Misplaced Pages

#453546

125-530: The town was known as Hotča or Hoča during medieval times. It was then known as a trading centre on route between Ragusa (now Dubrovnik ) and Constantinople (now Istanbul , Turkey ). Alongside the rest of Gornje Podrinje, Foča was part of the Serbian Empire until 1376, when it was attached to the Kingdom of Bosnia under King Tvrtko , king of Serbs , Bosnia , Coastal Lands and Zachlumia . After Tvrtko's death,

250-805: A devastating earthquake in 1667. During the Napoleonic Wars , Dubrovnik was occupied by the French Empire forces, and then the Republic of Ragusa was abolished and incorporated into the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy and later into the Illyrian Provinces of France. In the early 19th to early 20th century, Dubrovnik was part of the Kingdom of Dalmatia within the Austrian Empire . Dubrovnik became part of

375-670: A 147-kilometer pilgrimage route "Camino Dubrovnik- Međugorje ", expected to be open to visitors in May 2024. Dubrovnik is located in the southern tip of the Dalmatia region of Croatia in the Adriatic Sea . It is part of the Dubrovnik-Neretva County and borders the municipality of Dubrovačko Primorje to the north, more specifically the Majkovi village. There are several islands (part of

500-504: A Roman city situated some 15 km (9.3 mi) to the south, when that city was destroyed by Slavs fighting with the Avars. It was one of the Dalmatian city-states . Excavations in 2007 revealed a Byzantine basilica from the 8th century and parts of the city walls . The size of the old basilica clearly indicates that there was quite a large settlement at the time. There is also evidence for

625-524: A campaign of ethnic cleansing in the area of Foča against Bosniak civilians . By one estimate, around 21,000 non-Serbs left Foča after July 1992. Most of them that managed to escape were settled in the town of Rožaje in Montenegro until the war ended. Only about 10 Muslims remained at the end of the conflict. Thirteen mosques including the Aladža Mosque were destroyed and the 22,500 Muslims who made up

750-531: A coercive environment, or the invasion was committed against a person incapable of giving genuine consent. The concept of "invasion" is intended to be broad enough to be gender-neutral and the definition is understood to include situations where the victim may be incapable of giving genuine consent if affected by natural, induced or age-related incapacity. A prominent data-set on conflict-related sexual violence, Sexual Violence in Armed Conflict (SVAC), builds on

875-646: A community—posed a particularly perplexing problem: Dalmatia was a province ruled by the German-speaking Habsburg monarchy , with bilingual (Croatian- and Italian-speaking) elites that dominated the general population consisting of a Slavic Catholic majority, as well as a Slavic Orthodox minority. In 1815, the former Dubrovnik government (its noble assembly) met for the last time in Ljetnikovac in Mokošica . Once again, extreme measures were taken to re-establish

1000-468: A defense by a perpetrator of war rape. Laws and customs of war prohibit offenses such as "inhuman treatment" or "indecent assaults", adding to this domestic military codes and domestic civil codes (national law) may make sexual assault a crime. In 1999, humanitarian law concerned the maltreatment of civilians and "any devastation not justified by military necessity". The ancient Greeks considered war rape of women "socially acceptable behavior well within

1125-520: A feeling of deep patriotic pride, Giorgi, the last Rector of the Republic, refused to do so "for the masses had hoisted it". Subsequent events proved that Austria took every possible opportunity to invade the entire coast of the eastern Adriatic, from Venice to Kotor . The Austrians did everything in their power to eliminate the Ragusa issue at the Congress of Vienna . Ragusan representative Miho Bona , elected at

1250-474: A number of de facto detention centres. Many of the women subsequently disappeared . However, Justice Richard Goldstone, chief prosecutor at the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia , commented that "rape has never been the concern of the international community." United States law specifies that rape in wartime is punishable by death or imprisonment under Section d(g) of

1375-650: A population or culture as a whole) as a form of genocide under international law. In the trial of Jean-Paul Akayesu , the mayor of Taba Commune in Rwanda , the Trial Chamber held that "sexual assault formed an integral part of the process of destroying the Tutsi ethnic group and that the rape was systematic and had been perpetrated against Tutsi women only, manifesting the specific intent required for those acts to constitute genocide." Judge Navanethem Pillay , who went on to become

SECTION 10

#1733086205454

1500-553: A root cognate to Greek ῥαγή "fissure", with a suffix -ussa also found in the Greek name of Brač , Elaphousa . The name of the city in the native Dalmatian language , now extinct, was Ragusa , as shown by a 1325 letter in Dalmatian. In Albanian, the city was historically referred to as Rush ( Albanian definite form : Rushi ), from Latin Ragusium. The classical explanation of

1625-481: A sexual nature committed on a person under circumstances which are coercive") and sexual assault constitute acts of genocide insofar as they were committed with the intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a targeted group, as such. It found that sexual assault formed an integral part of the process of destroying the Tutsi ethnic group and that the rape was systematic and had been perpetrated against Tutsi women only, manifesting

1750-505: A single Croatian Party in 1905. With the fall of Austria-Hungary in 1918, the city was incorporated into the new Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (later renamed to Kingdom of Yugoslavia ). Dubrovnik became one of the 33 oblasts of the Kingdom. When Yugoslavia was divided among nine banovinas in 1929, the city became part of the Zeta Banovina . In 1939, Dubrovnik became part of the newly created Banovina of Croatia . During

1875-531: A single home remained in one piece. All property was destroyed except cattle, corn, and senna." In the operation Chetnik losses "were 22 dead, of which 2 through accidents, and 32 wounded. Among the Muslims, around 1,200 fighters and up to couple of thousands of civilian victims of both nationalitys." Đurišić said what remained of the Muslim population fled and that actions were taken to prevent their return. The municipality

2000-527: A state not party to the convention, neutral persons living in the belligerent nation, and allied nationals from protection under the convention. Non-protected rape victims are instead protected by international human rights law to which their home or the offending foreign state may be a party to. In 1998, the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda established by the United Nations made landmark decisions defining genocidal rape (rape intended to affect

2125-624: A station halfway between the two Greek settlements of Budva and Korčula , 95 nautical miles (176 km; 109 mi) apart from each of them. After the fall of the Ostrogothic Kingdom , the town came under the protection of the Byzantine Empire . In the 12th and 13th centuries, Dubrovnik grew into an oligarchic republic. After the Crusades , Dubrovnik came under the sovereignty of Venice (1205–1358), which would give its institutions to

2250-419: A strong network unequaled with other Christian states. The Republic gradually declined due to a combination of a Mediterranean shipping crisis and the catastrophic earthquake of 1667 that killed over 5,000 citizens, levelled most of the public buildings and, consequently, negatively affected the well-being of the Republic. In 1699, the Republic was forced to sell two mainland patches of its territory to

2375-656: A successful case before the Batavia Military Tribunal in 1948. It is well known that brutal mass rapes were committed against German women; both during and after World War II. According to some estimates, over 100,000 women were raped by Soviet soldiers in Berlin both during and after the Battle of Berlin . The phrase "from eight to 80" was used to describe potential victims of Soviet mass-rape. "Red Army soldiers don't believe in 'individual liaisons' with German women," wrote

2500-766: A traitor by his people), they managed to convince him that the gate to the east was to be kept closed to the Ragusan forces and to let the Austrian forces enter the City from the west, without any Ragusan soldiers, once the French garrison of 500 troops under General Joseph de Montrichard had surrendered. After this, the Flag of Saint Blaise was flown alongside the Austrian and British colors, but only for two days because, on 30 January, General Milutinović ordered Mayor Sabo Giorgi to lower it. Overwhelmed by

2625-429: A variety of situations, including institutionalized sexual slavery, wartime sexual violence associated with specific battles or massacres , as well as individual or isolated acts of sexual violence. Rape can also be recognized as genocide when it is committed with the intent to destroy , in whole or in part, a targeted group. International legal instruments for prosecuting perpetrators of genocide were developed in

SECTION 20

#1733086205454

2750-544: A war crime was present because of the recognition of war rape as serious violation of the laws of war in the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 assertion that "[f]amily honour and rights [and] the lives of persons... must be respected." While the Nuremberg Tribunals failed to charge Nazi war criminals with rape, witnesses testified about it occurring. Several of the testimonies of victims of sexual violence during

2875-589: A way to measure victory, part of a soldier's proof of masculinity and success, a tangible reward for services rendered.... an actual reward of war". During this period in history, war rape took place not necessarily as a conscious effort of war to terrorize the enemy, but rather as earned compensation for winning a war. There is little evidence to suggest that superiors regularly ordered subordinates to commit acts of rape. Throughout this period of history, war became more regulated, specific, and regimented. The first formal prosecution for war crimes did not take place until

3000-453: A white flag with the Latin : Libertas word (freedom) prominently featured on it. The flag was adopted when slave trading was abolished in 1418. Many Conversos , Jews from Spain and Portugal who converted to Christianity, were attracted to the city. In May 1544, a ship landed there filled exclusively with Portuguese refugees, as Balthasar de Faria reported to King John. During this time one of

3125-544: Is a city in southern Dalmatia , Croatia , by the Adriatic Sea . It is one of the most prominent tourist destinations in the Mediterranean , a seaport and the centre of the Dubrovnik-Neretva County . Its total population is 41,562 (2021 census). In 1979, the city of Dubrovnik was added to the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites in recognition of its outstanding medieval architecture and fortified old town. The history of

3250-654: Is also the site of the legendary Battle of Sutjeska between the Tito's Yugoslav Partisans and the German army. A monument to the Partisans killed in the battle was erected in the village of Tjentište. In 1992, at the onset of the Bosnian War , the city fell under the control of the Army of Republika Srpska . From 7 April 1992 to January 1994, Serb military, police and paramilitary forces enacted

3375-652: Is considered one of the most popular destinations in the Adriatic and in Europe . The names Dubrovnik and Ragusa co-existed for several centuries. Ragusa , recorded in various forms since at least the 10th century (in Latin , Dalmatian , Italian ; in Venetian : Raguxa ), remained the official name of the Republic of Ragusa until 1808, and of the city within the Kingdom of Dalmatia until 1918, while Dubrovnik , first recorded in

3500-547: Is not the law of all nations, but it is the law of the more respectable ones. Emmerich van Vattel emerged as an influential figure when he pleaded for the immunity of civilians against the ravages of war, considering men and women civilians as non-combatants. In the late 18th century and 19th century, treaties and war codes started to include vague provisions for the protection of women: The Treaty of Amity and Commerce (1785) specified that in case of war "women and children.... shall not be molested in their persons". Article 20 of

3625-453: Is recorded in the Greek form Ῥαούσιν ( Rhaousin , Latinized Ragusium ) in the 10th century. It was recorded in various forms in the medieval period, Rausia , Lavusa , Labusa , Raugia , Rachusa . Various attempts have been made to etymologize the name. Suggestions include derivation from Greek ῥάξ , ῥαγός "grape"; from Greek ῥώξ , ῥωγός "narrow passage"; Greek ῥωγάς "ragged (of rocks)", ῥαγή ( ῥαγάς ) "fissure"; from

3750-587: Is variance in what forms of violence are included in the definition and variance in which violence is considered conflict-related. The terms rape , sexual assault and sexual violence are frequently used interchangeably. The Explanatory Note of the Rome Statute , which binds the International Criminal Court , defines rape as follows: The perpetrator invaded the body of a person by conduct resulting in penetration, however slight, of any part of

3875-561: The Albanian language was attested for the first time in history when a crime witness testified: "I heard a voice crying on the mountain in the Albanian language" ( Latin : Audivi unam vocem, clamantem in monte in lingua albanesca ). When the Habsburg Empire annexed these provinces after the 1815 Congress of Vienna , the new authorities implemented a bureaucratic administration, established

Foča - Misplaced Pages Continue

4000-617: The Anti-bureaucratic revolution and were allied to Slobodan Milošević in Serbia –declared that Dubrovnik should not remain in Croatia. At the time most residents of Dubrovnik had come to identify as Croatian , with Serbs accounting for 6.8 percent of the population. On 1 October 1991, Dubrovnik was attacked by the JNA resulting in a siege that lasted for seven months. The heaviest artillery attack

4125-751: The Croatian War of Independence , Dubrovnik was besieged by the Yugoslav People's Army for seven months and suffered significant damage from shelling. After undergoing repair and restoration works in the 1990s and early 2000s, it re-emerged as one of the Mediterranean's top tourist destinations , as well as a popular filming location . According to Holidu, Dubrovnik was the most 'over-touristed' destination in Europe during 2023, with 27.42 tourists for each inhabitant. Often called " The Queen of Adriatic " Dubrovnik

4250-491: The Elaphiti Islands archipelago) off the coast of Dubrovnik, including from north to south (the islands in bold are larger and populated, and most of these are uninhabited): Rape camps Wartime sexual violence is rape or other forms of sexual violence committed by combatants during an armed conflict , war, or military occupation often as spoils of war , but sometimes, particularly in ethnic conflict ,

4375-635: The Foča massacres were accused and convicted of war crimes by the ICTY. In 1995 the Dayton Agreement created a territorial corridor linking the once-besieged city of Goražde to the Federation entity ; as a consequence, the northern part of Foča was separated to create the municipality of Foča-Ustikolina . Prior to that in 1994, the ethnically-cleansed town was renamed Srbinje ( Serbian Cyrillic : Србиње ), "place of

4500-621: The Hague Conventions . Article 46 of the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 regarding Land Warfare required only that "[f]amily honour and rights [and] the lives of persons... must be respected" by the occupying powers. After World War I , the Commission of Responsibilities , set up in 1919 to examine the atrocities committed by the German Empire and the other Central Powers during the war, found substantial evidence of sexual violence and subsequently included rape and forced prostitution among

4625-515: The Kingdom of Dalmatia , which had its own Sabor (Diet) or Parliament which is the oldest Croatian political institution based in the city of Zadar , and political parties such as the Autonomist Party and the People's Party . They introduced a series of modifications intended to slowly centralise the bureaucratic, tax, religious, educational, and trade structure. These steps largely failed, despite

4750-587: The Kingdom of Yugoslavia immediately upon its creation , and it was incorporated into its Zeta Banovina in 1929, before becoming part of the Banovina of Croatia upon its creation in 1939 . During World War II , it was part of the Axis puppet state Independent State of Croatia , before being reincorporated into Socialist Republic of Croatia in Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia . In 1991, during

4875-542: The Nuremberg Charter : "other inhumane acts" and "enslavement". However, notwithstanding evidence of sexual violence in Europe during World War II, a lack of will led to rape and sexual violence not being prosecuted at the Nuremberg Tribunals. According to records, at least 34 140 European women were forced to  prostitution during the German occupation of their countries, along with concentration camp female prisoners. In many cases, girls and women were abducted from

5000-941: The Partizan sport hall in Foča on the International Day for the Elimination of Sexual Violence in Conflict (19 June). In 2021, a memorial to convicted Srebrenica massacre perpetrator Ratko Mladić was painted near a school in the town. After the Bosnian War the Northern area of the Foča Municipality was separated and incorporated into the Foča-Ustikolina Municipality, located in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina . The majority of its population are Bosniaks . Aside from

5125-637: The Rwanda Tribunal , that body rendered a judgment against the mayor of Taba Commune which found him guilty of genocide for the use of rape in "the destruction of the spirit, of the will to live, and of life itself." The Akayesu judgement includes the first interpretation and application by an international court of the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide . The Trial Chamber held that rape (which it defined as "a physical invasion of

Foča - Misplaced Pages Continue

5250-611: The United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights between 2008 and 2014, said in a statement after the verdict: "From time immemorial, rape has been regarded as spoils of war. Now it will be considered a war crime . We want to send out a strong message that rape is no longer a trophy of war." An estimated 500,000 women were raped during the 1994 Rwandan genocide . Professor Paul Walters in his April 2005 statement of support of Pillay's honorary doctorate of law at Rhodes University wrote: Under her presidency of

5375-564: The War Crimes Act of 1996 . However, a total ban on abortion is a requirement of US humanitarian aid for war victims, with no exceptions for rape, incest, or to save the life of the mother. The 1998 Rome Statute Explanatory Memorandum, which defines the jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court , recognizes rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution , forced pregnancy , enforced sterilization , "or any other form of sexual violence of comparable gravity" as crime against humanity if

5500-464: The World War II in Yugoslavia , Dubrovnik became part of the Axis puppet state , Independent State of Croatia (NDH), occupied by the Italian Army first, and by the German Army after 8 September 1943. There were clashes between Italian and German troops in Dubrovnik when the Germans took over. In October 1944, Yugoslav Partisans liberated Dubrovnik, arresting more than 300 citizens and executing 53 without trial; this event came to be known, after

5625-442: The inscription of Župa Dubrovačka , indicating that the Glagolitic script was also likely once used in the city. The Italian language as spoken in the republic was heavily influenced by the Venetian language and the Tuscan dialect . Italian took root among the Dalmatian-speaking merchant upper classes, as a result of Venetian influence which strengthened the original Latin element of the population. On 14 July 1284 in Ragusa,

5750-515: The laws of war were put in place by nations who were signatories to treaties. However, while the customs of war mandated more humane treatment of soldiers and civilians, new weapons and advanced technology increased destruction and altered the methods of war. The Lieber Code (1863) was the first codification of the international customary laws of land war and an important step towards humanitarian law. The Lieber Code emphasized protection of civilians and stated that "all rape... [is] prohibited under

5875-400: The 14th century and 1808, Dubrovnik ruled itself as a free state , although it was a tributary from 1382 to 1804 of the Ottoman Empire and paid an annual tribute to its sultan. The Republic reached its peak in the 15th and 16th centuries, when its thalassocracy rivalled that of the Republic of Venice and other Italian maritime republics. For centuries, Dubrovnik was an ally of Ancona ,

6000-412: The 1949 Fourth Geneva Convention explicitly prohibits wartime rape and enforced prostitution of protected persons in international conflicts. The prohibitions outlined in the 1949 Geneva Conventions were reinforced by the 1977 Additional Protocols I and II to the 1949 Geneva Conventions. Article 4 of the Fourth Geneva Convention excludes civilians under their own national authority, nationals of

6125-445: The 1990s, and the Akayesu case of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda , between the International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia and itself, which themselves were "pivotal judicial bodies [in] the larger framework of transitional justice," was "widely lauded for its historical precedent in successfully prosecuting rape as an instrument of genocide." There is no consensus definition of wartime sexual violence, as there

6250-469: The Association of the Prisoners of War of Republika Srpska, prevented the plaque from being affixed. The Partizan sport hall was reconstructed by UNDP , with EU funding , following a selection by the Foča municipal council, also with the participation of elected representatives of local returnees. In 2018 and 2019, the association of war victims have been commemorating rape as a weapon of war by congregating in front of Karaman's House in Miljevina and of

6375-421: The Dalmatian city. In 1240 Ragusa purchased the island of Lastovo from Stefan Uroš I , king of Serbia , who had rights over the island as ruler of parts of Zachlumia . After a fire destroyed most of the city on the night of August 16, 1296, a new urban plan was developed. By the Peace Treaty of Zadar in 1358, Dubrovnik achieved relative independence as a vassal-state of the Kingdom of Hungary . Between

SECTION 50

#1733086205454

6500-428: The Dalmatian language was among the spoken ones, and was influenced by Croatian and Italian. The presence of Croatian in everyday speech increased in the late 13th century, and in literary works in the mid-15th century. In the coming decades, Dubrovnik became a cradle of Croatian literature . The economic wealth of the Republic was partially the result of the land it developed, but especially of seafaring trade. With

6625-494: The French army, raiding and pillaging everything along the way and culminating in a siege of the occupied city during which 3,000 cannonballs fell on it. In 1808 Marshal Marmont issued a proclamation abolishing the Republic of Ragusa and amalgamating its territory into the French Empire's client state, the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy . Marmont claimed the newly created title of "Duke of Ragusa" ( Duc de Raguse ) and in 1810 Ragusa, together with Istria and Dalmatia , went to

6750-486: The Holocaust were by Jewish men and women. Previous war crimes trials had prosecuted for sex crimes, hence war rape could have been prosecuted under customary law and/or under the IMT (International Military Tribunals) Charter's Article 6(b): "abduction of the civilian population.... into slavery and for other purposes" and "abduction unjustified by military necessity ". Similarly, it would have been possible to prosecute war rape as crime against humanity under Article 6(c) of

6875-600: The ICC definition and covers seven forms of violence: "(a) rape, (b) sexual slavery, (c) forced prostitution, (d) forced pregnancy, (e) forced sterilization/abortion, (f) sexual mutilation, and (g) sexual torture." The data-set defines conflict-related sexual violence as the sexual violence committed by "armed actors (specifically, state militaries, rebel groups, and progovernment militias) during periods of conflict or immediately postconflict," thus excluding sexual violence by civilians. More expansive definitions may define wartime sexual violence as being committed even by civilians if

7000-411: The Old Town in early 1970s in an attempt to prevent it from ever becoming a casualty of war, following Croatia's independence in 1991, Yugoslav People's Army (JNA)–by then composed primarily of Serbs –attacked the city. The new Croatian government set up a military outpost in the city itself. Montenegro –led by President Momir Bulatović and Prime Minister Milo Đukanović , who came to power in

7125-424: The Order No. 20 (1847), a supplement to the US Rules and Articles of war, listed the following as severely punishable "Assassination, murder, malicious stabbing or maiming, rape". The Declaration of Brussels (1874) stated that the "honours and rights of the family.... should be respected" (article 38). In the 19th century, the treatment of soldiers, prisoners, the wounded, and civilians improved when core elements of

7250-461: The Ottomans in order to avoid being caught in the clash with advancing Venetian forces. Today this strip of land belongs to Bosnia and Herzegovina and is that country's only direct access to the Adriatic. A highlight of Dubrovnik's diplomacy was the involvement in the American Revolution . On 27 May 1806, the forces of the Empire of France occupied the neutral Republic of Ragusa . Upon entering Ragusan territory without permission and approaching

7375-410: The Republic would be restored, the Austrian Empire managed to convince the other allies to allow it to keep the territory of the Republic. While many smaller and less significant cities and former countries were permitted an audience, that right was refused to the representative of the Ragusan Republic. All of this was in blatant contradiction to the solemn treaties that the Austrian Emperors signed with

7500-438: The Republic, but it was all in vain. After the fall of the Republic most of the aristocracy was recognised by the Austrian Empire. In 1832, Baron Šišmundo Getaldić-Gundulić ( Sigismondo Ghetaldi-Gondola ) (1795–1860) was elected Mayor of Dubrovnik, serving for 13 years; the Austrian government granted him the title of "Baron". Count Rafael Pucić ( Raffaele Pozza ) (1828–1890) was elected for first time Podestà of Dubrovnik in

7625-447: The Republic: the first on 20 August 1684, in which Leopold I promises and guarantees inviolate liberty ("inviolatam libertatem") to the Republic, and the second in 1772, in which the Empress Maria Theresa promises protection and respect of the inviolability of the freedom and territory of the Republic. The official language until 1472 was Latin . As a consequence of the increasing migration of Slavic population from inland Dalmatia,

SECTION 60

#1733086205454

7750-419: The Serbs". In 2004, the Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina declared the name change unconstitutional, and reverted it back to Foča. Since the war, around 4,000 Bosniaks have returned to their homes in Foča, and several mosques have been re-built. This has taken place largely due to the administration of Zdravko Krsmanović , who was mayor from 2004 to 2012. In the 2012 elections, however, Krsmanović

7875-543: The Territory of Neighboring States between 1 January and 31 December 1994". The report states that on 2 September 1998, Trial Chamber I of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, composed of Judges Laïty Kama, Presiding, Lennart Aspegren and Navanethem Pillay, found Jean Paul Akayesu guilty of 9 of the 15 counts proffered against him, including genocide, direct and public incitement to commit genocide and crimes against humanity, murder, torture, rape, and other inhumane acts. The Tribunal found Jean Paul Akayesu not guilty of

8000-609: The Venetian (Venice– Austria – Germany ): starting in Dubrovnik it went on to Ancona, through Florence and ended in Flanders . Ragusa was an important base for the traffic of the Balkan slave trade , from which slaves were transported from the Balkans across the Adriatic Sea to the Aegean Sea , from which they were sold on to either slavery in Spain in the West or slavery in Egypt in the South. The Republic of Ragusa received its own Statutes as early as 1272, which, among other things, codified Roman practice and local customs. The Statutes included prescriptions for town planning and

8125-432: The World War II, the city started to attract crowds of tourists–even more after 1979, when the city joined the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites . The growth of tourism also led to the decision to demilitarise the Dubrovnik Old Town. The income from tourism was pivotal in the post-war development of the city, including its airport. The Dubrovnik Summer Festival was founded in 1950. The Adriatic Highway ( Magistrala )

8250-411: The body of the victim or of the perpetrator with a sexual organ, or of the anal or genital opening of the victim with any object or any other part of the body. and The invasion was committed by force, or by threat of force or coercion, such as that caused by fear of violence, duress, detention, psychological oppression or abuse of power , against such person or another person, or by taking advantage of

8375-526: The bombing. General Pavle Strugar , who coordinated the attack on the city, was sentenced to a seven-and-a-half-year prison term by the tribunal for his role in the attack. The 1996 Croatia USAF CT-43 crash , near Dubrovnik Airport , killed everyone on a United States Air Force jet, including United States Secretary of Commerce Ron Brown , The New York Times Frankfurt Bureau chief Nathaniel C. Nash , and 33 other people. In October 2023, Dubrovnik joined European Network of Saint James Way Paths, with

8500-414: The capital of the maritime Republic of Ragusa , it achieved a high level of development, particularly during the 15th and 16th centuries, as it became notable for its wealth and skilled diplomacy . At the same time, Dubrovnik became a cradle of Croatian literature . In his letter to Nikola Nalješković (1564), poet Ivan Vidalić named it "crown of Croatian cities". The entire city was almost destroyed in

8625-491: The capital, the French General Jacques Lauriston demanded that his troops be allowed to rest and be provided with food and drink in the city before continuing on to take possession of their holdings in the Bay of Kotor . However, this was a deception because as soon as they entered the city, they proceeded to occupy it in the name of Napoleon. Almost immediately after the beginning of the French occupation, Russian and Montenegrin troops entered Ragusan territory and began fighting

8750-417: The city probably dates back to the 7th century, when the town known as Ragusa was founded by refugees from Epidaurum ( Ragusa Vecchia ). It was under protectorate of the Byzantine Empire and later under the sovereignty of the Republic of Venice . Between the 14th and 19th centuries, Dubrovnik ruled itself as a free state . The prosperity of the city was historically based on maritime trade ; as

8875-418: The communities of Kuna and Orebić, the latter one getting the nationalist government even before Split. In 1901, the narrow-gauge ( 760 mm ) railway line was opened primarily to connect the port city of Dubrovnik with the interior of Bosnia and Herzegovina and further into Europe. The line was operational from 1901 to 1976. In 1905, the Committee for establishing electric tram service , headed by Luko Bunić

9000-480: The conflict creates a sense of impunity. In 2009, the UN established a mandate and adopted SCR 1888 resolution 2009 to tackle conflict-related sexual violence (CRSV) as a peace and security issue and related violations. CRSV refers to rape, sexual slavery, forced prostitution , forced pregnancy , forced abortion , enforced sterilization , forced marriage , trafficking in persons when committed in situations of conflict for

9125-521: The deliberate destruction of Bosniak property and cultural sites constituted crimes against humanity . According to the Research and Documentation Center (IDC), 2,707 people were killed or went missing in the Foča municipality during the war. Among them were 1,513 Bosniak civilians and 155 Serb civilians. Additionally, Bosnian Serb authorities set up rape camps in which hundreds of women were raped. Numerous Serb officers, soldiers and other participants in

9250-494: The enemy": The violation of women [in wartime] is variously regarded as permitted or not. Those who allow it consider only the injury done to the person, which they hold it agreeable to the law of arms to inflict on anything belonging to the enemy. The other opinion is better: it takes into account not only the injury but also the act of unbridled lust and concludes that something pertaining to neither safety nor punishment should be no more lawful in war than in peace. This latter view

9375-422: The help of skilled diplomacy, Dubrovnik merchants travelled lands freely and the city had a huge fleet of merchant ships (known as argosy ) that travelled all over the world. From these travels they founded some settlements, from India (cf. Ragusan trade with India ) to America, and brought parts of their culture and flora home with them. One of its keys to success was not conquering, but trading and sailing under

9500-491: The historic walled city, a UNESCO World Heritage Site , sustained 650 hits by artillery rounds. The Croatian Army lifted the siege in May 1992, and liberated Dubrovnik's surroundings by the end of October, but the danger of sudden attacks by the JNA lasted for another three years. Following the end of the war , damage caused by the shelling of the Old Town was repaired. Adhering to UNESCO guidelines, repairs were performed in

9625-506: The institution of Peace and Truce of God (first proclaimed in 989) which discouraged soldiers from attacking women and civilians in general and through the propagation of a Christianized version of chivalry ideal of a knight who protected innocents and did not engage in lawlessness. In 1159, John of Salisbury wrote Policraticus in an attempt to regulate the conduct of armies engaged in "justifiable" wars. Salisbury believed that acts of theft and "rapine" (property crimes) should receive

9750-525: The intention of wanting to stimulate the economy. Once the personal, political and economic damage of the Napoleonic Wars had been overcome, new movements began to form in the region, calling for a political reorganisation of the Adriatic along national lines. The combination of these two forces—a flawed Habsburg administrative system and new national movement claiming ethnicity as the founding block toward

9875-734: The judgement rendered by the Trial Chamber. Rape first became recognized as a crime against humanity when the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia issued arrest warrants in 1993, based on the Geneva Conventions and Violations of the Laws or Customs of War. Specifically, it was recognized that Muslim women in Foča (southeastern Bosnia and Herzegovina ) were subjected to systematic and widespread gang rape, torture and sexual enslavement by Bosnian Serb soldiers, policemen, and members of paramilitary groups after

10000-588: The language spoken by much of the population was Croatian , typically referred to in Dubrovnik's historical documents simply as "Slavic". To oppose the demographic change due to increased Slavic immigration from the Balkans, the native Romance population of Ragusa, which made up the oligarchic government of the Republic, tried to prohibit the use of any Slavic languages in official councils. Archeologists have also discovered medieval Glagolitic tablets near Dubrovnik, such as

10125-665: The last meeting of the Major Council, was denied participation in the Congress, while Milutinović, prior to the final agreement of the allies, assumed complete control of the city. Regardless of the fact that the government of the Ragusan Republic never signed any capitulation nor relinquished its sovereignty, which according to the rules of Klemens von Metternich that Austria adopted for the Vienna Congress should have meant that

10250-479: The late 12th century, was in widespread use by the late 16th or early 17th century. The name Dubrovnik of the Adriatic city is first recorded in the Charter of Ban Kulin (1189). The most common explanation for the origin is from a Proto-Slavic word dǫbъ meaning 'oak', and the term dubrovnik referring to 'oak wood' or 'oak forest', as dǫbrava means 'oakwood', 'forest'. The historical name Ragusa

10375-424: The late Middle Ages. Hugo Grotius , considered the father of the law of nations and the first to conduct a comprehensive work on systematizing the international laws of war, De jure belli ac pacis (1625), concluded that rape (phrased as "the violation of women") "should not go unpunished in war any more than in peace", rejecting the view that it is permissible to inflict damage or harm "on anything belonging to

10500-419: The laws of war, rape continued to be a problem in the 15th and 16th centuries. The influential writer Francisco de Vitoria stood for a gradual emergence of the notion that glory or conquest were not necessarily acceptable reasons to start a war. The jurist Alberico Gentili insisted that all women, including female combatants, should be spared from sexual assault in wartime. It is suggested that one reason for

10625-461: The majority of inhabitants fled. The Tribunal Judges determined beyond a reasonable doubt that the purpose of the Serb campaign in Foča was, among others, "to cleanse the Foča area of Muslims" and concluded that "to that end the campaign was successful. In numerous verdicts , the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) ruled that the ethnic cleansing , killings, mass rapes , and

10750-663: The most famous cannon and bell founders of his time worked in the city: Ivan Rabljanin (also known as Magister Johannes Baptista Arbensis de la Tolle). By 1571 Dubrovnik had sold its protection over some Christian settlements in other parts of the Ottoman Empire to France and Venice . At that time there was also a colony of Dubrovnik in Fes in Morocco. The bishop of Dubrovnik was a Cardinal protector in 1571, at that time there were only 16 other countries which had Cardinal protectors. Dubrovnik

10875-409: The most severe punishment, but also believed that obeying a superior's commands whether legal or illegal, moral or immoral, was the ultimate duty of the soldier. Rape and pillage were prohibited by some army codes as early as the 14th century because of the tendency to create strong hostility in civilian populations and the detrimental effects to army discipline. Despite early efforts to systematize

11000-476: The name is due to Constantine VII 's De Administrando Imperio (10th century). According to this account, Ragusa ( Ῥαούσιν ) is the foundation of the refugees from Epidaurum ( Ragusa Vecchia ), a Greek city situated some 15 km (9 mi) to the south of Ragusa, when that city was destroyed in the Slavic incursions of the 7th century. The name is explained as a corruption of a Dalmatae / Romance word Lausa ,

11125-595: The name of the Epirote tribe of the Rhogoi , from an unidentified Illyrian substrate. A connection to the name of Sicilian Ragusa has also been proposed. It has been proposed by V. Orel that the Proto-Albanian * rāguša of Albanian rrush 'grape' is related to Ragusa or the source of the name. Putanec (1993) gives a review of etymological suggestion, and favours an explanation of the name as pre-Greek (" Pelasgian "), from

11250-469: The name of the rocky island on which the city was built (connected by Constantine to Greek λᾶας "rock, stone"). Dubrovnik was inhabited by the Illyrian tribe of Pleraei in ancient times. According to Constantine Porphyrogenitus 's De Administrando Imperio ( c. 950), Ragusa was founded in the 7th century, named after a "rocky island" called Lausa , by refugees from Epidaurum ( Ragusa Vecchia ),

11375-462: The newly created French Illyrian Provinces . After seven years of French occupation, encouraged by the desertion of French soldiers after the failed invasion of Russia and the reentry of Austria in the war , all the social classes of the Ragusan people rose up in a general insurrection, led by the patricians, against the Napoleonic invaders. On 18 June 1813, together with British forces they forced

11500-436: The original style. Most of the reconstruction work was done between 1995 and 1999. The inflicted damage can be seen on a chart near the city gate, showing all artillery hits during the siege, and is clearly visible from high points around the city in the form of the more brightly coloured new roofs. The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) issued indictments for JNA generals and officers involved in

11625-518: The other Adriatic maritime republic rival of Venice, which was itself the Ottoman Empire 's chief rival for control of the Adriatic. This alliance enabled the two towns set on opposite sides of the Adriatic to resist attempts by the Venetians to make the Adriatic a "Venetian Bay", also controlling directly or indirectly all the Adriatic ports. Ancona and Dubrovnik developed an alternative trade route to

11750-412: The penalty of death", which was the first prohibition of rape in customary humanitarian law. During the 20th century, international legal procedures attempted to prevent and prosecute perpetrators of war rape. Similarly, individual states developed laws pertaining to war rape's victims and perpetrators. The prohibition of rape was excluded from the Geneva Conventions and was deliberately left vague by

11875-426: The phenomenon has broader sociological motives. Wartime sexual violence may also include gang rape and rape with objects. It is distinguished from sexual harassment , sexual assaults and rape committed amongst troops in military service . During war and armed conflict, rape is frequently used as a means of psychological warfare in order to humiliate and terrorize the enemy. Wartime sexual violence may occur in

12000-581: The playwright Zakhar Agranenko in his diary when he was serving as an officer of the marine infantry in East Prussia . "Nine, ten, twelve men at a time – they rape them on a collective basis." Rape was regarded by men in the Soviet army as a well-deserved form of punishment, whether the civilians had anything to do with the war or not. In total, historians estimate that over two million German women were raped. Rapes were also committed against allied nationals during

12125-463: The population inside the city joined the insurrection. The Austrian Empire sent a force under General Todor Milutinović offering to help their Ragusan allies. However, as was soon shown, their intention was to in fact replace the French occupation of Ragusa with their own. Seducing one of the temporary governors of the Republic, Biagio Bernardo Caboga , with promises of power and influence (which were later cut short and who died in ignominy, branded as

12250-452: The presence of a settlement in the pre-Christian era, most notably the finding of ancient coins from the 3rd and 2nd century BC, as well as archeological fragments from the 1st century BC in the area of the old City port. Antun Ničetić, in his 1996 book Povijest dubrovačke luke ( "History of the Port of Dubrovnik" ), expounds the theory that Dubrovnik was established by Greek sailors, as

12375-515: The prevalence of war rape was that at the time, military circles supported the notion that all persons, including women and children, were still the enemy, with the belligerent having conquering rights over them. In the late Middle Ages, the laws of war even considered war rape as an indication of a man's success in the battlefield and "opportunities to rape and loot were among the few advantages open to... soldiers, who were paid with great irregularity by their leaders.... triumph over women by rape became

12500-601: The prosecution, in excess of 20,000 women and girls were raped during the first weeks of the Japanese occupation of the Chinese city of Nanjing . The War Crimes Tribunal in Tokyo included accounts of sexual violence crimes in the trial testimonies as well as public records. On a national level, a commander of the 14th Area Army , General Yamashita , was convicted for, inter alia, "rape under his command". Some 35 Dutch comfort women brought

12625-557: The purpose of sexual violence/exploitation and any other form of sexual violence of comparable gravity perpetrated against women, men, girls or boys that is directly or indirectly linked to a conflict. Prosecution of rapists in war crime tribunals was rare prior to the late 1990s. Kelly Dawn Askin, the senior legal officer at the Open Society Foundation , argued that the lack of explicit recognition of war rape in international law or applicable humanitarian law can not be used as

12750-618: The ranks of the Ustaše . Additionally Chetniks attacked Ustaše and in Foča in August 1942. Judita Alargić was commissar of the Central Hospital ( sr ) from 1942. On 13 February 1943, Pavle Đurišić reported to Draža Mihailović the actions undertaken by the Chetniks in the Foča, Pljevlja , and Čajniče districts: "All Muslim villages in the three mentioned districts were totally burned so that not

12875-411: The regulation of quarantine (for sanitary reasons). The Republic was an early adopter of what are now regarded as modern laws and institutions: a medical service was introduced in 1301, with the first pharmacy , still operating to this day, being opened in 1317. An almshouse was opened in 1347, and the first quarantine hospital (Lazarete) was established in 1377. Slave trading ( Balkan slave trade )

13000-410: The rules of warfare", and warriors considered the conquered women "legitimate booty, useful as wives, concubines , slave labor, or battle-camp trophy ". One of the first references to the "laws of war", or "traditions of war" was by Cicero , who urged soldiers to observe the rules of war, since obeying the regulations separated the "men" from the "brutes". Conquering the riches and property of an enemy

13125-744: The rural area between Naples and Rome . Following World War II, the judges at the Nuremberg trials in 1946 stated that the laws of war only applied to enemy nationals, not that of an ally, meaning such acts were not war crimes. Common Article 3 of the 1949 Geneva Conventions provides that "violence to life and person, in particular murder of all kinds, mutilation, cruel treatment and torture" and "outrages upon personal dignity, in particular humiliating and degrading treatment" are prohibited under any circumstance whatsoever with respect to persons who are hors de combat or who are not taking part of direct hostilities in non-international conflicts. Article 27 of

13250-452: The six remaining counts, including the count of complicity in genocide and the counts relating to violations of Common Article 3 to the Geneva Conventions and of Additional Protocol II thereto. On 2 October 1998, Jean Paul Akayesu was sentenced to life imprisonment for each of the nine counts, the sentences to run concurrently. Both Jean Paul Akayesu and the Prosecutor have appealed against

13375-583: The small island on which it occurred, as the Daksa executions . Communist leadership during the next several years continued political prosecutions, which culminated on 12 April 1947 with the capture and imprisonment of more than 90 citizens of Dubrovnik. After the war the remaining members of Dalmatian Italians of Dubrovnik left Yugoslavia towards Italy ( Istrian-Dalmatian exodus ). Under communism Dubrovnik became part of SR Croatia within SFR Yugoslavia . After

13500-514: The specific intent required for those acts to constitute genocide. In September 1999, the United Nations published a "Report of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons Responsible for Genocide and Other Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in the Territory of Rwanda and Rwandan Citizens Responsible for Genocide and Other Such Violations Committed in

13625-523: The streets of occupied cities during German patrols. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East did convict Japanese officers "of failing to prevent rape" in the Nanjing Massacre . The tribunal, in Tokyo, prosecuted cases of sexual violence and war rape as war crimes under the wording "inhumane treatment", "ill-treatment", and "failure to respect family honour and rights". According to

13750-590: The surrender of the French garrison of the island of Šipan , soon also the heavily fortified town of Ston and the island of Lopud , after which the insurrection spread throughout the mainland, starting with Konavle . They then laid siege to the occupied city , helped by the British Royal Navy , who had enjoyed unopposed domination over the Adriatic sea , under the command of Captain William Hoste , with his ships HMS Bacchante and HMS  Saracen . Soon

13875-450: The takeover of the city (April 1992). The indictment was of major legal significance and was the first time that sexual assaults were investigated for the purpose of prosecution under the rubric of torture and enslavement as a crime against humanity. The indictment was confirmed by a 2001 verdict by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia that rape and sexual enslavement are crimes against humanity. This ruling challenged

14000-406: The time, they maintained a strict system of social classes . The republic abolished the slave trade early in the 15th century and valued liberty highly. The city successfully balanced its sovereignty between the interests of Venice and the Ottoman Empire for centuries. Latin was originally used in official documents of the Republic. Italian came to use in the early 15th century. A variant of

14125-998: The town of Foča, the municipality includes the following settlements: The following table gives a preview of total number of registered people employed in legal entities per their core activity (as of 2018): Museum of old Herzegovina and city theatre are located in Foča. Foča is twinned with: [REDACTED]   Una-Sana [REDACTED]   Central Bosnia [REDACTED]   Posavina [REDACTED]   Herzegovina-Neretva [REDACTED]   Tuzla [REDACTED]   West Herzegovina [REDACTED]   Zenica-Doboj [REDACTED]   Sarajevo [REDACTED]   Bosnian Podrinje [REDACTED]   Canton 10 Dubrovnik Dubrovnik ( Croatian: [dǔbroːʋniːk] , UK : / d ( j ) ʊ ˈ b r ɒ v n ɪ k / dyuu- BROV -nik , US : / d uː ˈ -/ doo- ; see notes on naming ), historically known as Ragusa ( Italian: [raˈɡuːza] ),

14250-584: The town was ruled by the dukes of Zachlumia , most notably was Herzog Šćepan . Foča was the seat of the Ottoman Sanjak of Herzegovina established in 1470, and served as such until 1572, when the seat was moved to Pljevlja . In 1941, the Ustaše killed the leading Serbs in Foča. Between December 1941 and January 1942 over two thousand Bosnian Muslim civilians were killed in Foča by the Chetniks as act of vengeance for repression over Serbs by Muslim soldiers in

14375-538: The violations of the laws and customs of war. Efforts to prosecute failed. The Nuremberg and Tokyo Tribunals became the first international courts of real significance. The victorious Allied powers established them in 1945 and 1946 respectively to prosecute the major war criminals of the European Axis powers (in fact only Germans) and of Japan for crimes against peace , war crimes , and crimes against humanity . The possibility of prosecuting sexual violence as

14500-613: The war; for example, Marocchinate (Italian for "Moroccan' deeds") is a term which is applied to the mass rape and killings of Italian civilians by the Moroccan Goumiers , colonial troops of the French Expeditionary Corps (FEC), commanded by General Alphonse Juin , after the Battle of Monte Cassino in Italy during World War II . It was estimated that 2,000 women and 600 men were raped and most of these crimes took place in

14625-461: The widespread acceptance of rape and sexual enslavement of women as intrinsic part of war. The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia found three Bosnian Serb men guilty of rape of Bosniak (Bosnian Muslim) women and girls (some as young as 12 and 15 years of age), in Foča, eastern Bosnia-Herzegovina. Furthermore, two of the men were found guilty of the crime against humanity of sexual enslavement for holding women and girls captive in

14750-702: The year 1869 after this was re-elected in 1872, 1875, 1882, 1884) and elected twice into the Dalmatian Council, 1870, 1876. The victory of the Nationalists in Split in 1882 strongly affected in the areas of Korčula and Dubrovnik. It was greeted by the mayor (podestà) of Dubrovnik Rafael Pucić, the National Reading Club of Dubrovnik, the Workers Association of Dubrovnik and the review "Slovinac" as well as by

14875-628: Was a tributary state of the Ottoman Empire at one time. From this, they gained benefits such as access to the Black Sea , paid less customs duties (they however needed to make tribute payments) and had the diplomatic support of the Turks in trade disputes against the Venetians . This status also allowed increased trade with the inland regions through the Balkan overland trade which made merchants from Dubrovnik to build up

15000-511: Was abolished in 1418, and an orphanage opened in 1432. A 20 km (12 mi) water supply system , instead of a cistern, was constructed in 1438 by the Neapolitan architect and engineer Onofrio della Cava. He completed the aqueduct with two public fountains. He also built a number of mills along one of its branches. The city was ruled by the local aristocracy which was of Latin-Dalmatian extraction and formed two city councils . As usual for

15125-519: Was defeated and a new mayor, Radisav Mašić , was elected with support of parties SDS and SNSD . The Aladža Mosque was rebuilt from 2014 and reopened in May 2019. In October 2004, members of the Association of Women Victims of War ( Udruzenje Žene-Žrtve Rata ) attempted to lay a plaque in front of the Partizan sports hall (also used in 1992 as a rape camp) to commemorate the crimes that occurred there. Around 300 Bosnian Serbs, including members of

15250-603: Was established. Other members of the Committee were Ivo Papi, Miho Papi, Artur Saraka, Mato Šarić, Antun Pugliesi, Mato Gracić, Ivo Degiulli, Ernest Katić and Antun Milić. The tram service in Dubrovnik existed from 1910 to 1970. Pero Čingrija (1837–1921), one of the leaders of the People's Party in Dalmatia, played the main role in the merger of the People's Party and the Party of Right into

15375-482: Was on 6 December with 19 people killed and 60 wounded. The number of casualties in the conflict, according to the Croatian Red Cross , was 114 killed civilians, among them poet Milan Milišić . Foreign newspapers were criticised for placing heavier attention on the damage suffered by the Old Town than on human casualties. Nonetheless, the artillery attacks on Dubrovnik damaged 56% of its buildings to some degree, as

15500-526: Was opened in 1965 after a decade of works, connecting Dubrovnik with Rijeka along the whole coastline, and giving a boost to the tourist development of the Croatian Riviera. In 1991, Croatia and Slovenia , which at that time were republics within SFR Yugoslavia, declared their independence. The Socialist Republic of Croatia was renamed as the Republic of Croatia . Despite the demilitarisation of

15625-531: Was regarded as legitimate reason for war in itself. Women were included with "property", since they were considered under the lawful ownership of a man, whether a father, husband, slave master, or guardian. In this context, the rape of a woman was considered a property crime committed against the man who owned the woman. In the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church sought to prevent rape during feudal warfare through

#453546