalan senators boycotted the meeting and the Senate failed to reach the quorum necessary to condemn Barrundia. Despite Senate inaction, Arce had Barrundia arrested and removed from office on 6 September for attempting to conspire against

27625-439: The fields inherited by Mr Eusebio. In addition, young José Francisco also engaged in helping the town's mayor with his clerk duties. In 1813 the family moved back to Tegucigalpa. Once there, Mr. Eusebio placed his son under the tutorship of Leon Vasquez who taught him civil law , criminal procedure and Notaries . Francisco now had access to a library where he learned French, which in turn, allowed him to familiarize himself with

27846-418: The first " Exposición Centroamericana " ("Central American Fair") in 1897. During his second term, Barrios printed bonds to fund his ambitious plans, fueling monetary inflation and the rise of popular opposition to his regime. His administration also worked on improving the roads, installing national and international telegraphs and introducing electricity to Guatemala City. Completing a transoceanic railway

28067-423: The first four years of Francisco Morazán's presidency had ended. According to the constitution, elections needed to be held in order to elect the next president of the Republic. Moderate, José Cecilio del Valle ran against the incumbent president; for this reason, General Francisco Morazán deposited the presidency on General Gregorio Salazar, so the federal congress could verify the fairness of the election. When all

28288-529: The first presidency, from 1844 to 1848, he brought the country back from excessive conservatism to a moderate regime, and – with the advice of Juan José de Aycinena y Piñol and Pedro de Aycinena – restored relations with the Church in Rome with a Concordat ratified in 1854. After Carrera returned from exile in 1849 the president of El Salvador, Doroteo Vasconcelos , granted asylum to the Guatemalan liberals, who harassed

28509-459: The first round, electors voted for a further set of electors in the second round, and those electors voted for candidates seeking public office in the third round. Voting was compulsory. The federal republic's government was divided into legislative, executive and judicial branches, with no term limits. The Federal Congress was its bicameral legislative branch. The Chamber of Deputies (the lower house) consisted of 41 deputies allocated across

28730-493: The following day, ending the civil war. After capturing Guatemala City in April 1828, Beltranena was removed from the presidency; Morazán became the de facto president of Central America, but did not officially assume office. On 22 June 1829, Morazán appointed a new Federal Congress. It elected José Francisco Barrundia, the Senate's senior member, as Central America's interim president three days later. At Morazán's instruction,

28951-417: The fortifications of the Guatemalan capital, in place since the battle of Villa Nueva. Taking advantage of Salazar's good faith and Ferrera's weapons, Carrera took Guatemala City by surprise on 13 April 1839; Salazar, Mariano Gálvez and Barrundia fled before the arrival of Carrera's militiamen. Salazar, in his nightshirt, vaulted roofs of neighboring houses and sought refuge, reaching the border disguised as

29172-404: The fresh and rested troops coming from El Salvador, at last moment the troop from El Salvador reached the hill and attacked the rear forces from Justo Milla, driving Milla's forces to the front shock army from Morazan. Milla's federal troops were crushed by Morazán's men. Milla and few of his officers survived and fled the scene of battle. Following this victory, Morazán marched to Comayagua where he

29393-473: The generals fought under his command, and waited—for a long time—until Carrera's death before beginning their revolt against the tamer Cerna. During Cerna's presidency, liberal party members were prosecuted and sent into exile; among them, those who started the Liberal Revolution of 1871. In 1871, the merchants guild, Consulado de Comercio, lost their exclusive court privilege. They had major effects on

29614-462: The guise of protecting Copán's tobacco plantations owned by the federal government, Arce decided to oust Herrera. This mission was entrusted to colonel Justo Milla, who on April 9, 1827, commanded 200 men and seized Comayagua (the state capital) capturing Herrera and sending him to a Guatemalan prison. While Milla was busy consolidating power in Comayagua, Morazán escaped from the federal troops. He left

29835-498: The hands of Rafael Carrera and other Central American leaders. Outraged by this and by the chain of insults and slander against him by some members of the press, he wrote and published his famous 'Manifest of David' dated July 16, 1841. While he was still in David, Morazán also received calls from his liberal colleagues in Costa Rica. Braulio Carrillo , governor of that state, had restricted individual liberties, placed limits on freedom of

30056-463: The head of the Federal Troops marched on to El Salvador , where they defeated Cornejo's State Army on March 14. On the 28th of the same month, Morazán had occupied San Salvador. From that point forward, rumors about the need to reform the constitution began. In 1834 at the request of Governor, Mariano Galvez, the General moved the capital city to Sonsonate and later to San Salvador. The same year,

30277-401: The high degree of interaction and cultural diffusion that characterized the region. Advances such as writing, epigraphy , and the calendar did not originate with the Maya; however, their civilization fully developed them. Maya influence can be detected from Honduras , Belize , Guatemala, and Northern El Salvador to as far north as central Mexico, more than 1,000 km (620 mi) from

30498-523: The invasion and were in Mataquescuintla – swore they would never forgive Morazán even in his grave; they felt it impossible to respect anyone who would not avenge family members. After sending several envoys, whom Carrera would not receive – and especially not Barrundia whom Carrera did not want to murder in cold blood – Morazán began a scorched-earth offensive, destroying villages in his path and stripping them of assets. The Carrera forces had to hide in

30719-502: The late 20th century by discoveries of monumental architecture from that period, such as the Mirador Basin cities of Nakbé , Xulnal, El Tintal , Wakná and El Mirador . The Classic period of Mesoamerican civilization corresponds to the height of the Maya civilization . It is represented by countless sites throughout Guatemala, although the largest concentration is in Petén . This period

30940-490: The latter would help Guzmán defeat his enemy and also build a port on the Pacific Ocean. Guzmán was sure of victory this time, but his plan evaporated when in his absence Carrera and his native allies occupied Quetzaltenango; Carrera appointed Ignacio Yrigoyen as Corregidor and convinced him that he should work with the K'iche', Q'anjobal and Mam leaders to keep the region under control. On his way out, Yrigoyen murmured to

31161-502: The legislature convened for the election of President Estrada Cabrera, who triumphed thanks to the large number of soldiers and policemen who went to vote in civilian clothes and to the large number of illiterate family that they brought with them to the polls. One of Estrada Cabrera's most famous and most bitter legacies was allowing the entry of the United Fruit Company (UFCO) into the Guatemalan economic and political arena. As

31382-477: The liberal forces of Honduran leader Francisco Morazán and Guatemalan José Francisco Barrundia invaded Guatemala and reached San Sur, where they executed Chúa Alvarez, father-in-law of Rafael Carrera , then a military commander and later the first president of Guatemala. The liberal forces impaled Alvarez's head on a pike as a warning to followers of the Guatemalan caudillo . Carrera and his wife Petrona – who had come to confront Morazán as soon as they learned of

31603-415: The liberals to victory, and was elected president in 1830. The republic descended into a second civil war from 1838 to 1840, by the end of which the states of Central America declared independence and the federal republic ceased to exist. Historians have attributed the country's political instability to its federal system of government and its economic struggles. Agricultural exports were insufficient and

31824-399: The loyalty of a few generals. While the United States threatened intervention if he was removed through revolution, a bipartisan coalition came together to remove him from the presidency. He was removed from office after the national assembly charged that he was mentally incompetent, and appointed Carlos Herrera in his place on 8 April 1920. Guatemala joined with El Salvador and Honduras in

32045-481: The march, without serious danger, a vast plain and the very presence of the enemy. Less I could defend myself in the ranch, placed under a height of more than 200 feet.... It was therefore necessary to accept the battle with all the advantages reached by the enemy.... I ordered the hunters to advance over the enemy to stop their movement.... While the force rose by a slope and narrow path, fire broke out.... But 175 inexperienced soldiers made impotent for quarter of an hour,

32266-467: The military, and Arce expelled Raoul from the country. Eventually, Arce and the Federal Congress compromised; the congress approved the raising of 4,000 soldiers, and Raoul oversaw recruitment. Despite a minor rebellion in Costa Rica led by José Zamora, who called himself a "vassal of the king of Spain", the feared European invasion did not take place. As the liberals tried to circumvent his role as commander-in-chief, Arce refused to implement laws passed by

32487-487: The mountains. Believing Carrera totally defeated, Morazán and Barrundia marched to Guatemala City , and were welcomed as saviors by state governor Pedro Valenzuela and members of the conservative Aycinena clan  [ es ] , who proposed to sponsor one of the liberal battalions, while Valenzuela and Barrundia gave Morazán all the Guatemalan resources needed to solve any financial problem he had. The criollos of both parties celebrated until dawn that they finally had

32708-441: The next morning, Morazán was running out of ammunition. He then ordered an increase in fire from three corners of the plaza, in order to attract attention, while he himself slipped out through the fourth corner of the plaza with a small escort, to escape back to El Salvador. This time, the general did not have the support he needed from the common people, as he had had in 1830. The 'Liberal reforms' had not produced enough results for

32929-423: The opening of a Catholic school in the village of San Francisco. At the age of twelve, José Francisco was sent there to learn to write and read, and to receive instruction in mathematics and drawing. The teachings he received were through Friar Santiago Gabrielino, appointed religious instructor to the Guatemalan priest José Antonio Murga. In 1808 Francisco Morazán and his family moved to Morocelí where they worked

33150-680: The opportunity to shoot Carrera, but did not, because he needed the support of the Guatemalan peasants to counter the attacks of Francisco Ferrera in El Salvador . Instead, Morazán left Carrera in charge of a small fort in Mita, without any weapons. Knowing that Morazán was going to attack El Salvador, Francisco Ferrera gave arms and ammunition to Carrera and convinced him to attack Guatemala City. Meanwhile, despite insistent advice to definitively crush Carrera and his forces, Salazar tried to negotiate with him diplomatically; he even went as far as to show that he neither feared nor distrusted Carrera by removing

33371-545: The other states. After debating the proposals, the Liberal majority prevailed, and the federalist system was adopted. On November 22, 1824, under the motto: "God, Union, Liberty", the new constitution was approved, and the nation was renamed the Federal Republic of Central America, appointing Manuel José Arce (1825–1829) as the first president. In 1826, the Federal Government headed by Manuel José Arce attempted to dissolve

33592-527: The population (4.6 million) face food insecurity . Other extant major issues include poverty, crime, corruption, drug trafficking, and civil instability. With an estimated population of around 17.6 million, Guatemala is the most populous country in Central America, the 4th most populous country in North America and the 11th most populous country in the Americas . Its capital and largest city, Guatemala City ,

33813-429: The power to choose his successor. He held that position until he died on 14 April 1865. While he pursued some measures to set up a foundation for economic prosperity to please the conservative landowners, military challenges at home and a three-year war with Honduras, El Salvador, and Nicaragua dominated his presidency. His rivalry with Gerardo Barrios, President of El Salvador, resulted in open war in 1863. At Coatepeque

34034-455: The presence of Morazán in southern Honduras, he quickly moved his troops to Tegucigalpa, where he established his headquarters, meanwhile Morazán headed for Sabanagrande. At 9am on November 11, Morazán faced General Milla in the memorable battle of 'La Trinidad' . After five hours of intense fighting in a hill used by the Justo Milla forces, Morazan disguised a plan for attack at the flanks using

34255-611: The presidency. There are two different descriptions of how Cabrera was able to become president. The first states that Cabrera entered the cabinet meeting "with pistol drawn" to assert his entitlement to the presidency, while the second states that he showed up unarmed to the meeting and demanded the presidency by virtue of being the designated successor. The first civilian Guatemalan head of state in over 50 years, Estrada Cabrera overcame resistance to his regime by August 1898 and called for elections in September, which he won handily. In 1898

34476-525: The president to veto laws passed by the Federal Congress, abolishing the electoral college and implementing direct elections, and restricting eligibility to hold office to landowners. The arrest of these conservatives after Morazán's military victory in El Salvador in 1832 led political leaders across the federal republic to call for political reforms. Nicaragua declared independence on 3 December 1832, citing fears of federal authoritarianism after Morazán's invasion of El Salvador, and said that it would not rejoin

34697-402: The president, it could also review Supreme Court rulings. One-third of the Senate's members were elected every year. The Council of Deputies could override a Senate legislative veto with a two-thirds majority, or a three-fourths majority for tax legislation. From 1824 to 1838, there were a total of 11 congressional terms. The president led the executive branch. Elected to a four-year term, he

34918-562: The press, and derogated the Political Constitution of 1825. He replaced it with a new constitutional charter, denominated "Law of Bases and Guarantees", where he declared himself 'Chief of State for Life'. Furthermore, Carrillo declared Costa Rica a free and independent state. However, Morazán wanted to stay away from Central America affairs, and travelled to Peru. Once in Lima, he received the invitation of Mariscal Agustín Gamarra to command

35139-443: The previous government of President Arce, Morazán ran the country dictatorially, until Barrundia took over on June 25, 1829. Francisco Morazán won the popular vote of the 1830 presidential election, against the conservative challenger José del Valle . He was inaugurated on September 16. In his inaugural speech he declared: "The sovereign people send me, to place myself, in the most dangerous of their destinies. I must obey and fulfill,

35360-560: The provinces of Central America (excluding Panama, which was then part of Colombia), which had not initially approved becoming part of the Mexican Empire but joined the Empire shortly after their independence. This region was formally a part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain throughout the colonial period, but as a practical matter had been administered separately. It was not until 1825 that Guatemala created its own flag. In 1838

35581-528: The rebellion were defeated by the Liberation Army in San Vicente and Zacatecoluca, but Aquino's army was defeated in battle by Morazán in San Vicente on 28 February. This ended the rebellion; Aquino was captured in April and executed on 24 July, with his body publicly displayed in San Vicente. In 1831, Salvadoran conservatives called for political reforms in the federal government. Reforms included allowing

35802-554: The rebellion. Honduran soldiers under Colonel Francisco Ferrera began a siege of Omoa in March, recaptured Trujillo in April, and recaptured Opoteca in May. Reaching the Central American coast, Guzmán's Spanish reinforcements were arrested by Honduran soldiers. He continued to resist federal forces in Omoa until 12 September, when his soldiers mutinied and turned him over to federal custody. This ended

36023-440: The rebellion; Guzmán was executed the following day, and Domínguez (captured by federal forces during the fall of Opoteca) was executed on 14 September. On 1 April 1829, Costa Rica seceded from the Federal Republic of Central America "without separating itself" (" sin separarse ") from the federal republic. The Costa Rican government justified its secession by saying that the federal government had ceased to exist. It rejoined

36244-457: The reforms were completed) and Costa Rica ratified them. Morazán and the Federal Congress wanted to move the national capital from Guatemala City beginning in 1830, since they wanted the capital in a better defensive position and the federal government felt that the city's residents hated it due to the civil war. Morazán wanted to move the capital to San Salvador, but conservative Salvadoran political leaders resisted his proposal and seceded from

36465-506: The region until a permanent government could be established. Most government administrators, including Brigadier General Gabino Gaínza (the final captain general of Guatemala), retained their positions. After independence, Central American leaders were ideologically divided about whether to remain independent or to join the First Mexican Empire; monarchists supported annexation, opposed by republicans and nationalists. Mexican Regent (and later Mexican Emperor ) Agustín de Iturbide asked

36686-411: The remnants of Cirilo's government on 28 October. In October 1826, Arce called for a special election to install a new Guatemalan government; the conservatives won, and Mariano Aycinena became governor of Guatemala on 1 March 1827. After the election, many liberals fled Guatemala for El Salvador in search of assistance from its liberals to regain power. They spread rumors that Arce was controlled by

36907-402: The repeated attacks by the bulk of the enemy. The enthusiasm that produced in all the soldiers the heroism of these brave Hondurans, exceeded the number of the enemy. When the action became general on both sides, our right wing was forced to back down. And occupied the light artillery that supported it. But the reserve working on that side, re-established our line, recovered the artillery and ended

37128-553: The republic's successor states during the 19th and 20th centuries to reunify Central America through diplomatic and military means, but none succeeded in uniting all five former members for more than one year. All five former members of the Federal Republic of Central America are members of the Central American Integration System (SICA), an economic and political organization that promotes regional development. The country's initial name, adopted at independence from

37349-452: The schooner Izalco accompanied by 30 of his closest friends and war veterans. He stopped in Costa Rica where he sought and obtained political asylum for most of his companions. Seven continued on the journey to South America with him. Morazán landed at Chiriquí Province , then moved on to David, Chiriquí where his family awaited him. While in David, Morazán was informed by his friends of the fierce persecutions suffered by his supporters at

37570-475: The second triumvirate sent Colonel Manuel Arzú to attempt to mediate peace between the liberals and conservatives. The mediation failed, and Arce led a federal invasion of Nicaragua on 22 January 1825 to end the civil conflict. His invading force got the liberals and conservatives to sign an armistice without engaging in combat. Arce dissolved both rival governments, and their leaders were exiled from Nicaragua. The federal republic's first presidential election

37791-700: The segregated native communities started developing a new Indian identity under Carrera's leadership. In the meantime, in the eastern part of Guatemala, the Jalapa region became increasingly dangerous; former president Mariano Rivera Paz and rebel leader Vicente Cruz were both murdered there after trying to take over the Corregidor office in 1849. When Carrera arrived to Chiantla in Huehuetenango , he received two altenses emissaries who told him that their soldiers were not going to fight his forces because that would lead to

38012-780: The situation, and forced the triumvirate to resign on 6 October. They installed a second, less-liberal triumvirate  [ es ] consisting of Arce, José Cecilio del Valle , and Tomás O'Horan . Since Arce and Valle were outside the country when the second triumvirate was formed, José Santiago Milla and Villacorta were substitutes. Valle and Arce did not sit on the triumvirate until February and March 1824, respectively. The second triumvirate ordered Rivas to march 150 soldiers into Guatemala City and, soon afterwards, Ariza fled into exile in Mexico. The National Constituent Assembly then returned to Guatemala City. The Salvadoran government ordered Rivas to remain near Guatemala City and verify that

38233-438: The soldiers from Quetzaltenango returned home. Liberals and conservatives had been fighting for control of Nicaragua since Ordóñez launched his rebellion against the pro-Mexico Nicaraguan government in 1823. The liberals had control of León (the liberal capital) and Granada , and the conservatives controlled Managua (the conservative capital), Rivas and Chinandega . Clashes resulted in hundreds of deaths. In October 1824,

38454-476: The solemn oath that I have just rendered. I offer, to uphold the Federal Constitution, which I defended as a soldier and as a citizen." With Morazán's as president and governors sponsored by him, the liberals had consolidated power. The General was now in position to advance his liberal reforms. Through them, he attempted to dismantle what he felt were archaic Spanish institutions, and to give to his people

38675-472: The south, striking towards the capital. Carrera pulled most of his own force out of the capital, leaving only a small, very visible garrison inside. Morazán jumped in, slaughtered much of the bait, then found himself assaulted from all directions by Carrera's main force of about 5,000 men. The battle became notorious for its savagery and revealed the ruthless side of Carrera. whose Indians sang Salve Regina, and shouted "Long Live Carrera!", "Death to Morazán!" By

38896-464: The state militias had more soldiers and were better funded and equipped. During the 1830s, the federal army's military supremacy over the state militias relied on the discipline of its soldiers and public perception that a caudillo -like figure led the federal army. In 1836, Morazán said that the federal army had been reduced to "a handful of ancient veterans that have survived the greatest dangers" (" un puñado de antiguos veteranos que han sobrevivido

39117-470: The state, but he could never catch the Indian leader, as he simply retreated to the mountains and came back to re-occupy the key positions as soon as Morazán's troops left. By 1838 Morazán was presiding over a dying institution. Galvez had relinquished power, Congress tried to restore some life to the Federal Government by transferring control of their custom revenues. But Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica opposed this move and used it as an opportunity to leave

39338-579: The states except Guatemala to convene their own extraordinary congress in Ahuachapán . Ultimately, neither congress convened. Prado ordered Salvadoran soldiers to the El Salvador–Guatemala border in late December 1826 to prepare to overthrow Arce. Aycinena declared leading Guatemalan liberals, including Molina Mazariegos and Rivera Cabezas, as outlaws in Guatemala in early March 1827. Prado ordered his soldiers to invade Guatemala in response, beginning

39559-538: The states, with one deputy per 30,000 people. Each deputy was accompanied by a supplement deputy. Half of the Chamber of Deputies' members were elected annually. The Senate (the upper house) consisted of two senators from each state, for a total of ten senators. The Senate, which first met on 24 April 1825, acted as a de facto executive council that approved legislation passed by the Council of Deputies. An advisory body to

39780-722: The status of a state. Although Guatemala claimed Belize as part of its territory, coastal Belize was occupied by the British . Guatemala and Mexico claimed sovereignty over Soconusco, but neither had full control of the region. Portions of Soconusco were effectively independent, but its leaders preferred union with Central America. Central America bordered the Mosquito Coast on the Caribbean, which it claimed as part of its territory. The Federal Republic of Central America covered approximately 200,000 square miles (520,000 km ) and spanned about 900 miles (1,400 km) north to south between

40001-462: The union. The Federation was dead. On February 1, 1839, Morazán had completed his second constitutional term as president, congress had dissolved and there was no legal basis to name his successor. In the end a failure at compromise, the power of the church, bitter infighting between conservatives and liberals, and the quest for personal glory were the main reasons for the downfall of the 'Federation'. After Francisco Morazán's second term as President of

40222-480: The views of the people, and thus explore their willingness to go forward with the proposal. The question of annexation to Mexico caused divisions within each of the provinces as some cities were in favor and others against. In Honduras, Comayagua , through its Governor José Tinoco de Contreras, supported the idea of the annexation. But Tegucigalpa , the second most important city of the province, strongly opposed it. Tinoco then decided to take repressive actions against

40443-617: The votes of conservative senators by promising to allow the Federal Congress to decide if a Catholic archdiocese would be created in El Salvador; the conservatives opposed the archdiocese because Delgado, a liberal symbol of Salvadoran independence, would have become archbishop. The liberals considered Arce's compromise with the conservatives as betraying his liberal positions. Liberals Molina Mazariegos and Mariano Gálvez refused to accept cabinet appointments as secretary of relations and secretary of finance, respectively, due to this perceived betrayal. Arce appointed conservatives to his cabinet as

40664-470: The votes were counted, José del Valle had defeated Francisco Morazán. The Federal elections showed strong popular opposition to liberal reforms. Valle, however, died before taking office. Most historians agree that had he lived, he might have brought conciliation and harmony between the opposing forces (Liberals and Conservatives). On June 2, the Federal Congress called for new elections, which were won by Francisco Morazán. On February 14, 1835, General Morazán,

40885-524: The works of Montesquieu , the social contract of Jean-Jacques Rousseau , the French Revolution , the history of Europe, as well as the biographies of the Greek and Roman leaders. This dedication and spirit of improvement took Francisco to occasionally excel in his hometown, where he even represented the interest of some people before the colonial courts. Francisco Morazán married María Josefa Lastiri in

41106-410: Was annexed by the First Mexican Empire in January 1822 before regaining its independence and forming a federal republic in 1823. The Federal Republic of Central America adopted its constitution , based on that of the federal government of the United States , in November 1824. It held its first presidential election in April 1825 , during which liberal politician Manuel José Arce was elected as

41327-492: Was president of Guatemala from 24 May 1865 to 29 June 1871. Liberal author Alfonso Enrique Barrientos  [ es ] , described Marshall Cerna's government in the following manner: A conservative and archaic government, badly organized and with worse intentions, was in charge of the country, centralizing all powers in Vicente Cerna, ambitious military man, who not happy with the general rank, had promoted himself to

41548-458: Was a main objective of his government, with a goal to attract international investors at a time when the Panama Canal was not yet built. After the assassination of general José María Reina Barrios on 8 February 1898, the Guatemalan cabinet called an emergency meeting to appoint a new successor, but declined to invite Estrada Cabrera to the meeting, even though he was the designated successor to

41769-635: Was along the Lempa River with 500 men in pursuit of Morazán, when he learned that his forces had capitulated in Mejicanos. In the meantime, Morazán returned to El Salvador with a respectable army. Arzu feigning illness returned to Guatemala, leaving his forces under the command of lieutenant colonel Antonio de Aycinena. The colonel and his troops then marched towards Honduran territory, when they were intercepted by Morazán's men in San Antonio. On October 9 Aycinena

41990-447: Was an audiencia , a captaincy-general ( Capitanía General de Guatemala ) of Spain, and a part of New Spain (Mexico). The first capital, Villa de Santiago de Guatemala (now known as Tecpan Guatemala ), was founded on 25 July 1524 near Iximché , the Kaqchikel capital city. The capital was moved to Ciudad Vieja on 22 November 1527, as a result of a Kaqchikel attack on Villa de Santiago de Guatemala. Owing to its strategic location on

42211-426: Was an executive council which advised the state governor. All the states drafted and ratified their constitutions by April 1826. The federal constitution recognized each state government as "free and independent" (" libre e independiente "), and the state governments could administer internal affairs not mandated for the federal government by the federal constitution. Guatemala Guatemala , officially

42432-461: Was baptized at San Miguel Arcángel church, by father Juan Francisco Márquez. Francisco Morazán was, for the most part, a self-educated man. According to historian Ramon Rosa; he "had the misfortune of being born ... in that sad era of isolation and total darkness in which Honduras lacked schools ... therefore Morazan had to learn in private schools with an awful organization and sustained by parents' contributions." In 1804, his parents took advantage of

42653-448: Was born on October 3, 1792, in Tegucigalpa (then in the Captaincy General of Guatemala , now the capital of Honduras ) during the waning years of Spanish colonial rule to Eusebio Morazán Alemán and Guadalupe Quesada Borjas, both members of an upper-class Creole family dedicated to trade and agriculture. His grandparents were Juan Bautista Morazán (a Corsican immigrant) and María Borjas Alvarenga. Thirteen days after his birth Morazán

42874-743: Was born on October 4, 1827, to Francisca Moncada, daughter of a well-known Nicaraguan politician named Liberato Moncada. Francisco Morazán Junior lived in the Morazán-Lastiri home and accompanied his father in Guatemala , El Salvador, Panama , Peru and finally in Costa Rica , where his father was executed. After the death of his father, Francisco Morazán Moncada settled in Chinandega , Nicaragua where he devoted himself to farming. He died in 1904 at age 77. Morazán also had an adoptive son named José Antonio Ruiz. He

43095-463: Was captured and transferred to Tegucigalpa by order of Major Ramón Anguiano. But Francisco Morazán managed to escape from his captors and left for La Unión , El Salvador, with the intention of emigrating to Mexico. In La Unión, he met Mariano Vidaurre, a special Salvadoran envoy to the government of Nicaragua . Vidaurre convinced him that, in that country, he could find the military support he needed to expel Milla from Honduran territory. He arrived in

43316-502: Was declared Honduras' new Chief of State. Following his victory at 'La Trinidad', Morazán emerged as the leader of the liberal movement and his military skills became known throughout Central America. For these reasons, Morazán received calls for help from liberals in El Salvador. As in Honduras, Salvadorans opposed the new congressmen and other government officials elected by the decree issued on October 10, 1826. They demanded their restitution, but President Manuel Arce argued that this move

43537-456: Was followed by a second conservative invasion force, led by Colonel Vicente Domínguez  [ es ] , that entered Central America from British Honduras and supported Guzmán's rebellion and invaded inland Honduras . The Honduran cities of Opoteca and Trujillo also declared themselves in a state of rebellion. José María Cornejo , the conservative governor of El Salvador, supported Arce's invasion and declared El Salvador's secession from

43758-460: Was forced to surrender. With the capitulation of San Antonio, El Salvador was finally free of federal troops. On October 23, Morazán triumphantly entered the plaza of San Salvador . A few days later, he marched on Ahuachapán , to organize the army with which he intended to invade Guatemala. In Ahuachapán Morazán made every effort to organize a large army. He asked the government of El Salvador to provide 4,000 men, but had to settle for 2,000. When he

43979-449: Was free to establish any form of republican government. Nicaragua seceded from the Federal Republic of Central America on 30 April 1838. Honduras did the same on 26 October, followed by Costa Rica on 15 November. On 2 February 1839, all of Central America's federally-elected government officials (including Morazán) left office. They had no successors, since no federal election was held. On 17 April, Guatemalan President Rafael Carrera issued

44200-405: Was held on 21 April 1825. Arce was the liberals' candidate, and Valle the conservatives' choice. During the election, 41 of the 82 electors voted for Valle; 34 voted for Arce, four voted for other candidates, and three did not vote due to complications in receiving votes from their electoral districts. No candidate received a majority; the constitution required a majority, and the Federal Congress

44421-499: Was in position to act in early 1829, he sent a division commanded by Juan Prem to enter Guatemalan territory and to take control of Chiquimula. The order was carried out by Prem in spite of the resistance offered by the enemy. Shortly after, Morazán placed a small force near Guatemala City under the command of Col. Gutierrez to force the enemy out of their trenches and to cause the defection of their troops. Col. Dominguez had left from Guatemala City with 600 infantrymen to attack Prem but he

44642-577: Was in the United States when the triumvirate was established, Antonio Rivera Cabezas was appointed as his substitute. The three rotated executive power on a monthly basis. Initially, the National Constituent Assembly was composed of delegates from El Salvador and Guatemala; Costa Rica, Honduras, and Nicaragua did not send their delegates until October 1823, refusing to send them until Mexican soldiers withdrew from Central America. The National Constituent Assembly consisted of 64 delegates, distributed across Central America. The National Constituent Assembly

44863-405: Was informed about Gutierrez's small force. He changed his course of action and went after Gutierrez. This opportunity was seized by Prem who then moved from Zacapa and on to Dominguez's forces, defeating them on January 15, 1829. Prem then was ordered to march with 1400 men under his command to occupy the post of San José, near the capital city. Meanwhile, the people of Antigua organized against

45084-426: Was led by Guzmán himself and had Florencio Molina and the priest Fernando Davila as his Cabinet members. On 5 September 1848, the criollos altenses chose a formal government led by Fernando Antonio Martínez. In the meantime, Carrera decided to return to Guatemala and did so, entering at Huehuetenango , where he met with native leaders and told them that they must remain united to prevail; the leaders agreed and slowly

45305-674: Was left full of dead bodies, prisoners and weapons, and Morazán moved on to recover his former positions in Pinula and Aceytuno, and to put Guatemala City under siege again. General Verveer, plenipotentiary minister of the king of the Netherlands to the Central America Federation, attempted to mediate between the Government under siege and Morazán, but they could not reach an agreement. Military operations continued, with great success for

45526-521: Was let down from the roof of one of the churches, in the midst of a vast congregation of Indians, which was supposed to come from the Virgin Mary, commissioning Carrera to lead a revolt against the government. Under cries of "Long live religion!", and "Death to foreigners!", Carrera and his forces initiated a war against the government. Encouraged by these events the conservatives joined in. The liberal government called General Morazán for help. Francisco Morazán repeatedly defeated Carrera's forces and pacified

45747-448: Was marked by bitter infighting between liberals and conservatives. But through his military skills, Morazán was able to keep a firm grip on power until 1837, when the Federal Republic became irrevocably fractured. This was exploited by the conservative leaders, who rallied around the leadership of Rafael Carrera and in order to protect their own interests, ended up dividing Central America into five nations. José Francisco Morazán Quesada

45968-419: Was necessary to re-establish the constitutional order. El Salvador responded by attempting to take-over the federal government through military force. President Arce, however, defeated the Salvadoran army in Arrazola on March 23, 1828. He then ordered 2,000 federal troops under the command of General Manuel de Arzu to occupy El Salvador. This event marked the beginning of the civil war. Francisco Morazán accepted

46189-542: Was not formally established as a political entity until 1829. Although the president was commander-in-chief of the federal army, only the Federal Congress had the authority to raise and maintain armies and to declare war and peace. In July 1823, the Central American federal army had 10,000 soldiers. The legislature increased the size of the federal army to 11,800 soldiers in December of that year, organized into two light battalions, two squadrons, and one artillery brigade. The federal army established defensive garrisons along

46410-578: Was overthrown in 1808 by the French emperor Napoleon , who installed his brother Joseph as king of Spain . Spain's colonies in the Americas (including the Captaincy General of Guatemala) did not recognize Joseph as the legitimate king and established provisional governments, known as juntas , which continued to recognize Ferdinand as king. Although the Central American colonial government remained loyal to Ferdinand, some criollo leaders in Central America wanted greater autonomy. In November 1811, José Matías Delgado and Manuel José Arce launched

46631-557: Was relatively weak in comparison with other contemporary Latin American presidents, particularly because he could not veto or pocket veto legislation, could not send legislation back to the Federal Congress for reconsideration, and was required to enact all laws passed by the Federal Congress within fifteen days. The authors of the federal constitution sought to oppose a caudillo -like president with dictatorial powers by implementing checks on presidential power to ensure legislative supremacy. Rodrigo Facio Brenes  [ es ] ,

46852-411: Was relocated to San Salvador . The Federal Republic of Central America was bordered on the north by Mexico , on the south by Gran Colombia and on its eastern coastline by the Mosquito Coast and British Honduras , both claimed by the federal republic. After Central America (then known as the Captaincy General of Guatemala ) declared its independence from the Spanish Empire in September 1821, it

47073-446: Was strongly allied to the power of regular clergy of the Catholic Church , who were then among the largest landowners in Guatemala. The tight relationship between church and state had been ratified by the Concordat of 1852 , which was the law until Cerna was deposed in 1871. Even liberal generals like Serapio Cruz  [ es ] realized that Rafael Carrera's political and military presence made him practically invincible. Thus

47294-439: Was succeeded as provisional governor by Carlos Salazar (José Gregorio Salazar's brother), and by José Gregorio Salazar on 13 July. As provisional governor, José Gregorio Salazar defeated a rebellion launched by San Martín which sought to restore him to power. San Salvador became the federal capital in June 1834 to symbolize the liberal victory over the conservatives in the 1827–1829 civil war. The federal government established

47515-423: Was sworn as president for a second term. In February 1837 there occurred in Central America a series of events that ignited a revolution that culminated with the fall of the Federation. An epidemic of cholera scourged Guatemala leaving approximately 1000 people dead and 3000 infected with the bacteria. The epidemic struck especially the poor and the Indians in the highlands of the state. At the time when it appeared,

47736-537: Was tasked with electing the president instead. The congress voted 22–5 to elect Arce president. Valle was entitled to become vice president since he was the runner-up in the election, but refused to accept the position; so did liberal José Francisco Barrundia . Ultimately, the conservative Mariano Beltranena became Arce's vice president. Arce and Beltranena took office on 29 April. Arce's electoral victory angered conservatives who backed Valle, and alienated liberals (particularly Guatemalan liberals) because he had won

47957-410: Was the de facto government of Central America until the constitution was adopted. Its two political factions were the liberals and the conservatives ; the liberals supported federalism , and the conservatives supported centralism . The National Constituent Assembly drafted the constitution on 12 June 1824, and published it on 4 July. The constitution was inspired by the federal government of

48178-419: Was the commander-in-chief of the Federal Army. The president had a cabinet of three secretaries (ministers): the secretary of relations, the secretary of war, and the secretary of the treasury. Article 111 of the federal constitution allowed the president to seek consecutive re-election once, after which he must leave office for at least one term before being eligible for re-election a second time. The president

48399-631: Was the legitimate son of Eusebio Ruiz and the Guatemalan lady Rita Zelayandía, who handed her son to General Morazán when he was 14 years old. José Antonio accompanied his adoptive father on military actions and became a brigadier general. He died in Tegucigalpa in 1883. After the Captaincy General of Guatemala , which included Honduras, became independent from Spain (on September 15, 1821) Francisco Morazán began to take an active part in politics and public administration. He worked at Tegucigalpa's City Hall as deputy mayor and public defender in civil and criminal court cases. Such activities allowed him to acquire

48620-436: Was then raised by the frantic Indians against their supposed murderers. As the cholera continued to spread the Indians took to arms, killed whites and liberals, burned their houses, and prepared to confront Galvez's government. The governor sent an army to try to stop the revolt. But the army's measures were so repressive, that it only made matters worse. By June Santa Rosa erupted, and from the village of Mataquescuintla emerged

48841-491: Was to destroy the Catholic Church; Morazán refuted the Guatemalan government's warning, saying that his Christian "Protector Allied Army of the Law" (" Ejército Aliado Protector de la Ley ") did not seek to destroy the church and sought only to liberate Guatemala from "the wrongs [they had] suffered" ( los males que habéis sufrido "). He invaded in January 1829, and began besieging Guatemala City on 5 February. The city surrendered on 12 April and Morazán's soldiers entered it

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