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66-580: The nickname "Fra Diavolo" came about due to an old Itrano custom: Until early in the twentieth century Itrani boys and girls who had recently recovered from serious illnesses were dressed as monks on the second Sunday after Easter, for a procession in honor of St. Francis of Paola , the patron of sick children. On one of these solemn occasions little Michele, who was apparently a handful to begin with, proved so naughty that someone called him "Fra Diavolo" (Brother Devil) which stuck. The notion that Pezza "was born of low parentage" has received wide circulation but

132-732: A Marshal of France ; about 12,000 men marched down the Adriatic coast, 15,000 more attacked down the Apennines , which form the spine of Italy, and General Jean Louis Reynier led about 10,000 troops down the Appian Way. The Neapolitan Army, with barely 13,000 men available for mobile operations, fell back on Calabria as the French quickly occupied frontier areas and pressed on. By February Reynier's column had captured Fondi and continued on towards Itri. Some Neapolitan troops were garrisoned at Pezza's old base,

198-470: A republic under French auspices to avoid anarchy . On 12 January 1799, Pignatelli signed in Sparanise the surrender to the French general Jean Étienne Championnet . Pignatelli also fled to Palermo on 16 January 1799. When the news of the surrender to the French reached Naples and the provinces, the lazzaroni rebelled. Though ill-armed and ill-disciplined, they resisted the enemy with desperate courage. In

264-478: A French general. He was so ferocious that for a time Cardinal Ruffo placed him under arrest for his many atrocities. Nevertheless, for his services, Pezza was made a colonel in the army, ennobled as the Duke of Cassero , granted an annual pension of 2,500 ducats — making him one of the richest men in the district — and even given a lock of the queen's hair. He settled down near Itri with his wife, Fortunata Rachele Di Franco,

330-676: A band of followers landed at Amante, in Calabria, on the 26th. Pezza proved to be the most effective of the many guerrilla leaders who had sprung up in the aftermath of the invasion, and soon attracted considerable local support. The French were soon closely invested at Cosenza . Given time the guerrillas might have taken the city. But Gaeta had fallen to the French on 18 July, after twelve days of heavy bombardment, during which Hesse-Phillipsthal had been gravely wounded. This released some 10,000 French troops, most of whom were promptly sent into Calabria. The various guerrilla leaders unwisely attempted to make

396-451: A bandit and not a soldier". Pezza's death did not end the insurrection against the French, as it was not until 1811 that widespread resistance came to an end, and there were still sporadic outbreaks as late as 1815. Over 33,000 suspected guerrillas were arrested during the fighting, and thousands – men, women, and children alike – were killed. In addition to the works by Alexandre Dumas and Washington Irving , noted above, Pezza figures in

462-562: A common accomplishment at the time, and further indication of some wealth in the family. As a young man he secured employment as a courier for the Neapolitan Royal Mail, making the 240 km (149 mi) round trip between Terracina and Naples twice a week for 50 ducats a year, a considerable sum, while becoming intimately familiar with the local terrain, which had a reputation for brigandage , knowledge that would later serve him in good stead. In 1797, while so employed, he vied for

528-408: A couple of weeks Pezza caused considerable trouble for the French, raiding local garrisons and ambushing convoys. On 5 September he ambushed and massacred a considerable French force near Itri. As a result, the French organized a "flying column", which pinned him down near Itri on the 28th. A hot battle resulted, but the French were able to storm his position from three different directions, resulting in

594-840: A desperate battle at the Ponte della Maddalena , entered the city. For weeks the Calabresi and lazzaroni continued to pillage and massacre, and Ruffo was unable, even if willing, to restrain them. However, the Royalists were not masters of the city, for the French in Castel Sant'Elmo and the Republicans in Castel Nuovo and Castel dell'Ovo still held out and bombarded the streets, while the Franco-Spanish fleet might arrive at any moment. Consequently, Ruffo

660-577: A local beauty whom he had married in July 1799, when she was just 18, and he was en route to the liberation of Rome. For the next few years they lived quietly, while producing two sons. In 1806 Napoleon , Emperor of the French, decided to place his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the Neapolitan throne. Some 32,000 French troops invaded Naples in January, in three columns under General Laurent de Gouvion-Saint-Cyr , later

726-640: A number of important battles. Perhaps the most famous occurred in 1503 when Consalvo of Cordova defeated the French army under the command of the Duke of Nemours , an action known as the Battle of the Garigliano . During World War II , Allied bombing destroyed 75 percent of the city edifices. The Madonna della Civita is the patron saint of the town; her feast is celebrated on July 21. Popular tradition narrates that

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792-428: A number of other artistic endeavors. Daniel Auber 's opera Fra Diavolo is founded on traditions associated with the legend, but has very little historical accuracy. Laurel and Hardy starred as "Stanlio" and "Ollio" in the 1933 feature film The Devil's Brother (sometimes titled as Fra Diavolo ) based on Auber's opera. There are several other films about Fra Diavolo, a complete listing of which may be found in

858-652: A progressive government minister and one of the last laymen to hold the dignity of cardinal in the Roman Catholic Church , to organize a resistance movement. On 8 February 1799, British and Neapolitan ships landed 5,000 troops and volunteers under Ruffo's command in Calabria . This force soon expanded into an unruly army of laymen and clerics, nobles and peasants, rich and poor, men, women, and children. Dubbed la Armata cristiana della Santa Fede ("the Christian Army of

924-508: A stand at Lauria . There, on 8 August, Marshal André Masséna defeated them, virtually annihilating their forces in a no quarter fight. Although on 14 August, with the support of Sir Sydney's ships, Pezza managed to capture Fort Licosa from the enemy, that very same day the French relieved Cosenza . As by this time enormously superior French forces were on the march, the British decided to withdraw their expedition; this withdrawal arguably prevented

990-555: A tour in the army in lieu of prison. On 20 January 1798 Pezza was enrolled in the Reggimento di Messapi , stationed at Fondi , about a dozen miles north of Itri and perhaps a dozen south of the frontier with the Papal States . Pezza rose quickly, becoming a sergeant, probably because he was literate and, as a member of the middle class and a former Royal courier, already familiar with firearms. In November of late 1798 Pezza took part in

1056-766: Is a small city and comune the province of Latina , Lazio , central Italy . Itri is an agricultural centre divided in two parts by a small river, the Pontone . It lies in a valley between the Monti Aurunci and the sea, not far from the Gulf of Gaeta . The more ancient part, with the Castle, was partly destroyed during World War II . The Itrani speak a particular variant of the Neapolitan language called Itrano . The first direct documentary record of Itri dates to 914, but settlements in

1122-621: Is hardly accurate; it forms part of a hostile tradition derived from French propaganda. The Pezzas had some land in olives and were also engaged in the wool trade. The family home has some interesting architectural details, which also suggests some wealth, and they were related to several of the most prominent families in Itri , such as the Ialongo and the Pennachia. Although little is known with certainty of his early life, Pezza learned to read and write, hardly

1188-599: Is named after Parthenope , an ancient Greek settlement now part of the city of Naples . On the outbreak of the French Revolution King Ferdinand IV of Naples and Queen Maria Carolina did not at first actively oppose reform; but after the fall of the French monarchy they became violently opposed to it, and in 1793, joined the first coalition against France, instituting severe persecutions against all who were remotely suspected of French sympathies. Republicanism , however, gained ground, especially among

1254-533: The Austrian general Karl Mack . On 29 November, this army entered Rome, which had been evacuated by the French, wishing to restore Papal authority. However, after a sudden French counter-attack, his troops were forced to retreat and were eventually routed. A contemporary satirist said of the King's conquest of Rome: "He came, he saw, he fled". The King hurried back to Naples. Although the lazzaroni (the lowest class of

1320-615: The Bay of Naples on a Neapolitan frigate, the Sirena . At four o'clock that afternoon, he went aboard the British Foudroyant , which was to be his headquarters for the next four weeks. Of some 8,000 political prisoners, 99 were executed, including Prince Gennaro Serra , who was publicly beheaded, the intellectual Mario Pagano , who had written the republican constitution; the scientist, Domenico Cirillo ; Luisa Sanfelice ; Gabriele Manthoné ,

1386-449: The Fortino di San Andrea, , but they fled south to Itri when the French turned up. The French pursued. There was a short skirmish at Itri, which hardly impeded the French advance. Reynier sent a regiment ahead to seize Gaeta by a coup de main , but the fortress, commanded by Louis, Landgrave of Hesse-Philippsthal , resisted stoutly. The Siege of Gaeta lasted until 18 July. The French found

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1452-597: The Romans . The name Itri derives from the Latin word iter , meaning "route" or "way", appropriate since the city lies where the old Roman Via Appia , built in 312 BC, crosses the Monti Aurunci by way of a narrow pass, the Gola di Sant'Andrea, called by Charles Dickens a "noble mountain pass". An alternative hypothesis on the origin of the town's name suggest it derived from the cult of

1518-554: The aristocracy . In 1796, peace with France was concluded, but in 1798, during Napoleon's absence in Egypt and after Nelson's victory at the Battle of the Nile , Maria Carolina induced Ferdinand to go to war with France once more. Nelson himself arrived at Naples in September 1798, where he was enthusiastically received. The Neapolitan army had 70,000 men hastily summoned under the command of

1584-470: The British in return for money and supplies, and once proved enormously courteous to the some French officers' wives whom he had captured. Nevertheless, the French posted a 50,000 ducat reward for anyone who killed or captured him, a sum equivalent to millions of dollars today. Late in August 1806, Sir Sidney transferred Pezza and about 300 of his guerrillas by sea to the coast near Sperlonga, north of Gaeta. For

1650-628: The Eastern God Mithra , as there is a large subterranean temple dedicated to him a few hundred meters south of the town. Still another suggestion is that it derives from the Greek for snake "hydra", pronounced in some dialects as "itra". In Roman times Itri would have been no more than a post station, a role it continued in until well into the nineteenth century; in Bourbon times Itri was the 12th of 18 posting stations going south from Rome to Naples . In

1716-409: The French closed in on 24 October, storming his base camp. Most of his men were killed or captured, and Pezza was again initially thought to be dead, but he had escaped, though wounded; it was, however, to no avail. On 1 November, while at Baronissi , near Avellino , he was betrayed and captured in a pharmacy by French Corsican troops under the command of Major Joseph Léopold Sigisbert Hugo , father of

1782-574: The French near Itri. Shortly afterwards, Pezza was recalled to Sicily to gather more forces, and in April joined an expedition to reinforce Gaeta that was led by the British admiral Sir Sidney Smith , one of Napoleon's most inveterate foes. Hesse-Philippsthal gave Pezza command of a band of irregulars who were landed along the coast near the mouth of the Garigliano River, about 20 miles southeast of Gaeta, with instructions to stir up guerrilla resistance in

1848-402: The French rear. Pezza conducted several raids against French outposts, but then undertook an ill-advised attack against a substantial French force. Defeated, he fled back to Gaeta, assuming a disguise so as to trick a French officer into giving him a pass through the siege lines. To Hesse-Philippsthal this smacked of treachery, and he decided that Pezza was secretly in league with the French. Pezza

1914-505: The Holy Faith"), this horde made up for its lack of training and equipment with enthusiasm, ferocity, and suicidal courage. Pezza had already organized a small band of irregulars in the northern part of the Terra di Lavoro , and soon became one of Ruffo's principal subordinate commanders. His massa ("band") quickly grew to some 4,000 men, including his three brothers and the scions of a number of

1980-601: The Italian Misplaced Pages site. The most important of these is Fra Diavolo , made in 1942 by Luigi Zampa and based on a play of the same name by Luigi Bonelli , later a prolific screenwriter. In the film, Pezza is a Robin Hood -like figure fighting the French. The only Italian film about Pezza to be available in English is the 1964 Giovanni production, The Legend of Fra Diavolo , with an Italian cast, but starring Tony Russel , which

2046-550: The Middle Ages the population grew, and three lines of walls were built to protect the people living around the castle. Itri was part of the duchy of Gaeta and was a possession of the Dell'Aquila family, dukes of Fondi . In modern times Itri was part of the Kingdom of Naples . Due to its location on the Gola di Sant'Andrea, Itri has historically been the scene of much military activity and

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2112-559: The Neapolitan insurgency from developing into an "ulcer" such as the Peninsular War in Spain beginning in 1808. Despite the withdrawal of the British, for a time the guerrilla fighting in Calabria intensified. It was a horribly bloody affair, with the French often slaughtering whole villages, and the people massacring French prisoners. Surprisingly, Pezza proved far less ferocious than he had been in 1799. He even turned French prisoners over to

2178-402: The affections of a young woman with another young man. One night his rival and another man ambushed Pezza, intending to do him some harm. Pezza, who reportedly had a "fiery temper", managed to kill both of his attackers. He took to the hills, but was soon caught. Tried, he was convicted of manslaughter, since the slaying had been committed in self-defense, and on 25 October 1797 he was sentenced to

2244-404: The armistice; while Captains Bell and Troubridge wrote that they had Nelson's authority to state that the latter would not oppose the embarcation of the Republicans. Although these expressions were equivocal, the Republicans were satisfied and embarked on the vessels prepared for them. However, on 28 June, Nelson received despatches from the court (in reply to his own), in consequence of which he had

2310-545: The defeat of Pezza's band, which lost more than one hundred killed and about 60 taken prisoner, all of whom were immediately shot by the French. Pezza himself was reported dead, but survived. With the remnants of his band, Pezza fled eastwards over the mountains. He was soon operating near Sora in the Abruzzi , with two thousand men and two cannon, having joined forces with other guerrilla leaders. A much stronger French force converged on his base. Pezza failed to retreat in time, and

2376-627: The disastrous attempt of the Neapolitan Army to oust the French from the Papal States. The French responded quickly to the Neapolitan incursion, forcing them to retreat, and then undertook an invasion of the Kingdom of Naples . Plagued by cold and heavy rains, the Neapolitans fell back along the Appian Way . Thousands of troops deserted and many more were captured. Pezza, who was with the rear guard,

2442-456: The end of July by royal troops and Pezza's men, aided by the British fleet. By late September the French had largely been driven out of the kingdom, and a Neapolitan army had gone on to liberate Rome. The Neapolitan insurrection had probably cost the lives of 50,000 or 60,000 people in the kingdom. A hard, tough leader, Pezza gave no quarter. His men committed "most monstrous misdeeds", torturing and murdering hundreds of prisoners of war, including

2508-504: The great fortress dominating the northwestern route into the Kingdom of Naples, ambushing supply trains (once making off with 1,400 sheep) and couriers. Pezza made the Fortino di San Andrea his base of operations, and spread terror against French supporters over a wide area. He soon had a substantial price on his head. The city of Naples was liberated from the French in June, Gaeta was recaptured at

2574-725: The island of Procida , but after a few engagements with the Republican fleet commanded by Francesco Caracciolo , an ex-officer in the Bourbon navy , it was recalled to Palermo, as the Franco–Spanish fleet was expected. Ruffo, supported by Russian and Turkish ships under the command of Admiral Ushakov , now marched on the capital, whence the French, except for a small force under Méjean , withdrew. The scattered Republican detachments were defeated, only Naples and Pescara holding out. On 13 June 1799. Ruffo and his troops reached Naples, and after

2640-453: The leading families of Itri, such as Pasquale-Maria Nofi, who served as his adjutant with the rank of lieutenant. With these men, he raided French outposts far and wide. On one occasion he slipped into heavily occupied Fondi in the guise of a priest — thus becoming once again "Fra Diavolo" — to cut down the "Liberty Tree" which the French had planted there, replacing it with a cross that still stands. He even harassed French forces holding Gaeta,

2706-553: The meantime, the Jacobin and Republican parties of Naples surged, and civil war broke out. On 20 January 1799, the Republicans under General Championnet conquered the fortress of Castel Sant'Elmo , and the French entered the city the next day. The casualties were 8,000 Neapolitans and 1,000 French. On 21 or 23 January 1799, the Parthenopean Republic was proclaimed. The name referred to an ancient Greek colony Parthenope on

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2772-474: The minister of war under the republic; Massa, the defender of Castel dell'Ovo; Ettore Carafa , the defender of Pescara , who had been captured by treachery; and Eleonora Fonseca Pimentel , court-poet turned revolutionary and editor of il Monitore Napoletano , the newspaper of the republican government. More than 500 other people were imprisoned (222 for life), 288 were deported and 67 exiled . The subsequent censorship and oppression of all political movement

2838-404: The mountains, to outflank the Neapolitans at the old villa, and by dawn on the 29th were in position to attack. But the French movement had been detected by Pezza's irregulars, who were patrolling the hills, and they guided the Neapolitan troops safely out of the encirclement, so that they could fall back on the great fortress of Gaeta , about 15 miles down the coast. The French pressed on, and over

2904-541: The neighbourhood existed from prehistoric times, as proved by findings from the Neolithic and the Bronze Ages . According to legend, Itri's origins appear to coincide with the destruction of Amyclae , a maritime city founded by the twin sons of Zeus , Castor and Pollux , whose Spartan followers clashed with Aeneas . The Greek colony was most likely on the coast at about 20 kilometres (12 mi) north of Fondi . Amyclae

2970-497: The next few weeks, despite unusually cold and icy weather, overran the rest of Naples, capturing the city itself on 22 January 1799 and proclaiming the Parthenopaean Republic . For Pezza, the most critical event of this period occurred on 30 December, when French and Polish troops captured Itri. A band of peasants from the vicinity attempted to resist, but were rapidly overcome. The invaders then shot their prisoners, plundered

3036-495: The novelist Victor Hugo . The French offered Pezza an enormous bribe if he would join them. When he refused, they tried him on charges of banditry, and sentenced him to death. The French spurned an offer by Queen Maria Carolina to exchange 200 French prisoners for him, and on 9 November they hanged him in the Piazza del Mercato at Naples, ostensibly for banditry. Pezza's last words reportedly were "It pains me that I am condemned as

3102-472: The people) were devoted to the Bourbon dynasty and ready to defend it, he embarked on Nelson's Vanguard and fled with his court to Palermo in a panic. Prince Francesco Pignatelli Strongoli took over the city and the fleet was burned. The wildest confusion prevailed, and the lazzaroni massacred numbers of persons suspected of republican sympathies, while the nobility and the educated classes, finding themselves abandoned by their King, began to contemplate

3168-408: The regiment ambushed elements of the French " Polish Legion ", touching off a three-day skirmish. Unable to get through the easily defended defile, some French troops passed down the coast road, along the ancient Via Flacca , from Terracina to capture Sperlonga . The weather was foul, very cold with incessant rains that turned to ice. From Sperlonga, the French began working their way overland across

3234-462: The rest of Naples easier prey. The capital fell on 14 February as the king and queen once more fled to Sicily, and the French soon overran most of the rest of the kingdom. When the French invaded, Pezza was recalled to active duty, and ordered to organize a guerrilla column to resist the attackers. But the French moved so fast he was barely able to escape, and fled with his brothers to Sicily. He soon returned, however, and, on 23 March 1806, clashed with

3300-526: The sacred painting representing the image of the Madonna was found in the 8th century by a deaf and mute shepherd, who was looking for a missing cow on Mount Civita. Upon discovering the painting, the mute shepherd fell to his knees, prayed, and miraculously was able to hear and speak for the first time in his life. He went back to the town to share his discovery with the Itrani, who were shocked and amazed to witness that

3366-497: The shepherd could now hear and speak. The origin of the painting appears to be dated back to the 8th century, when the Byzantine Emperor Leo III ordered religious persecutions and banned the cult of sacred images. Parthenopaean Republic The Parthenopean Republic ( Italian : Repubblica Partenopea , French : République Parthénopéenne ) or Neapolitan Republic ( Italian : Repubblica Napoletana )

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3432-538: The site of the future city of Naples. The Republic had no real domestic constituency and existed solely due to the power of the French Army. The Republic's leaders were men of culture, high character and birth, such as Gennaro Serra , Prince of Cassano Irpino but they were doctrinaire and impractical, and they knew very little of the lower classes of their own country. The new government soon found itself in financial difficulties, owing to Championnet's demands for money (he

3498-491: The town a bit, proclaimed a new age of freedom, erected a "Liberty Tree", and held a ball. Though many reform-minded nobles and some intellectuals backed it, the French puppet regime in Naples, the Parthenopaean Republic , had little popular support. In addition, French and Polish troops acted abominably; looting and rape were common. French atrocities were so blatant that their commander in Naples, General Jean Étienne Championnet ,

3564-510: The treaty was signed, not only by himself but by the Russian and Turkish commandants and by the British captain Edward Foote , it must be respected, and on Nelson's refusal, he said that he would not help him to capture the castles. On 26 June 1799, Nelson changed his attitude and authorised Sir William Hamilton , the British minister, to inform the cardinal that he (Nelson) would do nothing to break

3630-425: The vessels brought under the guns of his ships, and many of the Republicans were arrested. Caracciolo, who had been caught whilst attempting to escape from Naples, was tried by a court-martial of Royalist officers under Nelson's auspices on board the admiral's flagship, condemned to death and hanged at the yard arm. The last jacobin stronghold, Pescara , surrendered on June 30. On 10 July 1799, King Ferdinand entered

3696-577: Was a short-lived, semi-autonomous republic located within the Kingdom of Naples and supported by the French First Republic . The republic emerged during the French Revolutionary Wars after King Ferdinand IV fled before advancing French troops. The republic existed from 21 January to 13 June 1799, collapsing when Ferdinand returned to restore monarchial authority and forcibly subdued republican activities. The Parthenopean Republic

3762-538: Was almost captured by the French, but escaped by donning peasant dress, and took to the hills above Itri. During the retreat, the Neapolitan Reggimento di Lucania fortified an old Roman sanctuary, the Fortino di San Andrea , located about a few miles northwest of Itri, where a pass carries the Appian Way over the Aurunci Mountains . On 26 December, reinforced by some irregulars hastily recruited by Pezza,

3828-471: Was arrested and sent in chains to Palermo in May 1806. Sir Sidney quickly cleared Pezza's name, however, and for a few weeks he conducted seaborne raids against French outposts along the coast from Ponza and the other islands in the Gulf of Gaeta . On 4 July, a small British and Sicilian force inflicted a stunning defeat on the French in the Battle of Maida , in Calabria. Hoping to follow up this victory, Pezza and

3894-485: Was desperately anxious to come to terms with the Republicans for the evacuation of the castles, in spite of the Queen's orders to make no terms with the rebels. After some negotiation, the parties concluded an armistice and agreed on capitulation ( onorevole capitolazione ), whereby the castles were to be evacuated, the hostages liberated and the garrisons free to remain in Naples unmolested or to sail for Toulon . The capitulation

3960-557: Was founded between Lake Fondi and the Terracina coast, on the edge of the murky waters of the swamps present at the time. The quiet Amyclaeans were plagued by the cursed and numerous evil forces of the swamp, unstoppable beings such as the monstrous serpent with nine heads, the Lernaean Hydra , which attacked with poisonous venom, and whose heads would re-grow as quickly as Hercules could slice them off with his sword. The city of Amyclae

4026-507: Was later relieved for graft ); it failed to organise an army (and was therefore dependent on French protection) and met with little success in its attempts to "democratise" the provinces. Meanwhile, the court at Palermo sent Cardinal Fabrizio Ruffo , a wealthy and influential prelate, to Calabria to organize a counter-revolution. He succeeded beyond expectation with his "Christian army of the Holy Faith" ( Esercito Cristiano della Santa Fede ). A British squadron approached Naples and occupied

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4092-516: Was released in the US by Globe Films International . The film is rather more realistic than the Bonelli effort. Paul Féval, père used the character of Fra Diavolo in his Les Habits Noirs book series . In it, Michele Bozzo (sic) is the nearly immortal Colonel Bozzo-Corana, feared leader of an international criminal brotherhood. Fra diavolo sauce is believed to be named after Pezza. Itri Itri

4158-445: Was sacked by Guillaume-Charles Faipoult , one of the government representatives on mission , and subsequently imprisoned. Irregular resistance had begun almost as soon as the invaders entered the country, and French atrocities only served to send more young men into the hills to join the insurgency. Attacks on French soldiers became common. The French retaliated swiftly and brutally, which only made matters worse. The experience of Itri

4224-448: Was signed by Ruffo, and British, Russian and Turkish officers, as well as, for the Republicans, the French commander. While the vessels were being prepared for the voyage to Toulon all the hostages in the castles were liberated save four; but on 24 June 1799, Nelson arrived with his fleet, and on hearing of the capitulation he refused to recognise it except insofar as it concerned the French. Cardinal Ruffo indignantly declared that once

4290-466: Was soon annihilated. The few survivors abandoned the city and relocated a few kilometers south to the area now known as Itri. These first inhabitants of Itri supposedly adopted the emblems of the "Signum Salutis", a serpent, as their symbol of power, and "Amycleus", the dog's head, as their symbol of fidelity. More likely, Itri was probably a town or outpost of the Aurunci , later conquered and assimilated by

4356-536: Was typical. On 15 January two French soldiers were killed while patrolling the Appian Way near the town. The next day a mixed force of French and Polish troops inflicted severe reprisals on the town, looting, raping, and murdering, leaving 60 men, women, and children lying dead in the streets; Michele Pezza's 67-year-old father was among the dead. Meanwhile, although in exile in Sicily, the Neapolitan government, effectively controlled by Queen Maria Carolina , wife of King Ferdinand IV of Naples , appointed Fabrizio Ruffo ,

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