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54-556: For the 1969 season the P68 was used as the basis for an aborted, fully open Spyder , dubbed the Ford P69 . The P69 sported large, free-standing aerofoil wings , which were vital to the car's stability at high-speeds. However, these were banned by the European sanctioning body early in the season, thus the P68 was not eligible to race in the respective class any longer. At the end of the 1967 season

108-491: A waterwheel to power the bellows of a blast furnace producing cast iron . Zhang Heng was the first to employ hydraulics to provide motive power in rotating an armillary sphere for astronomical observation . In ancient Sri Lanka, hydraulics were widely used in the ancient kingdoms of Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa . The discovery of the principle of the valve tower, or valve pit, (Bisokotuwa in Sinhalese) for regulating

162-472: A "roadster" is that a team was preparing a new car for the Indianapolis 500. They had it covered in a corner of their shop. If they were asked about their car they would try and obscure its importance by saying that it was just their (hot rod) "roadster". After the Indianapolis racer was made public, the "roadster" name was still attached to it. Frank Kurtis built the first roadster to race and entered it in

216-444: A Brands Hatch specialist, was substituted into the lead car for the race, and was at the wheel, leading the race, when a rubber joint in the transmission failed, putting the car out. Although neither car had finished, the pace and performance while running looked to be promising better for the future. This promise was never to be fulfilled. With Mike Spence's death during practice for the 1968 Indianapolis 500 , fellow Brit Chris Irwin

270-402: A large scale to prospect for and then extract metal ores . They used lead widely in plumbing systems for domestic and public supply, such as feeding thermae . Hydraulic mining was used in the gold-fields of northern Spain, which was conquered by Augustus in 25 BC. The alluvial gold-mine of Las Medulas was one of the largest of their mines. At least seven long aqueducts worked it, and

324-508: A reciprocating device with hinged valves. The earliest programmable machines were water-powered devices developed in the Muslim world. A music sequencer , a programmable musical instrument , was the earliest type of programmable machine. The first music sequencer was an automated water-powered flute player invented by the Banu Musa brothers, described in their Book of Ingenious Devices , in

378-457: A single row of seats, the main seat for the driver and passenger was usually further back in the chassis than it would have been in a touring car . Roadsters usually had a hooded dashboard . In the United Kingdom, historically, the preferred terms were "open two-seater" and "two-seat tourer". Since the 1950s, the term "roadster" has also been increasingly used in the United Kingdom. It

432-579: A watering channel for Samos , the Tunnel of Eupalinos . An early example of the usage of hydraulic wheel, probably the earliest in Europe, is the Perachora wheel (3rd century BC). In Greco-Roman Egypt , the construction of the first hydraulic machine automata by Ctesibius (flourished c. 270 BC) and Hero of Alexandria (c. 10 – 80 AD) is notable. Hero describes several working machines using hydraulic power, such as

486-440: A wider opening being incorporated from mid-season. Fuel was stored in two deformable cells, one in each sill. Following poor results, during the winter of 1968 Len Bailey adapted the P68's monocoque to fully exploit the open-roof regulations. A fully open spyder prototype was produced with almost completely new bodywork panels; even lower and wider, it also included a dramatic reduction in length. Mechanicals were carried over from

540-550: Is an open two-seat car with emphasis on sporting appearance or character. Initially an American term for a two-seat car with no weather protection, its usage has spread internationally and has evolved to include two-seat convertibles . The roadster was also a style of racing car driven in United States Auto Club (USAC) Championship Racing, including the Indianapolis 500 , in the 1950s and 1960s. This type of racing car

594-472: Is noted that the optional 4-seat variant of the Morgan Roadster would not be technically considered a roadster. The term "spider" or "spyder," sometimes used in names for convertible models, is said to come from before the automobile era. Some 19th-century lightweight horse-drawn phaetons had a small body and large wooden wheels with thin spokes; they were nicknamed "spiders" because of their appearance;

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648-399: Is transmitted undiminished throughout the fluids. A French physician, Poiseuille (1797–1869) researched the flow of blood through the body and discovered an important law governing the rate of flow with the diameter of the tube in which flow occurred. Several cities developed citywide hydraulic power networks in the 19th century, to operate machinery such as lifts, cranes, capstans and

702-479: The 1952 Indianapolis 500 . It was driven by Bill Vukovich who led for most of the race until a steering failure eliminated him. The Howard Keck owned team with Vukovich driving went on to win the 1953 and 1954 contests with the same car. Bob Sweikert won the 1955 500 in a Kurtis after Vukovich was killed while leading. A. J. Watson , George Salih and Quinn Epperly were other notable roadster constructors. Watson-built roadsters won in 1956 , 1959 – 1964 though

756-428: The 1961 and 1963 winners were actually close copies built from Watson designs. The 1957 and 1958 winner was the same car built by Salih with help by Epperly built with a unique placement of the engine in a 'lay down' mounting so the cylinders were nearly horizontal instead of vertical as traditional design dictated. This gave a slightly lower center of mass and a lower profile. Roadsters continued to race until

810-456: The FIA redrew the rules for sports car racing . Engine capacity was limited to 3 litres for the lightest, most advanced Group 6 sports prototype class, while a new 5 litre Group 4 Sports Car class was introduced for vehicles of which at least 50 examples had been built. Ford 's American headquarters organisation withdrew from sports car racing at the end of 1967, leaving those teams committed to running

864-612: The Ford Model T and the Austin 7 to extremely expensive cars like the Cadillac V-16 , the Duesenberg Model J and Bugatti Royale . By the 1970s "roadster" could be applied to any two-seater car of sporting appearance or character. In response to market demand they were manufactured as well-equipped as convertibles with side windows that retracted into the doors. Popular models through

918-546: The Zeltweg race. For 1969 AMR intended to replace the P68 with its sister car, the P69. However, by the time of the 1969 BOAC 500 race only one P69 was ready. After trying the P69, prior to qualifying, Jack Brabham flatly refused to drive the car in anger so unstable did he find it. That left only a year-old P68 to carry the AMR flag, in the hands of Hulme and Gardner. A large, high-mounted wing

972-454: The force pump , which is known from many Roman sites as having been used for raising water and in fire engines. In the Roman Empire , different hydraulic applications were developed, including public water supplies, innumerable aqueducts , power using watermills and hydraulic mining . They were among the first to make use of the siphon to carry water across valleys, and used hushing on

1026-528: The 1960s and 1970s were the Alfa Romeo Spider , MGB and Triumph TR4 . The highest selling roadster is the Mazda MX-5 , which was introduced in 1989. The early style of roadster with minimal weather protection is still in production by several low-volume manufacturers and fabricators, including the windowless Morgan Roadster , the doorless Caterham 7 and the bodyless Ariel Atom . The term roadster

1080-797: The 6th millennium BC and water clocks had been used since the early 2nd millennium BC. Other early examples of water power include the Qanat system in ancient Persia and the Turpan water system in ancient Central Asia. In the Persian Empire or previous entities in Persia, the Persians constructed an intricate system of water mills, canals and dams known as the Shushtar Historical Hydraulic System . The project, commenced by Achaemenid king Darius

1134-401: The 9th century. In 1206, Al-Jazari invented water-powered programmable automata/ robots . He described four automaton musicians, including drummers operated by a programmable drum machine , where they could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns. In 1619 Benedetto Castelli , a student of Galileo Galilei , published the book Della Misura dell'Acque Correnti or "On

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1188-464: The DFV had been designed, the engine was not used as a structural chassis member. In contrast, the suspension layout was almost a direct copy of contemporary F1 practice. Contemporary observers commented on the oversized front hub components, potentially allowing the car to be converted to four-wheel drive at some point. The radiator was mounted in the nose, although later enhancements to cooling resulted in

1242-454: The GT40's bodywork, to work on their new car. The car was built to Group 6 regulations, with an open two-seat bodywork design. This was perhaps rather liberally interpreted, with only a small hatch in the otherwise enveloping roof being left open to the elements. The hatch also allowed the driver to see the centrally mounted rear-view mirror . One major advantage of the open prototype regulations

1296-534: The Great and finished by a group of Roman engineers captured by Sassanian king Shapur I , has been referred to by UNESCO as "a masterpiece of creative genius". They were also the inventors of the Qanat , an underground aqueduct, around the 9th century BC. Several of Iran's large, ancient gardens were irrigated thanks to Qanats. The Qanat spread to neighboring areas, including the Armenian highlands . There, starting in

1350-580: The Islamic world, including fulling mills, gristmills , paper mills , hullers , sawmills , ship mills , stamp mills , steel mills , sugar mills , and tide mills . By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from Al-Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia . Muslim engineers also used water turbines , employed gears in watermills and water-raising machines, and pioneered

1404-657: The Measurement of Running Waters," one of the foundations of modern hydrodynamics. He served as a chief consultant to the Pope on hydraulic projects, i.e., management of rivers in the Papal States, beginning in 1626. The science and engineering of water in Italy from 1500-1800 in books and manuscripts is presented in an illustrated catalog published in 2022. Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) studied fluid hydrodynamics and hydrostatics, centered on

1458-413: The P68 in almost unchanged form. This new car was numbered the P69, although differences with the P68 were only skin deep. In an attempt to cure the same stability problems that afflicted the P68, the P69 had an innovative system of interconnected, hydraulically -controlled, partially automatic, adjustable aerofoil wings . However, following several accidents with similar systems during Formula One races,

1512-424: The P68 was entered during 1968. One tantalising highlight occurred when Frank Gardner , who performed much of the P68's limited developmental testing, took pole position at the 1000km Spa race. However, once again the car flattered to deceive, as it stuttered to a halt on the first lap of the race with faulty electrics. By this time the P68's faults were all too apparent, and Alan Mann Racing decided not to travel to

1566-660: The United States . Some of the earliest race cars were purpose-built or stripped for the greatest speed, with minimal or no bodywork at all, leading to a body style aptly named 'speedster'. The cut-down speedster body-style really took form in the 1900s. After removing most of the body (and fenders), an empty platform on the ladder-frame chassis was mounted with one or two seats, a gas tank, and spare tyres. American manufacturers Mercer and Stutz started offering ready-made racing speedsters, intentionally built to be driven to race(-track), raced, and driven back by their owner – essentially

1620-522: The aging GT40 without factory support. While some teams, such as JWA , decided to go down the Group 4 Sports Car route and began work on updating the GT40, Alan Mann Racing decided to build a brand new prototype car around Ford 's recently introduced 3.0L DFV V8 Formula One engine. Raising sponsorship from Ford , as well as Burmah - Castrol and Goodyear , AMR procured the services of leading Ford aerodynamicist Len Bailey , who had designed much of

1674-416: The basic principles of hydraulics, some teachers use a hydraulic analogy to help students learn other things. For example: The conservation of mass requirement combined with fluid compressibility yields a fundamental relationship between pressure, fluid flow, and volumetric expansion, as shown below: Assuming an incompressible fluid or a "very large" ratio of compressibility to contained fluid volume,

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1728-458: The car. Over the following months the P68 sprouted ever larger rear spoilers , and small chin spoilers, in an effort to stabilise the car. Underneath the curvaceous bodywork, the chassis was a riveted , aluminium monocoque , with steel bulkheads onto which the suspension components were mounted. The DFV engine was supported in an aluminium cradle behind the driver. Unlike the Lotus 49 for which

1782-406: The difference in pressure is proportional to the difference in height, and this difference remains the same whether or not the overall pressure of the fluid is changed by applying an external force. This implies that by increasing the pressure at any point in a confined fluid, there is an equal increase at every other end in the container, i.e., any change in pressure applied at any point of the liquid

1836-482: The early 1970s but never were dominant. Hydraulics Hydraulics (from Ancient Greek ὕδωρ ( húdōr )  ' water ' and αὐλός ( aulós )  ' pipe ') is a technology and applied science using engineering , chemistry , and other sciences involving the mechanical properties and use of liquids . At a very basic level, hydraulics is the liquid counterpart of pneumatics , which concerns gases . Fluid mechanics provides

1890-764: The early 8th century BC, the Kingdom of Urartu undertook significant hydraulic works, such as the Menua canal . The earliest evidence of water wheels and watermills date back to the ancient Near East in the 4th century BC, specifically in the Persian Empire before 350 BCE, in the regions of Iraq , Iran , and Egypt . In ancient China there was Sunshu Ao (6th century BC), Ximen Bao (5th century BC), Du Shi (circa 31 AD), Zhang Heng (78 – 139 AD), and Ma Jun (200 – 265 AD), while medieval China had Su Song (1020 – 1101 AD) and Shen Kuo (1031–1095). Du Shi employed

1944-478: The escape of water is credited to ingenuity more than 2,000 years ago. By the first century AD, several large-scale irrigation works had been completed. Macro- and micro-hydraulics to provide for domestic horticultural and agricultural needs, surface drainage and erosion control, ornamental and recreational water courses and retaining structures and also cooling systems were in place in Sigiriya , Sri Lanka. The coral on

1998-415: The expense of driver comfort. In order to keep the P68 on the road, Bailey incorporated a patented, vortex -generating tail scoop, intended to create downforce without adding to drag . However, although the car has since been shown to produce moderate downforce at speed, this is mostly over the front wheels. The resultant high-speed instability led to both John Surtees and Jack Brabham refusing to drive

2052-548: The first track day cars . The immediate predecessor to the roadster was the runabout , a body style with a single row of seats and no doors, windshield, or other weather protection. Another predecessor was the touring car , similar in body style to the modern roadster except for its multiple rows of seats. By the 1920s roadsters were appointed similarly to touring cars, with doors, windshields, simple folding tops, and side curtains. Roadster bodies were offered on automobiles of all sizes and classes, from mass-produced cars like

2106-419: The human body within the vascular system and erectile tissue . Free surface hydraulics is the branch of hydraulics dealing with free surface flow, such as occurring in rivers , canals , lakes , estuaries , and seas . Its sub-field open-channel flow studies the flow in open channels . Early uses of water power date back to Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt , where irrigation has been used since

2160-490: The late 1960s, although they became increasingly uncompetitive against the new rear-engined racing cars. The last roadster to complete the full race distance was in 1965 , when Gordon Johncock finished fifth in the Wienberger Homes Watson car. The last roadster to make the race was built and driven by Jim Hurtubise in the 1968 race and dropped out early. Some pavement midget roadsters were built and raced into

2214-614: The like. Joseph Bramah (1748–1814) was an early innovator and William Armstrong (1810–1900) perfected the apparatus for power delivery on an industrial scale. In London, the London Hydraulic Power Company was a major supplier its pipes serving large parts of the West End of London , City and the Docks , but there were schemes restricted to single enterprises such as docks and railway goods yards . After students understand

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2268-452: The massive rock at the site includes cisterns for collecting water. Large ancient reservoirs of Sri Lanka are Kalawewa (King Dhatusena), Parakrama Samudra (King Parakrama Bahu), Tisa Wewa (King Dutugamunu), Minneriya (King Mahasen) In Ancient Greece , the Greeks constructed sophisticated water and hydraulic power systems. An example is a construction by Eupalinos , under a public contract, of

2322-492: The nickname was transferred to sports cars, although they did not look similar. In 1962, Chevrolet introduced the Monza Spyder , a turbocharged version of its Corvair compact, available as a convertible or coupe. Although not a true 2 passenger vehicle, it featured upgraded suspension and other equipment to classify it as a "sporty car." Auto racing began with the first earnest contests in 1894 in Europe , and in 1895 in

2376-417: The principles of hydraulic fluids. His discovery on the theory behind hydraulics led to his invention of the hydraulic press , which multiplied a smaller force acting on a smaller area into the application of a larger force totaled over a larger area, transmitted through the same pressure (or exact change of pressure) at both locations. Pascal's law or principle states that for an incompressible fluid at rest,

2430-498: The theoretical foundation for hydraulics, which focuses on applied engineering using the properties of fluids. In its fluid power applications, hydraulics is used for the generation, control, and transmission of power by the use of pressurized liquids. Hydraulic topics range through some parts of science and most of engineering modules, and they cover concepts such as pipe flow , dam design, fluidics , and fluid control circuitry. The principles of hydraulics are in use naturally in

2484-509: The two cars were relatively untested, with one actually being brand new, and teething troubles beset the weekend. Although initially slow during practice, gradual tuning and tweaking meant that by the end of qualifying McLaren had managed to put in a lap fast enough to take second place on the grid, splitting the works Porsche 907s . Unfortunately, the Rindt/Spence car had suffered an engine mount failure and failed to qualify. Spence, something of

2538-435: The use of dams as a source of water power, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines. Al-Jazari (1136–1206) described designs for 50 devices, many of them water-powered, in his book, The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices , including water clocks, a device to serve wine, and five devices to lift water from rivers or pools. These include an endless belt with jugs attached and

2592-516: The water streams were used to erode the soft deposits, and then wash the tailings for the valuable gold content. In the Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age and Arab Agricultural Revolution (8th–13th centuries), engineers made wide use of hydropower as well as early uses of tidal power , and large hydraulic factory complexes. A variety of water-powered industrial mills were used in

2646-675: The wings were swiftly banned by the FIA early in the season. Without wings, AMR judged that the car would require a complete redesign to be competitive with the dominant Porsches and therefore, lacking funds, the P68/P69 project was abandoned. The first batch of cars was ready for the European season-opening BOAC 500 race, at Brands Hatch on 7 April 1968. Even this early in its career, the P68 had started to grow spoilers and air dams at its front and rear. Two cars were entered, for Bruce McLaren and Denny Hulme , and Jochen Rindt and Mike Spence . However,

2700-705: Was attached directly to the tops of the rear suspension towers, which went some way to reducing rear-end lift at speed, but again an engine failure stopped the car before the end of the race. The final competition outing for the Ford 3L prototype was at the AMOC Martini Trophy meeting at Silverstone . But driver Gardner never even made the grid, as rain during practice soaked the cars electrics, making it unable to start. ( key ) (results in bold indicate pole position; results in italics indicate fastest lap) Roadster (automobile) A roadster (also spider , spyder )

2754-464: Was drafted in for the P68's next race: the 1968 1000km Nürburgring . He was lucky to escape death when he lost control of his car at the Flugplatz during practice, although his injuries were severe enough for his career to be ended. The car was destroyed. In the race, once again the remaining P68 failed to finish due to mechanical gremlins. This was to be the pattern during all the remaining races for which

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2808-538: Was superseded by rear-mid-engine cars. The term "roadster" originates in the United States, where it was used in the 19th century to describe a horse suitable for travelling. By the end of the century, the definition had expanded to include bicycles and tricycles. In 1916, the United States Society of Automobile Engineers defined a roadster as: "an open car seating two or three. It may have additional seats on running boards or in rear deck." Since it has

2862-459: Was that they permitted a much lower roofline than otherwise would have been possible. Bailey used this to create an extremely low, long, curvaceous, aerodynamically efficient design. With a C d of only 0.27 and a frontal area of 14 ft² the 3.0L engine was sufficient to push the P68 to over 350 km/h, faster than contemporary Formula One cars. However, former driver Frank Gardner has criticised Bailey's pursuit of aerodynamic efficiency at

2916-531: Was used to describe a style of racing cars competing in the AAA/USAC Championship Cars series (the IndyCar equivalents of the time) from 1952 to 1969. The roadster engine and drive shaft are offset from the centerline of the car. This allows the driver to sit lower in the chassis and facilitates a weight offset which is beneficial on oval tracks. One story of why this type of racing car is referred to as

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