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121-500: Volume 1 of NCA4, "Climate Science Special Report" (CSSR) was released in October 2017. In the CSSR, researchers reported that "it is extremely likely that human activities, especially emissions of greenhouse gases, are the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century. For the warming over the last century, there is no convincing alternative explanation supported by the extent of

242-418: A climate response rather: The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report states: "Some responses, such as migration, relocation and resettlement may or may not be considered to be adaptation". Andrew Cuomo Andrew Mark Cuomo ( / ˈ k w oʊ m oʊ / KWOH -moh , Italian: [ˈkwɔːmo] ; born December 6, 1957) is an American politician, lawyer, and former government official who served as

363-409: A June 16, 1999, speech, Cuomo declared that one purpose of the program was to fight against HUD's abolition. In August 1999, Community Builders distributed a letter to community groups to fight against proposed tax cuts. One HUD official declared that Community Builders was seen as "Democratic ward heelers who act as a pipeline between Democratic city officials, party leaders, and the administration and

484-531: A child rapist.'" In May 2019, Governor Cuomo announced he would run for a fourth term. In August 2021, after a report released by the Attorney General of New York , Letitia James , detailed accusations of sexual harassment by Governor Cuomo and his attempts to silence victims, the New York State Legislature 's leaders indicated that they would seek to remove Cuomo from office. While denouncing

605-544: A climate-change denier who served on Trump's EPA transition team, called the report a product of the deep state , adding "We don’t care. In our view, this is made-up hysteria anyway." He noted that the Administration did not alter the report's findings but rather chose to release it the day after Thanksgiving "on a day when nobody cares, and hope it gets swept away by the next day’s news." An article in The Atlantic called

726-492: A contributor in terms of him being a cheerleader, but I don't think we can pin too much blame on him". According to libertarian author and critic James Bovard , Cuomo was obsessed with changing HUD's image, as Cuomo declared, "The PR is the important thing I do... Eighty percent of the battle is communications." He championed a new program called Community Builders, created without appropriation by Congress, for 800 new HUD employees with computers to be paid as much as $ 100,000. In

847-625: A crippling effect on many of HUD's ongoing operations". Gaffney retired in May 2001, shortly after the department reached a $ 490,000 settlement with a black employee who had accused her of racial discrimination in passing him over for a promotion. Prior to Cuomo's tenure, HUD was routinely included on the General Accounting Office's biannual watch list of government programs whose poor management made them prone to fraud. During his time in office, two of HUD's four main departments were removed from

968-433: A disaster: it's only when it affects people or is caused by them that is counts as a disaster. It is argued that natural disasters are always linked to human action or inaction or rooted in anthropogenic processes . Disasters, economic loss, and the underlying vulnerabilities that drive risk are increasing. Global risks like climate change are having major impacts everywhere. Scientists forecast climate change will increase

1089-896: A higher share of plant-based foods . This has both mitigation and adaptation benefits. Plant-based options have much lower energy and water requirements. Adaptation options can investigate the dietary patterns that are better suited to the regional, socioeconomic and cultural context. Social-cultural norms strongly affect preferences for foods. Policies such as subsidies, taxes, and marketing can also support dietary choices that help adaptation. Agriculture offers many opportunities for adaptation. These include changing planting times, or changing to crops and livestock that are better adapted to climate conditions and presence of pests. Other examples are breeding more resilient crops and selecting genetically modified crops. All these aim to improve food security and nutrition. Migration counts as behavioural climate adaptation for some, although others refer to it as

1210-564: A knowledge loop that includes targeted user communities' access to, interpretation of, communication of, and use of pertinent, accurate, and trustworthy climate information, as well as their feedback on that use. Climate information services involve the timely production, translation and delivery of useful climate data, information and knowledge. Institutional responses include zoning regulations, new building codes , new insurance schemes, and coordination mechanisms. Policies are important tools to integrate issues of climate change adaptation. At

1331-547: A new deal with a large state-employee union, signed ethics reform legislation, passed a property tax cap, worked to enact a same-sex marriage bill with bipartisan support, and restructured New York's tax code. In 2014, Politico reported that Cuomo had been actively involved in the formation of the Independent Democratic Conference (IDC) three years earlier, which gave control of the state senate to Republicans. He has been accused of failing to bridge

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1452-473: A press conference." Cuomo received criticism from some for his use of the phrase. Roland Martin of CNN said that "' Shucking and jiving ' have long been words used as a negative assessment of African Americans, along the lines of a 'foot shufflin' Negro '. In fact, I don't recall ever hearing the phrase used in reference to anyone white." Cuomo investigated a corruption scandal, a "fraudulent scheme to extract kickbacks", which involved New York investigators,

1573-544: A statement regarding novel coronavirus in New York wherein he mentioned the first positive case of novel coronavirus in New York State. On March 2, 2020, Cuomo said that community transmission of the new coronavirus is "inevitable". He also mentioned New York City's plans to aggressively ramp up diagnostic testing for the new virus and said that he would like to see New York City conducting "1,000 tests per day". He announced

1694-593: A video posted to his campaign website. Cuomo announced his choice for lieutenant governor on May 26, 2010: Robert Duffy , Mayor of Rochester . In the November 2, 2010, general election, Cuomo faced Republican Carl Paladino , a Buffalo -based businessman who had been heavily supported by the Tea Party movement . Cuomo won the election for governor by a landslide, winning 62.6% of the vote. Paladino performed strongly in his native Buffalo area, while Cuomo performed well in

1815-509: A year for the coming decades. In many cases, the cost will be less than the damage that it avoids. The IPCC defines climate change adaptation in this way: Adaptation actions can be incremental and transformative. Incremental actions are actions that aim to maintain the essence and integrity of a system. Transformative actions are actions that change the fundamental attributes of a system in response to climate change and its impacts. Research on climate change adaptation has been ongoing since

1936-459: A year that saw hundreds of Americans die during devastating climate-fueled megafires, hurricanes, floods, and algal blooms." In a November 23, 2018 press release, the Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) described how the 1,500-page report was based on "the best available science" and serves to assist the U.S. in "understand[ing], assess[ing], predict[ing] and respond[ing] to" climate change. It "examines

2057-430: Is a closely related area of work and research topic that has recently emerged. It describes situations in which adaptation, mitigation and development solutions are pursued together. It is able to benefit from synergies from among the actions and reduce trade-offs. Strategies to limit climate change are complementary to efforts to adapt to it. Limiting warming, by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and removing them from

2178-424: Is a current NewsNation anchor and a former CNN journalist, and his elder sister is noted radiologist Margaret Cuomo . Cuomo graduated from Archbishop Molloy High School in 1975. He earned a Bachelor of Arts from Fordham University in 1979 and a Juris Doctor from Albany Law School in 1982. During his father's successful 1982 campaign for governor , Cuomo served as campaign manager . He then joined

2299-434: Is a first cousin of Cuomo's ex-wife) was another leading contender, but withdrew for personal reasons two days before Paterson was set to announce his choice, leaving Cuomo and U.S. representative Kirsten Gillibrand as the most likely appointees. On January 23, Paterson announced he would appoint Gillibrand to the U.S. Senate. On September 18, 2009, advisors to President Barack Obama informed Governor David Paterson that

2420-702: Is already affecting each one of us, whether we live in Texas or Minnesota or Hawai’i or Florida." Collin O'Mara , President of the National Wildlife Federation (NWF) issued a statement in which he called the timing of the Black Friday release by the White House of the NCA4 report—a month before its anticipated release—a "disgrace". O’Mara said that, "It’s an absolute disgrace to bury the truth about climate impacts in

2541-480: Is also planning to create a climate change review panel that would question the conclusions of the 2022 report. The Times reported that William Happer , who "would be a fringe figure even for climate skeptics", would head the panel. Climate change adaptation Climate change adaptation is the process of adjusting to the effects of climate change . These can be both current or expected impacts. Adaptation aims to moderate or avoid harm for people, and

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2662-421: Is an important step in understanding current and future adaptation needs and options. As of 2022, the level of warming is 1.2 °C (34.2 °F) above levels before the industrial revolution. It is on track to increase to 2.5 to 2.9 °C (36.5 to 37.2 °F) by the end of the century. This is causing a variety of secondary effects. Many negative effects of climate change involve changes in extremes or

2783-547: Is because evacuation and emergency access becomes easier. Reduced air pollution from public transport improves health. This in turn may lead to improved economic resilience, as healthy workers perform better. There are many adaptation responses. We sometimes call them adaptation measures, strategies or solutions. They help manage impacts and risks to people and nature. Current adaptation focuses on near-term climate risks. It also focuses on particular sectors, such as water and agriculture, and on regions, such as Africa and Asia. It

2904-638: Is because transformational adaptation is connected with implementation at scale and ideally at the system-level. Strengthening resilience is therefore important for maintaining a capacity for transformation. Transformations, and the processes of transition, cover the major systems and sectors at scale. These are energy, land and ecosystems, urban and infrastructure, and industrial and societal. Transformations may fail if they do not integrate social justice, consider power differences and political inclusion, and if they do not deliver improvements in incomes and wellbeing for everyone. Climate resilient development

3025-459: Is fully engaged." The assembled audience of Cuomo's supporters booed. In a February 2019 opinion poll , Cuomo's approval rating dropped to 43 percent, the lowest of his tenure as governor, and a full 50% said they disapproved. The poll showed an eight-percent drop from January 2019; it was taken after Cuomo signed several pieces of progressive legislation, including an expansion of abortion rights and access and stricter gun laws, suggesting that

3146-468: Is important to close gaps between adaptation that is carried out and the needs relative to today's climate in order to reduce risks to a tolerable level. However, future adaptation must also anticipate future climate change risks. Some options may become less effective or entirely unfeasible as global warming increases. Adaptation responses fall into four categories that all directly aim to reduce risks and exploit opportunities: We can also group options

3267-483: Is important to help countries manage climate risks. Plans, policies or strategies are in place in more than 70% of countries. Agreements like the Paris Agreement encourage countries to develop adaptation plans. Other levels of government like cities and provinces also use adaptation planning. So do economic sectors. Donor countries can give money to developing countries to help develop national adaptation plans. This

3388-458: Is important to help them implement more adaptation. Monitoring and evaluation activities are key parts of adaptation efforts. They ensure strategies work well and allow for necessary changes along the way. The adaptation carried out so far is not enough to manage risks at current levels of climate change. And adaptation must also anticipate future risks of climate change. The costs of climate change adaptation are likely to cost billions of dollars

3509-799: Is in three categories: 1. Structural and physical adaptation (including engineering and built environment, technological, ecosystem-based, services); 2. Social adaptation (educational, informational, behavioural); 3. Institutional adaptation (economic organizations, laws and regulation, government policies and programmes). Other ways to distinguish types of adaptation are anticipatory versus reactive, autonomous versus planned and incremental versus transformational. Built environment options include installing or upgrading infrastructure to protect against flooding, sea level rise, heatwaves and extreme heat. They also include infrastructure to respond to changed rainfall patterns in agriculture. This could be infrastructure for irrigation. These are explained further in

3630-443: Is not possible to directly reduce hazards. This is because hazards are affected by current and future changes in climate. Instead, adaptation addresses the risks of climate impacts that arise from the way climate-related hazards interact with the exposure and vulnerability of human and ecological systems. Exposure refers to the presence of people, livelihoods, ecosystems and other assets in places that could suffer negative effects. It

3751-470: Is one way to reduce vulnerability to climate hazards. For instance, mangroves can dampen storm energy. So they can help prevent flooding. In this way, protection of the mangrove ecosystem can be a form of adaptation. Insurance and livelihood diversification increase resilience and decrease vulnerability. Other ways to decrease vulnerability include strengthening social protection and building infrastructure more resistant to hazards. Adaptive capacity in

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3872-412: Is part of the broader consideration of sustainable development . Climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction have similar goals (to reduce potential impacts of hazards and increase the resilience of people at risk). They use similar concepts and are informed by similar sources and studies. Disasters are often triggered by natural hazards. A natural event such as a fire or flood is not of itself

3993-447: Is possible to reduce exposure by retreating from areas with high climate risks, such as floodplains. Improving systems for early warnings and evacuations are other ways to reduce exposure. The IPCC defines climate change vulnerability as "the propensity or predisposition to be adversely affected" by climate change. It can apply to humans but also to natural systems . Human and ecosystem vulnerability are interdependent. According to

4114-504: Is strong variation within countries. The determinants of adaptive capacity include: The IPCC considers climate resilience to be “the capacity of social, economic and ecosystems to cope with a hazardous event or trend or disturbance”. It includes the abilities to reorganise and learn. This definition is similar to that of climate change adaptation. However, resilience involves a more systematic approach to absorbing change. It involves using those changes to become more efficient. The idea

4235-423: Is that people can intervene to reorganise the system when disturbance creates an opportunity to do so. Implemented adaptation most often builds upon resilience as a way of bouncing back to recover after a disturbance. Experts consider it to be incremental rather than transformational. On the other hand, climate resilience-focused projects can be activities to promote and support transformational adaptation. This

4356-1252: Is usually done alongside climate change mitigation . It also aims to exploit opportunities. Humans may also intervene to help adjust for natural systems. There are many adaptation strategies or options. For instance, building hospitals that can withstand natural disasters, roads that don't get washed away in the face of rains and floods. They can help manage impacts and risks to people and nature. The four types of adaptation actions are infrastructural , institutional, behavioural and nature-based options. Some examples of these are building seawalls or inland flood defenses, providing new insurance schemes, changing crop planting times or varieties, and installing green roofs or green spaces. Adaptation can be reactive (responding to climate impacts as they happen) or proactive (taking steps in anticipation of future climate change). The need for adaptation varies from place to place. Different regions must adapt differently because they each face particular sets of climate risks . For instance, coastal regions might prioritize sea-level rise defenses and mangrove restoration. Arid areas could focus on water scarcity solutions, land restoration and heat management. The needs for adaptation will also depend on how much

4477-672: The Washington Post , the role of the Federal Advisory Panel for the National Climate Assessment was to assist "policymakers and private-sector officials incorporate the government’s climate analysis into long-term planning". The panel was tasked with translating dozens of studies and scientific revelations that constitute the National Climate Assessment into policy actions that states could use to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. In January 2018 Andrew Cuomo , Governor of

4598-410: The 2002 New York gubernatorial election . Cuomo won the 2010 Democratic primary for governor of New York and won the general election with over 60 percent of the vote. He was re-elected in 2014 and 2018 . During his governorship, Cuomo signed legislation to legalize same-sex marriage , medical use of cannabis , and recreational use of cannabis . Cuomo's administration oversaw the construction of

4719-572: The 2017 New York City transit crisis as well as for not protecting undocumented immigrants, not legalizing recreational marijuana, and not creating a single-payer healthcare system. When debating Nixon, Cuomo countered her argument on the subways by pointing out that the system is owned by New York City, though past administrations agree it is the governor's role. An analysis conducted by New York City comptroller Scott Stringer revealed that New York City pays for 70 percent of subway repair costs. Cuomo defeated Nixon, 65.5–34.5%. On November 6, 2018,

4840-571: The Democratic National Committee ." In 1998, Clinton-appointed HUD inspector general Susan Gaffney testified to a Senate committee that she was the victim of " 'escalating' attacks on her office by Cuomo and 'his key aides,' including cooked-up charges of racism, insubordination, malfeasance, and general dirty-dealing". In 1999, Gaffney's office concluded that "most (15 out of 19) Community Builders' goals were activities rather than actual accomplishments" and that Cuomo's initiatives "had

4961-778: The Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) in 1993, a member of President Bill Clinton 's administration. After the departure of Secretary Henry Cisneros at the end of Clinton's first term under the cloud of an FBI investigation, Cuomo was unanimously confirmed by the United States Senate to succeed him as Secretary of HUD . Cuomo served as Secretary from January 1997 until the Clinton administration ended in 2001. In 2000, Cuomo led HUD efforts to negotiate an agreement with United States handgun manufacturer Smith & Wesson . This agreement required Smith & Wesson to change

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5082-560: The Federal Housing Administration , a crackdown on housing discrimination, expanded programs to help homeless people get housing and jobs, and creation of new empowerment zones . During Cuomo's tenure as HUD Secretary, he called for an increase in home ownership. He also pushed government-sponsored lenders Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac to buy more home loans issued to poor homeowners in an attempt to end discrimination against minorities. Some believe that this helped lead to

5203-772: The Governor Mario M. Cuomo Bridge , the Second Avenue Subway , the Moynihan Train Hall , and a reconstruction of LaGuardia Airport . He also decommissioned the Indian Point nuclear plant, which led to an uptick in greenhouse gas emissions. In response to the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting and the 2012 Webster shooting , Cuomo signed the NY SAFE Act of 2013 , the strictest gun control law in

5324-503: The Securities and Exchange Commission , and attorneys general in dozens of states. After Hillary Clinton became President Obama's choice for U.S. Secretary of State in December 2008, then–New York governor David Paterson was charged with appointing a temporary replacement until a special election . Cuomo was seen as a leading contender for this appointment. Caroline Kennedy (who

5445-550: The USAID . The report was produced with the assistance of "1,000 people, including 300 leading scientists, roughly half from outside the government." The Federal Science Steering Committee (SSC) for the CSSR included representatives from NOAA, NASA, and DOE, USGCRP and 3 Coordinating Lead Authors. The Obama administration released a review draft of the CCSR with a public review period running from December 15, 2016 through February 3, 2017. While

5566-628: The codes or regulations that buildings must conform to is important for keeping people healthy and comfortable during extremes of hot and cold and protecting them from floods. There are many ways to do this. They include increasing the insulation values, adding solar shading, increasing natural ventilation or passive cooling , codes for green roofs to reduce urban heat island effects or requiring waterfront properties to have higher foundations. Land use zoning controls are central to investment in urban development . They can reduce risks to areas threatened by floods and landslides. Insurance spreads

5687-406: The "world-renowned" Wadsworth Center was partnering with hospitals to expand surge testing capacity to "1,000 tests per day statewide" for the novel coronavirus. On March 3, 2020, Cuomo signed a $ 40 million emergency management authorization for coronavirus response and claimed that "New York's overall risk remained low". He also announced the institution of a new cleaning protocol at schools and in

5808-483: The 18,408 newsgroups in the alt.* hierarchy , and Verizon limited its Usenet offerings to the approximately 3,000 Big 8 newsgroups. The move came after Cuomo's office located 88 different newsgroups to which child pornography had been posted. In 2008, Cuomo said of the Democratic Party candidate Barack Obama , who was running against Hillary Clinton , the candidate Cuomo supported: "You can't shuck and jive at

5929-740: The 1990s. The number and variety of subtopics has greatly increased since then. Adaptation has become an established policy area in the 2010s and since the Paris Agreement, and an important topic for policy research. Scientific research into climate change adaptation generally starts with analyses of the likely effects of climate change on people, ecosystems, and the environment. These impacts cover its effects on lives, livelihoods, health and well-being, ecosystems and species, economic, social and cultural assets, and infrastructure. Impacts may include changed agricultural yields, increased floods, and droughts or coral reef bleaching. Analysis of such impacts

6050-491: The 2007–2010 subprime mortgage crisis . Edward J. Pinto, former chief credit officer at Fannie Mae, said: "They should have known the risks were large." Pinto said, "Cuomo was pushing mortgage bankers to make loans and basically saying you have to offer a loan to everybody." But others disagree with the assessment that Cuomo caused the crisis. Dean Baker , co-director of the Center for Economic and Policy Research , said Cuomo "was

6171-553: The 56th governor of New York from 2011 to 2021. A member of the Democratic Party and son of former governor Mario Cuomo , Cuomo previously served as the attorney general of New York from 2007 to 2010. Born in Queens , New York City, Cuomo is a graduate of Fordham University and Albany Law School . He began his career working as the campaign manager for his father in the 1982 New York gubernatorial election . Later, Cuomo entered

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6292-864: The CSSR is "designed to be an authoritative assessment of the science of climate change" in the United States, it does not include policy recommendations. On August 20, 2017, the Trump administration notified the 15-person Federal Advisory Committee for the Sustained National Climate Assessment that he was dissolving the Federal Advisory Committee. The Federal Advisory Panel translating the NCA's scientific studies and findings into actionable public policy that individual states could implement to reduce emissions. According to an August 20, 2017 article in

6413-456: The Cuomo administration had quietly reinterpreted the order, and that Cuomo had collected $ 890,000 from 24 of his appointees, as well as $ 1.3 million from the spouses, children and businesses of appointees. Some donations were made to Cuomo just days after the donor was appointed. In March 2018, The New York Times reported that Cuomo had rewritten the disclaimer language on his campaign website for

6534-598: The Cuomo-Hochul ticket defeated the Molinaro-Killian ticket by a margin of 59.6% to 36.2%. On March 19, 2021, The New York Times , in an episode of their podcast The Daily , leaked audio of Cuomo threatening Bill Lipton, head of the Working Families Party , which had endorsed primary opponent Nixon, that "[i]f you ever say, 'Well he's better than a Republican' again, then I'm gonna say, 'You're better than

6655-494: The Democratic Party's endorsement, receiving 65% of the delegates. Though Cuomo won the endorsement, former New York City Public Advocate Mark Green and two-time candidate for Lieutenant Governor Charlie King also earned places on the Democratic ballot . King dropped out of the race before the primary and endorsed Cuomo. Cuomo won the primary with a majority of the vote, defeating his nearest opponent by over 20%. Clinching

6776-495: The Democratic party nomination was considered a significant rebound following his unsuccessful and unpopular 2002 gubernatorial campaign, and at the nominating convention June O'Neill, the Democratic chairwoman of St. Lawrence County , called him "New York's own Comeback Kid". In the general election on November 7, 2006, he defeated the Republican nominee, former Westchester district attorney Jeanine Pirro , winning 58% of

6897-565: The GAO list. In addition, the department cut 15 percent of its staff as part of a Cuomo initiative to streamline its operations. From 2001 to 2006, Cuomo was not in government. He worked at the Fried Frank law firm from 2001 to 2004 and later the Island Capital real estate firm. Cuomo first ran for the Democratic nomination for the New York governor seat in 2002. He was initially the favorite for

7018-613: The Global Goal are in development as of 2023. It will support the long-term adaptation goals of the governments that are parties to the agreement. It also aims to fund support for the most vulnerable countries’ adaptation needs in the context of the 1.5/2 °C goal. It has three core components. These are reducing vulnerability to climate change, enhancing adaptive capacity, and strengthening resilience. Adaptation can help decrease climate risk by addressing three interacting risk factors. These are hazards , vulnerability , and exposure. It

7139-602: The IPCC, climate change vulnerability encompasses a variety of concepts and elements, including sensitivity or susceptibility to harm and lack of capacity to cope and adapt. Sensitivity to climate change could be reduced by for example increasing the storage capacity of a reservoir, or planting crops that are more resistant to climate variability. It is also possible to reduce vulnerability in towns and cities with green garden spaces. These can reduce heat stress and food insecurity for low-income neighbourhoods. Ecosystem-based adaptation

7260-570: The Less Privileged (HELP) in 1986 and left his law firm to run HELP full time in 1988. From 1990 to 1993, during the administration of New York City mayor David Dinkins , Cuomo was chair of the New York City Homeless Commission, which was responsible for developing policies to address homelessness in the city and providing more housing options. Cuomo was appointed Assistant Secretary for Community Planning and Development in

7381-658: The National Climate Assessment was mandated to release a report every four years, there have only been four reports since Global Change Research Act of 1990 was enacted. In the preparation of the NCA4, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), one of thirteen federal agencies comprising the USGCRP team, was the "administrative lead agency." The other agencies included the DOA , DOC , DOD , DOE , HHS , DOI , DOS , DOT , EPA , NASA , NSF , Smithsonian Institution , and

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7502-553: The Republican ticket against Cuomo for governor. Law professors Zephyr Teachout and Tim Wu challenged the Cuomo–Hochul ticket in the Democratic primary election  – capturing 34% of the vote on the gubernatorial line (Wu drew 40.1% as lieutenant governor ). On November 4, 2014, Cuomo was reelected for a second term with 54% of the vote, while Astorino received 40.6% of the vote. Despite low voter turnout, Cuomo won

7623-474: The State of New York, part of a coalition of States, reconvened a modified and limited version of the science advisory panel chaired by Columbia University 's Earth Institute's Richard Moss . The States' panel cannot "replace federal support for science, including maintaining satellites and building better climate models" nor will it have any "sway over federal climate policy". An article in The Atlantic said that

7744-443: The U.S. economy, human health, and the environment. Under scenarios with high emissions and limited or no adaptation , annual losses in some sectors are estimated to grow to hundreds of billions of dollars by the end of the century." While the CSSR is "designed to be an authoritative assessment of the science of climate change" in the United States, it does not include policy recommendations. Fifth National Climate Assessment (NCA5)

7865-494: The UN is running a partnership titled "Climate Risk and Early Warning Systems" to aid high risk countries with neglected warning systems in developing them. Climate Information Services (CIS) (or climate services) entail the dissemination of climate data in a way that aids people and organizations in making decisions. CIS helps its users foresee and control the hazards associated with a changing and unpredictable climate. It encompasses

7986-595: The United States . He also delivered Medicaid expansion under the Affordable Care Act ; a 2011 tax code that raised taxes for the wealthy and lowered taxes for the middle class; 12-week paid family leave; and a gradual increase of the state's minimum wage to $ 15 per hour . Cuomo received national attention for his handling of the COVID-19 pandemic in New York . Although he was initially lauded for his response, he faced renewed criticism and federal investigation after it

8107-416: The United States damages are "intensifying". The report which analyzed the "effects of climate change by U.S. region", emphasize[d] that "poor and marginalized communities" will be the most negatively "impacted by the intensifying storms and weather patterns caused by global warming." "While Americans are responding in ways that can bolster resilience and improve livelihoods, neither global efforts to mitigate

8228-831: The United States", "Without substantial and sustained global mitigation and regional adaptation efforts, climate change is expected to cause growing losses to American infrastructure and property and impede the rate of economic growth over this century." The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) was "administrative lead agency" in the preparation of the Fourth National Climate Assessment. Volume 2 of NCA4 has fifteen chapters: Chapter 1: Our Globally Changing Climate Chapter 2: "Physical Drivers of Climate Change", Chapter 3: "Detection and Attribution of Climate Change", Chapter 4: "Climate Models, Scenarios, and Projections", Chapter 5: "Large-Scale Circulation and Climate Variability", Chapter 6: "Temperature Changes in

8349-810: The United States", Chapter 7: "Precipitation Change in the United States", Chapter 8: "Droughts, Floods, and Wildfire", Chapter 9: "Extreme Storms", Chapter 10: "Changes in Land Cover and Terrestrial Biogeochemistry", Chapter 11: "Arctic Changes and their Effects on Alaska and the Rest of the United States", Chapter 12: "Sea Level Rise", Chapter 13: "Ocean Acidification and Other Ocean Changes", Chapter 14: "Perspectives on Climate Change Mitigation", and Chapter 15: "Potential Surprises: Compound Extremes and Tipping Elements". Chapter one provided an overview. "Risks are often highest for those that are already vulnerable, including low-income communities, some communities of color, children, and

8470-502: The United States, "[h]igh temperature extremes", increasing "heavy precipitation events", retreating glaciers and shrinking snow cover, the decline of sea ice , warming, sea level rising and increasing ocean acidification , more frequent flooding along the coastlines, lengthening growing seasons, and increasing wildfires. In a November 26 scrum with reporters in Washington, DC, President Trump told reporters he had seen and read some of

8591-578: The ability to design and implement effective adaptation strategies, or to react to evolving hazards and stresses. Societies that can respond to change quickly and successfully have a high adaptive capacity. Conversely, high adaptive capacity does not necessarily lead to successful adaptation action. It does not necessarily succeed in goals of equity and enhancing well-being. In general, adaptation capacity differs between high and low-income countries. By some indices such as ND-GAIN , high-income countries tend to have higher adaptive capacity. However, there

8712-418: The adoption of resilient building codes to mitigate potential damages. Coordination helps achieve goals shared by a range of people or organizations. Examples are information-sharing or joint implementation of adaptation options. Coordination helps use resources effectively. It avoids duplication, promotes consistency across government, and makes it easier for all people and organizations involved to understand

8833-400: The atmosphere, is also known as climate change mitigation . There are some synergies or co-benefits between adaptation and mitigation. Synergies include the benefits of public transport for both mitigation and adaptation. Public transport has lower greenhouse gas emissions per kilometer travelled than cars. A good public transport network also increases resilience in case of disasters. This

8954-485: The causes of climate change nor regional efforts to adapt to the impacts currently approach the scales needed to avoid substantial damages to the U.S. economy, environment, and human health and well-being over the coming decades." A 2018 CRS cited the October 2017 "Climate Science Special Report" CSSR: "Detection and attribution studies, climate models, observations, paleoclimate data, and physical understanding lead to high confidence (extremely likely) that more than half of

9075-455: The climate and economic impacts U.S. residents could expect if drastic action is not taken to address climate change". In May 2019, The New York Times reported that the Trump administration was planning to make changes in the climate modeling methods used to create the next report which is due in 2022. Rather than project impacts of change to the end of the century as has been done in the past, they will project only to 2040. The administration

9196-500: The climate changes or is expected to change, which is different from place to place. Adaptation is particularly important in developing countries because they are most vulnerable to climate change. Adaptation needs are high for food, water and other sectors important for economic output, jobs and incomes. One of the challenges is to prioritize the needs of communities, including the poorest, to help ensure they are not disproportionately affected by climate change. Adaptation planning

9317-433: The context of climate change covers human, natural, or managed systems. It looks at how they respond to both climate variability and extremes. It covers the ability of a system to adjust to climate change to moderate potential damages, to take advantage of opportunities, or to cope with consequences. Adaptive capacity is the ability to reduce the likelihood of negative impacts of climate-related hazards. It does this through

9438-438: The coronavirus response efforts, Cuomo received widespread praise from epidemiologists for his handling of the evolving COVID-19 pandemic in New York State, including a statewide lockdown and a shutdown of nonessential businesses in an effort to help flatten the curve of the virus. At the same time, however, Cuomo also received criticism for failing to grasp the gravity of the pandemic before its risks were fully visible to

9559-423: The design, distribution, and marketing of guns to make them safer and to help keep them out of the hands of children and criminals. Budgets enacted during Cuomo's term contained initiatives to increase the supply of affordable housing and home ownership and to create jobs and economic development. These included new rental assistance subsidies, reforms to integrate public housing, higher limits on mortgages insured by

9680-493: The eastern part of the state as well as downstate. In addition to the parties fielding candidates, New York's electoral fusion laws allow parties to cross-endorse candidates. The Independence Party and Working Families Party cross-endorsed Andrew Cuomo, while the Conservative Party and Taxpayers Party cross-endorsed Carl Paladino. The Independence Party line received 146,648 votes (5.0% of Cuomo's total, and 3.2% of

9801-438: The elderly...Climate change threatens to exacerbate existing social and economic inequalities that result in higher exposure and sensitivity to extreme weather and climate-related events and other changes." Chapter 2, entitled "Our Changing Climate: Observations, Causes, and Future Change", reported on observed changes in the United States, such as "intensifying" and more frequent atmospheric rivers of rain that connect Asia with

9922-653: The end of the century - more than the current gross domestic product (GDP) of many U.S. states." In July 2019 the Times cited the NCA4 in its own reporting to underscore the threat of sea level rise to the trillion-dollar coastal real estate market. Articles in Reuters / The New York Times , and the BBC , said that the warning issued by the 4th NCA "is at odds with the Trump administration's fossil fuels agenda." An article in The Hill described

10043-425: The environment. Under scenarios with high emissions and limited or no adaptation, annual losses in some sectors are estimated to grow to hundreds of billions of dollars by the end of the century." The report cited a 2017 study, published in the journal Science , that estimated the economic damage to the U.S. economy in relation to increases in the global mean surface temperature (GMST). The report said that across

10164-443: The executive order barring donations from appointees. The website added two caveats whereby some gubernatorial appointees are allowed to donate to the governor, which The Times said could potentially lead to more donations from appointees to the governor. The Cuomo campaign returned a $ 2,500 donation from one appointee who was in violation of the new disclaimer, but retained approximately $ 890,000 raised from other appointees. From

10285-432: The financial impact of flooding and other extreme weather events. There is an increasing availability of such options. For example, index-based insurance is a new product which triggers payment when weather indices such as precipitation or temperature cross a threshold. It aims to help customers such as farmers deal with production risks. Access to reinsurance may make cities more resilient. Where there are failures in

10406-624: The food supply chain. Thus it can be a risk to food security and nutrition. Adaptation measures can review the production, processing and other handling practices of suppliers. Examples include further sorting to separate damaged products, drying the product for better storage or improved packaging. Other behaviour change options for retailers and consumers include accepting fruit and vegetables that appear less than perfect, redistributing food surpluses, and lowering prices on nearly expired food. Dietary change options in regions with excess consumption of calories include replacing meat and dairy foods with

10527-506: The frequency and severity of extreme weather events and disasters. So adaptation may include measures to increase preparedness and relevant disaster response capacities. For humans, adaptation aims to moderate or avoid harm, and to exploit opportunities. For natural systems, humans may intervene to help adjustment. The Paris Agreement of 2015 requires countries to keep global temperature rise this century to less than 2 °C above pre-industrial levels, and to pursue efforts to limit

10648-565: The general election by a comfortable margin; however, his margin of victory was smaller than it had been in his 2010 victory. Astorino won most of upstate New York but was overwhelmed in New York City. Cuomo was sworn in for his second term as governor. Cuomo was challenged in the primary from the left by actress and activist Cynthia Nixon . She criticized him for having failed to fix the New York City Subway following his declaration of

10769-508: The global south. Behavioural adaptation is a change in the strategies, practices and actions that help to reduce risk. These can include protecting homes from flooding, protecting crops from drought, and adopting different income-earning activities. Behavioural change is the most common form of adaptation. Food waste spoilage increases with exposure to higher temperatures and humidity. It also increases with extreme events such as flooding and contamination. This can happen at different points in

10890-473: The governor's staff as a policy advisor and sometime Albany roommate, earning $ 1 a year. As a member of his father's administration, Cuomo was known as the "enforcer" where his father was known as the "nice guy" in a good cop/bad cop dynamic to further advance his father's legislative agenda. From 1984 to 1985, Cuomo was a New York assistant district attorney and briefly worked at the law firm of Blutrich, Falcone & Miller. He founded Housing Enterprise for

11011-612: The investigations were closed without any charges being brought against him. Andrew Mark Cuomo was born on December 6, 1957, in the New York City borough of Queens to lawyer and later governor of New York Mario Cuomo and Matilda ( née Raffa). His parents were both of Italian descent; his paternal grandparents were from Nocera Inferiore and Tramonti in the Campania region of southern Italy, while his maternal grandparents were from Sicily (his grandfather from Messina ). He has four siblings; his younger brother, Chris Cuomo ,

11132-492: The legislation may have upset certain voters and contributed to the drop; however, the majority of voters agreed with his position on both issues. By early 2020, Cuomo's favorability rating was up to 77 percent, a record high. On his first day in office, Cuomo renewed an executive order signed by Eliot Spitzer which prohibited Governors of New York from receiving donations from gubernatorial appointees. A February 2018 investigation by The New York Times , however, revealed that

11253-794: The national level, adaptation strategies appear in National Adaptation Plans (NAPS) and National Adaptation Programmes of Action ( NAPA ). They also occur in national climate change policies and strategies. These are at different levels of development in different countries and in cities. This is discussed further in the section below on "implementation". Cities, states, and provinces often have considerable responsibility in land use planning, public health, and disaster management. Institutional adaptation actions occur more frequently in cities than in other sectors. Some have begun to adapt to threats intensified by climate change, such as flooding, bushfires, heatwaves, and rising sea levels. Managing

11374-514: The nomination and led in fundraising and polls, but his campaign took serious damage after a gaffe . Speaking about the aftermath of the September 11 attacks , Cuomo said, " Pataki stood behind the leader. He held the leader's coat. He was a great assistant to the leader. But he was not a leader. Cream rises to the top, and Rudy Giuliani rose to the top." His remarks were widely derided; even his father, former governor Mario Cuomo , later admitted it

11495-538: The observational evidence." Volume 2, entitled "Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States", was released on November 23, 2018. According to NOAA, "human health and safety" and American "quality of life" is "increasingly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change". Like the previous reports in this series, the NCA4 is a "stand-alone report of the state of science relating to climate change and its physical impacts". The authors say that without more significant mitigation efforts, there will be "substantial damages on

11616-541: The observed global mean warming since 1951 was caused by humans, and high confidence that internal climate variability played only a minor role (and possibly even a negative contribution) in the observed warming since 1951. The key message and supporting text summarizes extensive evidence documented in the peer-reviewed detection and attribution literature, including in the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report ." According to Volume II, "Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in

11737-528: The president believed he should withdraw his 2010 gubernatorial candidacy, stepping aside for "popular Attorney General Andrew Cuomo". On January 23, 2010, the New York Daily News reported that Cuomo would announce plans for a gubernatorial campaign at the end of March. Later reports indicated Cuomo would announce his gubernatorial campaign coinciding with the state Democratic Convention in late May. On May 22, 2010, Cuomo announced his run for governor in

11858-648: The private insurance market, the public sector can subsidize premiums. One study identified key equity issues for policy considerations: Government-subsidized insurance, such as the U.S. National Flood Insurance Program, comes under criticism for providing a perverse incentive to develop properties in hazardous areas. This increases overall risk. Insurance can also undermine other efforts such as property level protection and resilience to increase adaptation. Appropriate land-use policies can counter this behavioural effect. These policies limit new construction where there are current or future climate risks. They also encourage

11979-468: The private practice of law and chaired the New York City Homeless Commission from 1990 to 1993. Cuomo then served in the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development as assistant secretary from 1993 to 1997 and as secretary from 1997 to 2001 under President Bill Clinton . Cuomo was elected New York attorney general in 2006 , after a failed bid to win the Democratic primary in

12100-460: The public transportation system "to help stop any potential spread of the virus". On March 4, 2020, Cuomo confirmed nine new cases in the state and said that it was "literally like trying to stop air" and that it was inevitable that it would continue to spread. On March 6, 2020, Cuomo criticized the federal government's response to the COVID-19 outbreak, calling it "absurd and nonsensical". Early in

12221-529: The release of the attorney general's report, Cuomo was called to resign by President Joe Biden . On August 23, despite denying all allegations of sexual harassment, Cuomo resigned from office and was succeeded by his lieutenant governor, Kathy Hochul . At the time of his resignation, he was the longest-serving governor in the United States. The release also prompted district attorneys for Manhattan, Nassau County, Westchester County, Albany County and Oswego County to pursue criminal investigations; however all of

12342-624: The report "massive", a "grave climate warning", and a "huge achievement for American science". Both The Washington Post and Vox described the report as "major". The Post described it as the Trump administration's climate report. Vox news described it as "dire". A November 23, 2018 Reuters article published in The New York Times cited the NCA4: "With continued growth in emissions at historic rates, annual losses in some economic sectors are projected to reach hundreds of billions of dollars by

12463-468: The report "warns, repeatedly and directly, that climate change could soon imperil the American way of life, transforming every region of the country, imposing frustrating costs on the economy, and harming the health of virtually every citizen." In the section on mitigation, the report says that without more significant mitigation efforts, there will be "substantial damages on the U.S. economy, human health, and

12584-592: The report as "damning", 'sounding the alarm' on the impact of climate change and contrasted the findings of NCA4 with doubts about climate change science expressed by President Trump. An article in The Verge called it a "bleak black Friday report." An article in the Los Angeles Times said that the release of NCA4 was important in "tackling a misconception by many Americans that the changing climate doesn’t harm them personally." The report shows "how climate change

12705-488: The report but he doesn't believe it. The White House dismissed the NCA4 as "inaccurate". White House spokesperson, Lindsay Walters said that the climate report was "largely based on the most extreme scenario". Walters called for future NCA reports to have a "more transparent and data-driven process that includes fuller information on the range of potential scenarios and outcomes". Katharine Hayhoe , an atmospheric scientist from Texas Tech University said that Walters' claim

12826-581: The report's findings as political and maintaining his innocence, in the face of almost certain removal from office, he announced his resignation as Governor, effective August 24, 2021. Although there was no formal withdrawal, individuals close to Cuomo indicated he would likely not seek his party's nomination following his resignation. Cuomo took the gubernatorial oath of office at 12:01 a.m. on January 1, 2011, succeeding David Paterson. During his first year as governor, Cuomo worked to pass an on-time budget that cut spending without raising taxes, made

12947-504: The rift between the IDC and the Democratic caucus in the Senate. There was media speculation about a possible presidential run, either in 2016 or 2020. Several reports indicated that Cuomo supported the Independent Democratic Conference until its dissolution and defeat in 2018 in part to appear more moderate for an eventual presidential bid. Cuomo denied these allegations, and in 2018

13068-455: The section below "by type of climate change impact". Because of changes in extreme weather and sea level rise , due to climate change, the UN has recommended early warning systems as key elements of climate change adaptation and climate risk management . Flooding, cyclones and other rapidly changing weather events can make communities in coastal areas, along floodzones and reliant on agriculture very vulnerable to extreme events. To this end

13189-410: The state. His strong support for New York City's bid to become the home of Amazon's HQ2 faced criticism based on arguments that the costs to the state outweighed the possible benefits. Amazon decided on two "major corporate outposts", in New York City and Arlington, Virginia , instead of a single second headquarters, before bowing out of the former under local pressure. On March 1, 2020, Cuomo issued

13310-744: The statewide total) and the Working Families line received 154,853 votes (5.3% and 3.4%), with the Democratic line receiving the remaining 2,610,220 votes (89.6% and 56.5%). The Conservative line received 232,281 votes (15.0% of Paladino's total, and 5.0% of the statewide total) and the Taxpayers line received 25,821 votes (1.5% and 0.6%), with the Republican line receiving the remaining 1,290,082 votes (83.3% and 27.1%). Cuomo sought reelection in 2014, with former U.S. Representative Kathy Hochul as his new running mate. On March 5, 2014, Westchester County executive Rob Astorino announced that he would run on

13431-402: The temperature increase to 1.5 °C. Even if greenhouse gas emissions are stopped relatively soon, global warming and its effects will last many years. This is due to the inertia of the climate system . So both carbon neutrality ("net zero") and adaptation are necessary. The Global Goal on Adaptation was also established under the Paris Agreement. The specific targets and indicators for

13552-460: The time of Utah governor Gary Herbert 's retirement on January 4, 2021, until his resignation on August 23, 2021, Cuomo was the longest-serving governor in the United States still in position, with 3,887 days in office. Cuomo has supported providing tax and other incentives to attract business to locate in New York State. He even joked in 2018 that he would be willing to change his name to "Amazon Cuomo" if Amazon located their " Amazon HQ2 " in

13673-656: The vote. On July 23, 2007, Cuomo's office admonished the Spitzer administration for ordering the New York State Police to keep special records of then Senate majority leader Joseph Bruno 's whereabouts when he traveled with police escorts in New York City. At the discretion of top officials of the Spitzer administration, the created documents meant to cause political damage to Bruno. Spitzer responded by accepting responsibility and issuing an apology to Bruno. In 2007, Cuomo

13794-562: The way conditions vary rather than changes in average conditions. For example, the average sea level in a port might not be as important as the height of water during a storm surge. That is because a storm surge can cause flooding. The average rainfall in an area might not be as important as how frequent and severe droughts and extreme precipitation events become. Climate change contributes to disaster risk. So experts sometimes see climate change adaptation as one of many processes within disaster risk reduction . In turn, disaster risk reduction

13915-450: The work. In the food production sector, adaptation projects financed through the UNFCCC often include coordination between national governments and administrations at the state, provincial or city level. There are fewer examples of coordination between community-level and national government. Individuals and households play a central role in adaptation. There are many examples particularly in

14036-435: Was "demonstrably false". Hayhoe confirmed that the report "considers all scenarios, from those where we go carbon negative before end of century to those where carbon emissions continue to rise". The New York Times reported "White House officials made a calculation that Mr. Trump’s core base of supporters most likely would not care that its findings are so at odds with the president’s statements and policies.” Steven Milloy ,

14157-425: Was a blunder. On the eve of the state convention, Cuomo withdrew from consideration after concluding that he had little chance of support against the favored party candidate, State Comptroller Carl McCall . McCall went on to lose the general election to incumbent George Pataki . Cuomo declared his candidacy for the Democratic nomination for New York State Attorney General in 2006 and on May 30, 2006, captured

14278-773: Was active in a high-profile investigation into lending practices and anti-competitive relationships between student lenders and universities. Specifically, many universities steered student borrowers to a "preferred lender", which resulted in the borrowers' incurring higher interest rates. This led to changes in lending policy at many major American universities. Many universities also rebated millions of dollars in fees to affected borrowers. On June 10, 2008, Cuomo announced that three major Internet service providers ( Verizon Communications , Time Warner Cable , and Sprint ) would "shut down major sources of online child pornography " by no longer hosting many Usenet groups. Time Warner Cable ceased offering Usenet altogether, Sprint ended access to

14399-863: Was alleged that his administration covered up information pertaining to COVID-19 deaths among nursing home residents who died in hospitals. Investigations by both the Department of Justice and the Manhattan District Attorney's Office were officially closed as a result of no evidence of wrongdoing. Beginning in late 2020, Cuomo faced numerous allegations of sexual misconduct . An investigation commissioned by New York attorney general Letitia James reported in August 2021 that Cuomo sexually harassed at least eleven women during his time in office, for which Cuomo faced criminal investigations, however she declined to file criminal charges against him. Following

14520-663: Was published in November 2023. President George H.W. Bush signed the Global Change Research Act of 1990 104  Stat.   3096 into law on November 16, 1990, which established the United States Global Change Research Program with a mandate to understand and respond to global change, including the cumulative effects of human activities and natural processes on the environment, to promote discussions toward international protocols in global change research, and for other purposes." Although

14641-555: Was responsible for reuniting the IDC with the mainstream Democratic conference. For his 2018 re-election bid, Cuomo accepted being on top of the ballot line for the Independence Party, a list that featured numerous Republicans, including ardent Trump supporters. In an August 15, 2018, anti-sex trafficking bill-signing event, Cuomo said: "We're not gonna make America great again. It was never that great. We have not reached greatness. We will reach greatness when every American

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