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59-591: The hut was constructed in sections by a master carpenter, Jørgen Stubberud and erected at Amundsen's home in Norway, then dismantled for shipment to Antarctica on the Fram . Framheim literally means "home of the Fram". During its construction in Norway, Amundsen maintained that the hut was for "observation", which would fit in nicely with his supposed intent to head to the North Pole . To

118-684: A Russian flag made of rust-proof titanium alloy . The flag-placing, during Arktika 2007 , generated commentary on and concern for a race for control of the Arctic's vast hydrocarbon resources. Foreign ministers and other officials representing Canada, the Kingdom of Denmark, Norway, Russia, and the United States met in Ilulissat, Greenland on 28 May 2008 at the Arctic Ocean Conference and announced

177-502: A ring species exists and has been described around the Arctic Circle in the form of the Larus gulls. There are copious natural resources in the Arctic (oil, gas, minerals, fresh water, fish and, if the subarctic is included, forest) to which modern technology and the economic opening up of Russia have given significant new opportunities. The interest of the tourism industry is also on

236-468: A windmill , which ran a generator to provide electric power for lighting by electric arc lamps . Initially, Fram was fitted with a steam engine. Prior to Amundsen's expedition to the South Pole in 1910, the engine was replaced with a diesel engine , a first for polar exploration vessels. The new engine allowed for a longer voyage without refueling. The ship was launched on 26 October 1892. Fram

295-403: A 60% weight reduction without compromising their overall strength. Amundsen designed special sledge-cases for food and equipment that remained permanently lashed to the sledges, with access through a lid that could easily be pried off without the need to remove mitts. This saved the time of unloading and re-loading packing boxes when making and breaking camp while on the march, and also eliminated

354-540: A number of definitions of what area is contained within the Arctic. The area can be defined as north of the Arctic Circle (about 66° 34'N), the approximate southern limit of the midnight sun and the polar night . Another definition of the Arctic, which is popular with ecologists , is the region in the Northern Hemisphere where the average temperature for the warmest month (July) is below 10 °C (50 °F);

413-451: A shape designed to let the ice push the ship up, so it would "float" on top of the ice. Fram is a three-masted schooner with a total length of 39 metres (127 ft 11 in) and width of 11 metres (36 ft 1 in). The ship is both unusually wide and unusually shallow in order to better withstand the forces of pressing ice. A disadvantage of this design is that it rolled more than most ships in heavy seas. Nansen commissioned

472-493: Is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth. The Arctic region, from the IERS Reference Meridian travelling east, consists of parts of northern Norway ( Nordland , Troms , Finnmark , Svalbard and Jan Mayen ), northernmost Sweden ( Västerbotten , Norrbotten and Lappland ), northern Finland ( North Ostrobothnia , Kainuu and Lappi ), Russia ( Murmansk , Siberia , Nenets Okrug , Novaya Zemlya ),

531-514: Is a large variance in predictions of Arctic sea ice loss, with models showing near-complete to complete loss in September from 2035 to some time around 2067. Arctic life is characterized by adaptation to short growing seasons with long periods of sunlight, and cold, dark, snow-covered winter conditions. Arctic vegetation is composed of plants such as dwarf shrubs , graminoids , herbs , lichens , and mosses , which all grow relatively close to

590-512: Is a unique area among Earth's ecosystems. The cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold and extreme conditions. Life in the Arctic includes zooplankton and phytoplankton , fish and marine mammals , birds, land animals, plants and human societies. Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic . The word Arctic comes from the Greek word ἀρκτικός ( arktikos ), "near

649-651: Is also claiming a large swath of seabed along the Lomonosov Ridge but, unlike Denmark, confined its claim to its side of the Arctic region. In August 2015, Russia made a supplementary submission for the expansion of the external borders of its continental shelf in the Arctic Ocean , asserting that the eastern part of the Lomonosov Ridge and the Mendeleyev Ridge are an extension of the Eurasian continent. In August 2016,

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708-432: Is also a concern. Because of the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming, it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming. The melting of Greenland's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification. The Arctic region is especially vulnerable to the effects of any climate change , as has become apparent with the reduction of sea ice in recent years. Climate models predict much greater climate change in

767-478: Is also predicted to have a large impact on tundra vegetation, causing an increase of shrubs, and having a negative impact on bryophytes and lichens. Apart from concerns regarding the detrimental effects of warming in the Arctic, some potential opportunities have gained attention. The melting of the ice is making the Northwest Passage , shipping routes through the northernmost latitudes, more navigable, raising

826-707: Is subject to some regulatory control through the International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters , adopted by the International Maritime Organization on 1 January 2017 and applies to all ships in Arctic waters over 500 tonnes. Research in the Arctic has long been a collaborative international effort, evidenced by the International Polar Year . The International Arctic Science Committee , hundreds of scientists and specialists of

885-591: The Muttaburrasaurus of Australia. However, others claim that dinosaurs lived year-round at very high latitudes, such as near the Colville River , which is now at about 70° N but at the time (70 million years ago) was 10° further north. The earliest inhabitants of North America's central and eastern Arctic are referred to as the Arctic small tool tradition (AST) and existed c.  2500 BCE . AST consisted of several Paleo-Eskimo cultures, including

944-668: The Arctic Council , and the Barents Euro-Arctic Council are more examples of collaborative international Arctic research. While there are several ongoing territorial claims in the Arctic , no country owns the geographic North Pole or the region of the Arctic Ocean surrounding it. The surrounding six Arctic states that border the Arctic Ocean—Canada, Kingdom of Denmark (with Greenland), Iceland, Norway, Russia, and

1003-667: The Arctic poppy ). Herbivores on the tundra include the Arctic hare , lemming , muskox , and reindeer (caribou). They are preyed on by the snowy owl , Arctic fox , grizzly bear , and Arctic wolf . The polar bear is also a predator, though it prefers to hunt for marine life from the ice. There are also many birds and marine species endemic to the colder regions. Other terrestrial animals include wolverines , moose , Dall sheep , ermines , and Arctic ground squirrels . Marine mammals include seals , walruses , and several species of cetacean — baleen whales and also narwhals , orcas , and belugas . An excellent and famous example of

1062-564: The Fram Museum in Oslo , Norway. Nansen's ambition was to explore the Arctic farther north than anyone else—to the North Pole, if possible. To do that, he would have to deal with a problem that many sailing on the polar ocean had encountered before him: the freezing ice could crush a ship. Nansen's idea was to build a ship that could survive the pressure, not by pure strength, but because it would be of

1121-552: The Ilulissat Declaration , blocking any "new comprehensive international legal regime to govern the Arctic Ocean," and pledging "the orderly settlement of any possible overlapping claims." As of 2012, the Kingdom of Denmark is claiming the continental shelf based on the Lomonosov Ridge between Greenland and over the North Pole to the northern limit of the exclusive economic zone of Russia . The Russian Federation

1180-603: The Independence cultures and Pre-Dorset culture. The Dorset culture ( Inuktitut : Tuniit or Tunit ) refers to the next inhabitants of central and eastern Arctic. The Dorset culture evolved because of technological and economic changes during the period of 1050–550 BCE. With the exception of the Quebec / Labrador peninsula, the Dorset culture vanished around 1500 CE. Supported by genetic testing , evidence shows that descendants of

1239-561: The Norwegian explorers Fridtjof Nansen , Otto Sverdrup , Oscar Wisting , and Roald Amundsen between 1893 and 1912. It was designed and built by the Scottish-Norwegian shipwright Colin Archer for Fridtjof Nansen's 1893 Arctic expedition in which the plan was to freeze Fram into the Arctic ice sheet and float with it over the North Pole . Fram is preserved as a museum ship at

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1298-825: The UN Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf began to consider Russia's submission. Canada claims the Northwest Passage as part of its internal waters belonging to Canada, while the United States and most maritime nations regards it as an international strait , which means that foreign vessels have right of transit passage. Since 1937, the larger portion of the Asian-side Arctic region has been extensively explored by Soviet and Russian crewed drifting ice stations . Between 1937 and 1991, 88 international polar crews established and occupied scientific settlements on

1357-541: The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development , on 21 June 2012, proposed protecting the Arctic, similar to the Antarctic Treaty System . The initial focus of the campaign will be a UN resolution creating a global sanctuary around the pole, and a ban on oil drilling and unsustainable fishing in the Arctic. The Arctic has climate change rates that are amongst the highest in the world. Due to

1416-430: The drift ice and were carried thousands of kilometres by the ice flow. The Arctic is comparatively clean, although there are certain ecologically difficult localized pollution problems that present a serious threat to people's health living around these pollution sources. Due to the prevailing worldwide sea and air currents, the Arctic area is the fallout region for long-range transport pollutants , and in some places

1475-424: The permafrost thaws. The melting of Greenland's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . Due to the poleward migration of the planet's isotherms (about 56 km (35 mi) per decade during the past 30 years as a consequence of global warming), the Arctic region (as defined by tree line and temperature) is currently shrinking. Perhaps the most alarming result of this is Arctic sea ice shrinkage. There

1534-680: The Arctic than the global average, resulting in significant international attention to the region. In particular, there are concerns that Arctic shrinkage, a consequence of melting glaciers and other ice in Greenland, could soon contribute to a substantial rise in sea levels worldwide. The current Arctic warming is leading to ancient carbon being released from thawing permafrost , leading to methane and carbon dioxide production by micro-organisms. Release of methane and carbon dioxide stored in permafrost could cause abrupt and severe global warming, as they are potent greenhouse gases . Climate change

1593-469: The Bear, northern" and from the word ἄρκτος ( arktos ), meaning bear. The name refers either to the constellation known as Ursa Major , the "Great Bear", which is prominent in the northern portion of the celestial sphere , or to the constellation Ursa Minor , the "Little Bear", which contains the celestial north pole (currently very near Polaris , the current north Pole Star, or North Star). There are

1652-591: The Dorset culture, known as the Sadlermiut , survived in Aivilik, Southampton and Coats Islands , until the beginning of the 20th century. The Dorset / Thule culture transition dates around the ninth–10th centuries CE. Scientists theorize that there may have been cross-contact of the two cultures with sharing of technology, such as fashioning harpoon heads, or the Thule may have found Dorset remnants and adapted their ways with

1711-517: The Dorset people in "an example of prehistoric genocide." By 1300 CE, the Inuit , present-day Arctic inhabitants and descendants of Thule culture, had settled in west Greenland, and moved into east Greenland over the following century ( Inughuit , Kalaallit and Tunumiit are modern Greenlandic Inuit groups descended from Thule). Over time, the Inuit have migrated throughout the Arctic regions of Eastern Russia,

1770-523: The North , and Saami Council ). The council operates on consensus basis, mostly dealing with environmental treaties and not addressing boundary or resource disputes. Though Arctic policy priorities differ , every Arctic nation is concerned about sovereignty/defense, resource development, shipping routes, and environmental protection. Much work remains on regulatory agreements regarding shipping, tourism, and resource development in Arctic waters. Arctic shipping

1829-582: The North Pole directly by the force of the current, he and Hjalmar Johansen set out to reach it on skis. After reaching 86° 14' north, he had to turn back to spend the winter at Franz Josef Land . Nansen and Johansen survived on walrus and polar bear meat and blubber . Finally meeting British explorers, the Jackson–Harmsworth expedition , they arrived back in Norway only days before the Fram also returned there. The ship had spent nearly three years trapped in

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1888-422: The United States ( Alaska ), Canada ( Yukon , Northwest Territories , Nunavut ), Danish Realm ( Greenland ), and northern Iceland ( Grímsey and Kolbeinsey ), along with the Arctic Ocean and adjacent seas. Land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover, with predominantly treeless permafrost under the tundra . Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places. The Arctic region

1947-744: The United States, Canada, and Greenland. Other Circumpolar North indigenous peoples include the Chukchi , Evenks , Iñupiat , Khanty , Koryaks , Nenets , Sámi , Yukaghir , Gwichʼin , and Yupik . The eight Arctic nations (Canada, Kingdom of Denmark [Greenland & The Faroe Islands], Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Russia, and US) are all members of the Arctic Council , as are organizations representing six indigenous populations (The Aleut International Association , Arctic Athabaskan Council , Gwich'in Council International , Inuit Circumpolar Council , Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of

2006-662: The United States—are limited to a 200 nautical miles (370 km; 230 mi) exclusive economic zone (EEZ) off their coasts. Two Arctic states (Finland and Sweden) do not have direct access to the Arctic Ocean. Upon ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea , a country has ten years to make claims to an extended continental shelf beyond its 200 nautical mile zone. Due to this, Norway (which ratified

2065-499: The coldest recorded temperature is approximately −68 °C (−90 °F). Coastal Arctic climates are moderated by oceanic influences, having generally warmer temperatures and heavier snowfalls than the colder and drier interior areas. The Arctic is affected by current global warming , leading to climate change in the Arctic , including Arctic sea ice decline , diminished ice in the Greenland ice sheet , and Arctic methane emissions as

2124-399: The concentrations exceed the levels of densely populated urban areas. An example of this is the phenomenon of Arctic haze , which is commonly blamed on long-range pollutants. Another example is with the bioaccumulation of PCB's ( polychlorinated biphenyls ) in Arctic wildlife and people. There have been many proposals to preserve the Arctic over the years. Most recently a group of stars at

2183-413: The convention in 1996), Russia (ratified in 1997), Canada (ratified in 2003) and the Kingdom of Denmark (ratified in 2004) launched projects to establish claims that certain sectors of the Arctic seabed should belong to their territories. On 2 August 2007, two Russian bathyscaphes , MIR-1 and MIR-2 , for the first time in history descended to the Arctic seabed beneath the North Pole and placed there

2242-429: The ground, forming tundra . An example of a dwarf shrub is the bearberry . As one moves northward, the amount of warmth available for plant growth decreases considerably. In the northernmost areas, plants are at their metabolic limits, and small differences in the total amount of summer warmth make large differences in the amount of energy available for maintenance, growth and reproduction. Colder summer temperatures cause

2301-698: The ice, reaching 85° 57' N. In 1898, Otto Sverdrup , who had brought Fram back on the first Arctic voyage, led a scientific expedition to the Canadian Arctic Archipelago . Fram was slightly modified for this journey, its freeboard being increased. Fram left harbour on 24 June 1898, with 17 men on board. Their aim was to chart the lands of the Arctic Islands, and to sample the geology, flora and fauna. The expeditions lasted until 1902, leading to charts covering 260,000 km (100,000 sq mi), more than any other Arctic expedition. Fram

2360-424: The increase. The Arctic contains some of the last and most extensive continuous wilderness areas in the world, and its significance in preserving biodiversity and genotypes is considerable. The increasing presence of humans fragments vital habitats. The Arctic is particularly susceptible to the abrasion of groundcover and to the disturbance of the rare breeding grounds of the animals that are characteristic to

2419-408: The long Antarctic winter, Amundsen and the members of his expedition constructed a network of workshops and storage rooms, including a steam-bath room, carved out of the ice surrounding the main hut. In this complex the men busied themselves in preparing for the upcoming journey to the South Pole. Amundsen spurned the traditional white tent, and instead dyed his tent material black. He stated that this

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2478-406: The major impacts to the region from climate change the near climate future of the region will be extremely different under all scenarios of warming. The effects of climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures, loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet . Potential methane release from the region, especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates ,

2537-539: The men were asleep. Footwear and the risk of frostbite was a major concern for Amundsen, especially after some negative experiences during the autumn depot-laying trips and the abortive first attempt to reach the Pole. He and his men re-constructed and refined their ski-boots several times before the final polar journey, to obtain maximum insulation against the cold and to provide the necessary flexibility for skiing. Each man brought spare boots in case of breakage or malfunction, with

2596-508: The more than casual student of exploration, it was obvious that the hut was intended as living quarters. Amundsen was headed to the South Pole . The cabin was an early example of a pre-fabricated structure, and employed a custom dining table which could retract to the ceiling for cleaning beneath. It measured eight by four meters, and the walls were made up of four layers of three one inch wood lumber with cardboard between for insulation. During

2655-402: The need to assemble tent-poles and making the job of pitching the tent very simple and quick. The tent also featured a sewn-in floor, which was an innovation several years ahead of its time. At Framheim, Amundsen continually upgraded his equipment, since he was largely dissatisfied with standard polar gear. The sledges were refined by shaving down portions of their frames and runners, achieving

2714-464: The northernmost tree line roughly follows the isotherm at the boundary of this region. The climate of the Arctic region is characterized by cold winters and cool summers. Its precipitation mostly comes in the form of snow and is low, with most of the area receiving less than 50 cm (20 in). High winds often stir up snow, creating the illusion of continuous snowfall. Average winter temperatures can go as low as −40 °C (−40 °F), and

2773-655: The possibility that the Arctic region will become a prime trade route . One harbinger of the opening navigability of the Arctic took place in the summer of 2016 when the Crystal Serenity successfully navigated the Northwest Passage, a first for a large cruise ship. In addition, it is believed that the Arctic seabed may contain substantial oil fields which may become accessible if the ice covering them melts. These factors have led to recent international debates as to which nations can claim sovereignty or ownership over

2832-510: The predecessor culture. The evidence suggested that Inuit descend from the Birnirk of Siberia, who through the Thule culture expanded into northern Canada and Greenland, where they genetically and culturally completely replaced the Indigenous Dorset people some time after 1300 CE. The question of why the Dorset disappeared so completely has led some to suggest that Thule invaders wiped out

2891-756: The region. The Arctic also holds 1/5 of the Earth's water supply. During the Cretaceous time period , the Arctic still had seasonal snows, though only a light dusting and not enough to permanently hinder plant growth. Animals such as the Chasmosaurus , Hypacrosaurus , Troodon , and Edmontosaurus may have all migrated north to take advantage of the summer growing season, and migrated south to warmer climes when winter came. A similar situation may also have been found amongst dinosaurs that lived in Antarctic regions, such as

2950-452: The risk of debilitating frostbite outweighing the issue of weight. None of Amundsen's men experienced frostbitten feet during the polar journey, despite the extreme temperatures. The Polar Party returned to Framheim on 25 January 1912 and left in the Fram on 30 January after "two days of bustle in getting on board the things we were (to) take with us". They left behind the buried hut "that strong little house that now lay entirely hidden beneath

3009-440: The risk of frostbite when unpacking the sledges . The sledge-cases were also refined during the winter by planing down the wood to reduce their weight. Further, food selection and packing had been refined for both efficiency and maximum space usage. Amundsen brought only four foods: pemmican (made according to his own recipe), chocolate, milk powder and biscuits, although this diet was supplemented by seal and penguin meat stored in

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3068-435: The shipwright Colin Archer from Larvik to construct a vessel with these characteristics. Fram was built with an outer layer of greenheart wood to withstand the ice and with almost no keel to handle the shallow waters Nansen expected to encounter. The rudder and propeller were designed to be retracted. The ship was also carefully insulated to allow the crew to live on board for up to five years. The ship also included

3127-432: The size, abundance, productivity and variety of plants to decrease. Trees cannot grow in the Arctic, but in its warmest parts, shrubs are common and can reach 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in height; sedges , mosses and lichens can form thick layers. In the coldest parts of the Arctic, much of the ground is bare; non-vascular plants such as lichens and mosses predominate, along with a few scattered grasses and forbs (like

3186-459: The snow behind Mount Nelson" and doubtless many artefacts. The site on the eastern flank of the Bay of Whales was used extensively in the 1930s by a series of American expeditions led by Richard E. Byrd . They established bases somewhat to the north of Framheim - Little America I to III. There is, however, apparently no definite evidence that the original Framheim hut was rediscovered, possibly because it

3245-481: The supply depots on the Barrier, and by fresh dog-meat from the dogs that they culled during the journey. This fresh, vitamin-rich meat in their diet prevented the onset of scurvy . To prepare for the trip to the pole, the ski bindings were fitted with hooks so they could be removed during sleeping hours and hung inside the tent. Since the bindings were made of leather, the ravenous sledge dogs would often gnaw at them when

3304-595: Was deeply buried. Sometime between 1957 and 1962 calving of the Ross Ice Shelf resulted in the block on which Framheim and the Little America bases were sited being detached from the barrier ice. The floe then probably drifted west and progressively broke up along the edge of the Ross Barrier. Fram (ship) Fram ("Forward") is a ship that was used in expeditions of the Arctic and Antarctic regions by

3363-441: Was to serve three purposes: First, black would absorb what little solar radiation would fall upon the tent. Second, a black tent would provide the best possible contrast against the endless snow and ice if one became lost. And finally, the black provided a rest for the eyes. In addition, the square, pyramid-style tent was equipped with a single central pole that was lashed to one of the sledges in its full length during travel, avoiding

3422-600: Was used by Roald Amundsen in his southern polar expedition from 1910 to 1912, the first to reach the South Pole, during which Fram reached 78° 41' S. The ship was left to decay in storage from 1912 until the late 1920s, when Lars Christensen , Otto Sverdrup and Oscar Wisting initiated efforts to preserve it via the Fram Committee. In 1935, the ship was installed in the Fram Museum , where it now stands. Arctic The Arctic ( / ˈ ɑːr k t ɪ k / or / ˈ ɑːr t ɪ k / ) (from Greek ἄρκτος, 'bear')

3481-566: Was used in several expeditions: Wreckage found at Greenland from USS  Jeannette , which was lost off Siberia, and driftwood found in the regions of Svalbard and Greenland , suggested that an ocean current flowed beneath the Arctic ice sheet from east to west, bringing driftwood from the Siberian region to Svalbard and further west. Nansen had Fram built in order to explore this theory. He undertook an expedition that came to last three years. When Nansen realised that Fram would not reach

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