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111-777: Benjamin Hornigold turned to piracy in the aftermath of the War of the Spanish Succession , seeing great opportunity in the Bahamas to intercept Spanish and French shipping; an appealing idea to earn his way after the Royal Navy was financially drained and the Admiralty mothballed its fleet, releasing over half of its labour force. Hornigold's career in piracy began with dividing his men into three different parties to raid Spanish plantations spotted along

222-531: A European war was true "only so long as English commerce does not suffer". Louis either failed to appreciate this or decided to ignore it and his actions gradually eroded Tory opposition. In early 1701, Louis registered Philip's claim to the French throne with the Parlement of Paris , raising the possibility of union with Spain, contrary to Charles' will, though Philip was only third in the French succession. In February,

333-487: A Spanish treasure fleet just off of Florida and King Philip V of Spain declared the treasure to be rightful property of Spain. Spanish crews were immediately dispatched to salvage the wreck. Jennings outnumbered the Spanish, who had built a fort at St Augustine to protect the treasure, and Jennings took the treasure for himself. Jennings mentored other well-known pirates such as Charles Vane and "Calico Jack" Rackham . Jennings

444-477: A large frigate but when he hoisted the Jolly Roger the frigate replied by raising a French naval ensign and opening fire. Vane's brigantine and sloop were outgunned and he ordered a retreat. Vane's crew saw this as an act of cowardice. He was voted out of command in favour of Calico Jack Rackham. Vane and 16 others who supported him, including his first mate Robert Deal , were put on the sloop. Vane sailed to

555-554: A mixture of anti-Castilian and anti-French sentiment meant the others supported Archduke Charles, the most important being Catalonia. Allied victory at Vigo Bay in October 1702 persuaded Peter II of Portugal to switch sides, giving them an operational base in this area. Archduke Charles landed at Lisbon in March 1704 to begin a land campaign, while the British-Dutch capture of Gibraltar

666-509: A natural embarkation point for an attack on England, as demonstrated in 1688 . The third was to maintain a navy strong enough to protect British trade, control her waters and launch attacks on her enemies' commercial routes and coastal areas. Alignment on reducing the power of France and securing the Protestant succession for the British throne masked differences on how to achieve them. In general,

777-483: A navy , and as the campaigns of 1708–1710 proved, even under severe pressure it could defend its borders. The Nine Years' War had shown France could not impose its objectives without support, and its new alliance with Spain and Bavaria made a successful outcome more likely. However, the previous wars had left France with severe economic problems. This was recognized by the Marquis de Chamlay , who advised Louis to not take on

888-496: A pardon after having stripped the Revenge of its provisions and marooned its crew. He settled in Bath with a wife and found work as a privateer in 1718. While on an expedition, Teach encountered Charles Vane and a group of other infamous individuals including Calico Jack , Robert Deal , and Israel Hands . They spent several drunken nights loitering together until Lieutenant Robert Maynard

999-470: A pirate. British authorities captured Bonny and other members of Rackham's crew off Jamaica in 1720. Bonny, Jack, and several others were tried Nov. 28, 1720, near Kingston , Jamaica. Bonny was found guilty and sentenced to death. Upon sentencing, Bonny revealed that she was pregnant, and the judge spared her life. There is no record of her after this moment which has led to much speculation about what happened to her. Sam Bellamy got his nickname Black Sam from

1110-520: A policy weapon. The 1651–1663 Navigation Acts were a major factor in the Anglo-Dutch Wars , while between 1690 and 1704, English import duties on foreign goods increased by 400%. On 6 September 1700, France banned the import of English manufactured goods such as cloth and imposed prohibitive duties on a wide range of others. The field armies that operated in the Southern Netherlands during

1221-588: A privateer than a pirate, saw an opportunity to invest his booty into legal trade. In 1719, Hornigold resumed full-time work as a privateer under the operations of Woodes Rogers , Governor of The Bahamas. Hornigold spent the remainder of his life hunting his old prodigies. The Flying Gang's co-founder, Henry Jennings, started his infamous pirating career after the War of the Spanish Succession and his fearsome reputation developed after one venturous raid in July, 1715. A hurricane sunk

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1332-619: A purely offensive strategy. He argued that the combined might of the Grand Alliance forces made it highly improbable for France to launch a successful attack. The Dutch and Imperial fortresses were located far from convenient Franco-Spanish bases, and the Netherlands and Rhineland lacked easily navigable rivers for the Bourbon armies. Furthermore, besieging a major Dutch fortress demanded the commitment of two full armies. The French would thus pursue

1443-576: A reversal of long-standing strategic policy, with France now supporting the Spanish position in Lombardy, rather than seeking to weaken it, and Austria doing the opposite. While Victor Amadeus initially allied Savoy with France, his long-term goal was the acquisition of the Duchy of Milan , which neither Bourbons nor Habsburgs would relinquish voluntarily. As discussed elsewhere in this article, securing his borders in Italy

1554-517: A sailor of Captain Henry Jennings ' crew. After Jennings' crew raided Spanish camps that had salvaged sunken treasure from a Spanish Treasure Fleet in 1715, Vane used his share to outfit his own ship, renaming it Ranger . For two years, Vane used Nassau as a base for plundering merchant ships, along with many other notorious pirates collectively known as the Flying Gang. Vane declined a pardon from

1665-646: A separate peace but could not agree on the terms. The Great Frost of 1709 caused widespread famine in France and Spain, forcing Louis to re-open negotiations and he hinted at his willingness to cede French fortresses to the Dutch Republic. In May 1709 the Allies presented him with the preliminaries of the Hague. Britain and Austria still insisted on an undivided Spanish monarchy for Archduke Charles. The Allies demanded that Philip

1776-692: A strategy described as a "mixed war" in Europe. In this strategy, the Franco-Spanish forces would primarily assume a defensive posture to safeguard the vital fortresses they needed to retain. Offensive actions, on the other hand, were characterized by assertive posturing and strategic positioning, with an emphasis on sustaining their forces by living off enemy territory whenever feasible, while blocking enemy thrusts, and trying to engage them in battle where possible. Apart from denying an undivided Spanish monarchy to others, Louis's objectives were to secure his borders with

1887-571: A strong town on the eastern side of the Dutch Republic, and took Venlo , Roermond , Stevensweert and Liège along the Meuse . The 1703 campaign was marred by Allied conflicts over strategy. Despite capturing Bonn , they failed to take Antwerp , while a Dutch contingent narrowly escaped disaster at Ekeren in June. On the Upper Rhine , Imperial forces under Louis William, Margrave of Baden-Baden remained on

1998-478: A temporary suspension of hostilities. Unlike the crowns of France or Austria , that of Spain could be inherited through the female line. This allowed Charles' sisters Maria Theresa (1638–1683) and Margaret Theresa (1651–1673) to pass their rights onto the children of their respective marriages with Louis XIV and Emperor Leopold. Louis sought to avoid conflict over the issue through direct negotiation with his main opponent William III of England while excluding

2109-581: A will leaving an undivided Spanish monarchy to Joseph Ferdinand. However, the latter's death from smallpox in February 1699 undid these arrangements. In 1685, Maria Antonia passed her claim to the Spanish throne onto Leopold's sons, Joseph and Archduke Charles. Her right to do so was doubtful, but Louis and William used this to devise the 1700 Treaty of London . Archduke Charles became the new heir, while France, Savoy and Austria received territorial compensation; however, since neither Leopold nor Charles agreed,

2220-551: Is considered a connected conflict since it affected the involvement of states such as Sweden , Saxony , Denmark–Norway and Russia . Armies in the 1688 to 1697 Nine Years' War frequently numbered over 100,000, requiring expenditure unsustainable for pre-industrial economies. The 1690s also marked the low point of the Little Ice Age , a period of cold and wet weather that drastically reduced crop yields across Europe. The Great Famine of 1695–1697 killed an estimated 15–25% of

2331-485: Is known of Vane's early life. He lived in Port Royal before becoming a pirate, but he was most likely not born there. Vane worked with Henry Jennings during Jennings' attack on the salvage camp for the wrecked Spanish 1715 Treasure Fleet . Vane first operated as an independent captain in the summer of 1717. By the winter of that year, he was one of the leaders of the pirates operating out of Nassau . When word reached

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2442-565: The Americas , the Spanish Netherlands , and colonies such as the Philippines . Negotiations between Louis and Emperor Leopold centred on dividing these territories, which the Spanish refused to allow. Since the acquisition of an undivided empire by either Austria or France would make them too powerful, its inheritance led to a war that involved most of Europe. The 1700–1721 Great Northern War

2553-529: The Bay Islands , capturing sloops along the way, one of which Deal took command of. In February 1719, Vane and Deal were caught in a hurricane and separated. Vane was wrecked on an uninhabited island. When English ships arrived to collect water near the island, Vane tried to join one of the crews under a false name. He was recognized by an old acquaintance and arrested. Vane was taken to Spanish Town, Jamaica and held in prison for some time. On 22 March 1721, he

2664-542: The Caribbean coast, to further launch a year-long reign of terror over the Caribbean , capturing an estimated 60,000 pounds. In November 1715, Hornigold seized the English ship Mary , a sloop with capacity for 140 men and six guns, and in this, he sailed into Nassau harbour along with a captured Spanish vessel. He then proclaimed that every pirate in the area would fall under his protection. Hornigold called this group of ruffians

2775-510: The Great Northern War , while Frederick I made his support dependent on Leopold recognising Prussia as a kingdom and making it an equal member of the Grand Alliance. Since George, Elector of Hanover , was also heir to the British throne, his support was more reliable, but the suspicion remained that the interests of Hanover came first. British foreign policy was based on three general principles, which remained largely consistent from

2886-525: The Lark . Benjamin Hornigold , Thomas Nichols , and others urged Pearse to release Vane as a show of good faith, which he did. Vane afterwards declared to Pearse that he intended to take the King's pardon. But on 21 March, Vane and his men (including Edward England and Calico Jack Rackham ) turned pirate again, capturing a Jamaican sloop. Vane sailed back to Nassau and harassed Pearse repeatedly, trading their sloop for

2997-450: The Lark . Vane left Nassau on 4 April. Four days later Pearse left with HMS Phoenix , and Nassau was again controlled by the pirates. After leaving Nassau, Vane raided ships around the Bahamas. He gained a reputation for cruelty. He and his crew would often beat or torture captured sailors to force them to surrender their valuables. Around this time Vane's crew renamed the Lark, calling it

3108-530: The New Providence after Teach had concluded his time as a privateer in the War of the Spanish Succession. The two became a dynamic duo, successfully raiding ships and pirating throughout the West Indies . When Hornigold retired in 1717 and gave his head title to Teach, Stede Bonnet joined Teach's crew. In November 1717, Teach attacked a French merchant vessel La Concorde off the coast of Saint Vincent. He took

3219-526: The Ranger. Vane cruised again in May and June, capturing, among other ships, a 20-gun French ship that became Vane's new flagship. Vane was back at Nassau on 22 July 1718 when Woodes Rogers reached Nassau to take office as the new governor. Rogers' ships trapped Vane in the harbour. Vane's ship was too large to pass one of the harbour's two entrances, and the other was blocked by Rogers' fleet. That night, Vane turned

3330-574: The Rhine and Adda , while their absence limited operations in areas like Northern Spain. Better logistics, unified command, and simpler internal lines of communication gave Bourbon armies an advantage over their opponents. In 1700, Spain remained a great power in terms of territory control; recent research moreover shows that imports of bullion from the Americas reached their highest level between 1670 and 1700. However, this concealed major structural weaknesses;

3441-555: The Spanish Americas . For the Dutch, despite attaining their long sought-after Barrier Treaty , the war is seen as marking the beginning of their decline as a significant European power. Although Louis succeeded in placing his grandson on the Spanish throne, France was left financially exhausted. Charles II of Spain succeeded his father Philip IV at the age of four in 1665. Subject to extended periods of ill-health for much of his life,

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3552-540: The Spanish Netherlands , large parts of Italy , and the Americas . Its acquisition by either France or Austria threatened the European balance of power , and Philip's proclamation as king of Spain on 16 November 1700 led to war. The French held the advantage in the early stages but were forced onto the defensive after 1706. Although the Allies continued to advance in northern France, by 1709 Philip had cemented his position in Spain,

3663-588: The Tories favoured a mercantilist strategy of using the Royal Navy to attack French and Spanish trade while protecting and expanding their own; land commitments were viewed as expensive and primarily of benefit to others. The Whigs argued France could not be defeated by seapower alone, making a Continental strategy essential, while Britain's financial strength made it the only member of the Alliance able to operate on all fronts against France. The Dutch had been engaged in

3774-583: The West Indies , which produced sugar , then a hugely profitable commodity. Also, there were minor trade conflicts in South America, India, and Asia; the financial strains of war particularly affected the Dutch East India Company , as it was a huge drain on scarce naval resources. Related conflicts include Rákóczi's War of Independence in Hungary , which was funded by France and a serious concern for

3885-527: The capture of Menorca in 1708 allowed the Royal Navy to dominate the Western Mediterranean. Since many British politicians considered this their primary objective, they became reluctant to approve further expensive land campaigns in this theatre. The close links between war and trade meant conflict extended beyond Europe, particularly in North America, where it is known as Queen Anne's War , and

3996-570: The strategic depth needed to protect their commercial and demographic heartlands around Amsterdam against attack from the south. However, with the help of Maximilian of Bavaria, the governor of the Spanish Netherlands, the Dutch garrison troops had been replaced by French troops by 1701. Dutch priorities were to re-establish and strengthen the Barrier fortresses, retain control of the economically vital Scheldt estuary, and gain access to trade in

4107-598: The 'Barrier' fortresses in the Spanish Netherlands , granted at Ryswick. It also threatened the Dutch monopoly over the Scheldt granted by the 1648 Peace of Münster , while French control of Antwerp and Ostend would allow them to blockade the English Channel at will. Combined with other French actions that threatened English trade, this produced a clear majority for war and in May 1701, Parliament urged William to negotiate an anti-French alliance. On 7 September, Leopold,

4218-466: The 16th through the 20th centuries. The first, overriding all others, was to preserve a balance of power in Europe, an objective threatened by French expansion under Louis XIV. The second was to prevent the Low Countries from being controlled by a hostile power or one stronger than Britain; this included both the Spanish Netherlands and the Dutch Republic, whose deep harbours and prevailing winds made her

4329-522: The 1707 Convention of Milan Emperor Joseph gave French troops in Lombardy free passage to Southern France. A combined Savoyard-Imperial attack on the French base of Toulon planned for April was postponed when Imperial troops were diverted to seize the Spanish Bourbon Kingdom of Naples . By the time they besieged Toulon in August, the French were too strong, and they were forced to withdraw. By

4440-512: The Allies would still have to exhaust themselves in Spain, while France, after a period of recuperation, might once again lend support to Phillip. Charles Vane Charles Vane (c. 1680 – 29 March 1721) was an English pirate who operated in the Bahamas during the end of the Golden Age of Piracy . Vane was likely born in the Kingdom of England around 1680. One of his first pirate ventures

4551-448: The Americas. While modern economists generally assume a constantly growing market, the then dominant theory of mercantilism viewed it as relatively static. This meant increasing your own share of a market required taking it from someone else, with the state facilitating this by attacking opponents' merchant ships and colonies. As a result, the war quickly expanded to North America , India , and other parts of Asia, with tariffs used as

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4662-491: The Bahamas, setting up a new life in the New Providence. He became the unofficial governor of Nassau and received a formal pardon from Governor of Bahamas, Woodes Rogers . Henry Jennings was an unusual pirate because he lived to enjoy old age. Edward Teach, more famously known as Blackbeard, may be the most legendary and terrifying pirate from the Golden Age of Piracy . Teach met and joined the crew of Benjamin Hornigold in

4773-580: The Bourbons or the Habsburgs from doing so. This divergence and Austria's financial collapse in 1703 meant the campaign in Spain was reliant on Anglo-Dutch naval support and after 1706, British funding. Particularly during the reign of Joseph I , the priority for the Habsburgs was to secure their southern borders from French intervention in northern Italy and suppress Rákóczi's War of Independence in Hungary. Much of

4884-503: The Castilian elite. The Spanish Netherlands had been governed by prince-elector Max Emanuel of Bavaria since 1692, while links with Italy, traditionally the major source of Spanish recruits and funding, had been weakened by decades of neglect and heavy taxation. It was widely, if reluctantly, accepted in Madrid that preserving an independent Spanish Empire required comprehensive reforms, including

4995-579: The Dutch Republic and Britain signed the Treaty of The Hague renewing the 1689 Grand Alliance . Its provisions included securing the Dutch Barrier in the Spanish Netherlands, the Protestant succession in England and Scotland and an independent Spain but did not refer to placing Archduke Charles on the Spanish throne. When the exiled James II of England died on 16 September 1701, Louis reneged on his recognition of

5106-521: The Flying Gang and took over Nassau, making it a pirate haven. Hornigold remained reluctant to attack English ships, though he would encourage his allies, such as Samuel Bellamy , to do so. Hornigold's patriotism was infuriating for his crew members and they mutinied and cast Hornigold aside as captain. When in September 1717 King George I issued a proclamation granting royal pardon for all piracies committed, Hornigold, who regularly regarded himself as more

5217-547: The French behind the Adda River . Louis Joseph, Duke of Vendôme , one of the best French generals, took command and was substantially reinforced; Prince Eugene managed a draw at the Battle of Luzzara but the French recovered most of the territory and lost the year before. In October 1703, Victor Amadeus declared war on France; by May 1706, the French held most of Savoy except Turin while victories at Cassano and Calcinato forced

5328-464: The French ship into a fireship , setting it on fire and sailing it towards Rogers' ships. The fireship failed to damage any of Rogers' fleet except one, but the ships were forced to pull away, unblocking the channel. Vane commandeered a small 24-gun sloop, the Katherine, and escaped out the smaller entrance as Rogers' ships returned. Vane took ships off the Bahamas in July, working with Charles Yeats ,

5439-591: The French would prevent the Allies from making a decisive breach in their frontiers. British involvement was primarily driven by the need to protect their trade routes in the Mediterranean. By putting Archduke Charles on the Spanish throne, they also hoped to gain commercial privileges within the Spanish Empire. Despite their dynastic claim, the Austrian Habsburgs viewed securing Northern Italy and suppressing

5550-543: The Governor of The Bahamas, Woodes Rogers , and was later pursued by Benjamin Hornigold , who was under Rogers employ. Vane escaped to the Carolinas and on one occasion, conducted a blockade of Charleston Port. It is said that Vane's piracy almost stopped the slave trade at one point because of so few ships entering port. Vane later faced mutiny by his crew members, who disapproved of his wicked ways and selfishness. Eventually, Vane

5661-488: The Grand Alliance in 1701 had been achieved, but success in 1708 made them overconfident. French diplomats focused on the Dutch, whom they considered were more likely to favour peace than their allies, for victory at Ramillies removed any direct military threat to the Republic, while highlighting differences with Britain on the Spanish Netherlands. Peace talks broke down in late 1708 because the Allies had agreed not to negotiate

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5772-511: The Habsburgs throughout the war. In South-Eastern France, Britain funded the Huguenot 1704-1710 Camisard rebellion; one objective of the 1707 campaign in Northern Italy and Southern France was to support this revolt, one of a series that began in the 1620s. By the end of 1708, the French had withdrawn from Northern Italy, while the maritime powers controlled the Spanish Netherlands, and secured

5883-460: The Holy Roman Empire, weaken his rival Austria, and increase French commercial strength through access to trade with the Americas. Despite being the dominant power within the Holy Roman Empire, Austrian and Imperial interests did not always coincide. The Habsburgs wanted to put Archduke Charles on the throne of an undivided Spanish monarchy, while their Allies were fighting to prevent either

5994-470: The Hungarian revolt as higher priorities. With the Dutch focusing on Flanders post-1704, this theatre was largely dependent on British naval and military support. Spain at the time was a personal union between the Crowns of Castile and Aragon . The latter was further divided into the separate entities of Catalonia , Aragon , Valencia , Majorca , Sicily , Naples , and Sardinia . In 1701, Majorca, Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia declared for Philip, while

6105-412: The Imperialists into the Trentino valley. However, in July 1706, Vendôme and any available forces were sent to reinforce France's northern frontier after the defeat at Ramillies . Reinforced by German auxiliaries led by Leopold of Anhalt-Dessau , Prince Eugene broke the siege of Turin in September; despite a minor French victory at Castiglione , the war in Italy was over. To the fury of his allies,

6216-473: The Nine Years' War had often reached 100,000 men. The size of armies continued to grow during the War of the Spanish Succession. Between 1702 and 1707, the field armies in the Southern Netherlands had a strength of 60,000 to 80,000 men, and from 1708 onwards, over 120,000 men. These extensive armies placed immense strain on pre-industrial economies. Armies were restricted by their dependence on water-borne transport for supplies, so campaigns focused on rivers like

6327-399: The Protestant William III as king of England and Scotland and supported the claim of James' son, James Francis Edward Stuart . War became inevitable and when William himself died in March 1702, his successor Queen Anne confirmed her support for the Treaty of the Hague. The Dutch now led by Grand Pensionary Anthonie Heinsius did the same, despite French hopes that without a Stadtholder

6438-417: The Rhine, joined forces with Louis of Baden and Prince Eugene, and crossed the Danube on 2 July. Allied victory at Blenheim on 13 August forced Bavaria out of the war and the Treaty of Ilbersheim placed it under Austrian rule. Allied efforts to exploit their victory in 1705 floundered on poor coordination, tactical disputes, and command rivalries. A diplomatic crisis between the Dutch Republic and England

6549-443: The Spanish Empire. Although the English Duke of Marlborough was Allied commander in the Low Countries , the Dutch provided most of the manpower and supplies. Strategy in this theatre was thus subject to the approval of their field deputies and generals. When Dutch forces operated outside the Spanish Netherlands this was often a concession to their English allies. Throughout the 17th century, Savoy sought to replace Spain as

6660-441: The Spanish Succession The War of the Spanish Succession was a European great power conflict fought between 1701 and 1714. The immediate cause was the death of the childless Charles II of Spain in November 1700, which led to a struggle for control of the Spanish Empire between supporters of the French Bourbons and the Habsburgs . Charles named his heir as Philip of Anjou , a grandson of Louis XIV of France , whose claim

6771-403: The Spanish nobility resented what they considered to be the arrogance of the Austrians, a key factor in the selection of Philip as their preferred candidate in 1700. In return for British support, Charles agreed to major commercial concessions within the empire, as well as accepting British control of Gibraltar and Menorca . These made him widely unpopular at all levels of Spanish society, and he

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6882-406: The Spanish-controlled Duchy of Milan and allied Duchy of Mantua in Northern Italy announced their support for Philip and accepted French troops. Combined with efforts to build an alliance between France and Imperial German states in Swabia and Franconia , these were challenges Leopold could not ignore. Helped by the governor, Max Emanuel of Bavaria , French troops replaced Dutch garrisons in

6993-495: The Spanish. Leopold and Margaret's daughter Maria Antonia (1669–1692) married Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria in 1685, and on 28 October 1692, they had a son, Joseph Ferdinand . Under the October 1698 Treaty of the Hague between France, Britain and the Dutch Republic, five-year-old Joseph was designated heir to Charles II; in return, France and Austria would receive parts of Spain's European territories. Charles refused to accept this; on 14 November 1698, he published

7104-447: The age like Benjamin Hornigold and Samuel Bellamy , Vane was known for his cruelty, and in court documents is said to have beaten and interrogated sailors from ships he captured. In February 1719, Vane was caught in a storm in the Bay Islands and was marooned on an uncharted island. Upon being discovered by a passing British ship, he was arrested and brought to Port Royal where he was eventually tried and hanged in March 1721. Little

7215-410: The borders of the Dutch Republic; in the Mediterranean, the maritime powers had achieved naval supremacy, and Britain acquired permanent bases in Gibraltar and Menorca. However, as Marlborough himself pointed out, the French frontiers remained largely intact, their army showed no signs of being defeated, while Philip proved far more popular with the Spanish than his rival. Many of the objectives set out by

7326-412: The command of William Rhett . Rhett failed to find Vane, but his ships located and captured the pirate Stede Bonnet . In August, Vane careened his ship near Abaco , where his accomplice Nicholas Woodall smuggled him supplies and ammunition. Hornigold had turned pirate-hunter along with his associate John Cockram and followed Vane, who escaped. Hornigold and Cockram instead captured Woodall, who

7437-458: The continued existence of the empire was not due to Spanish strength but to maintain a balance between the powers competing for a share of its markets. Despite fighting a series of wars against Spain from 1667 to 1697, France was also its most significant economic partner, supplying labour and controlling a large proportion of its foreign trade. This consideration was an important factor in the decision to name Philip his heir. Its dependence on others

7548-419: The defensive, although they took Landau in 1702. Supported by the Bavarians, during the 1703 campaign French forces retook Landau, won victories at Friedlingen , Höchstädt and Speyerbach , then captured Kehl and Breisach . With Austrian resources absorbed by Rákóczi's War of Independence in Hungary, the Franco-Bavarian plan for 1704 was to march on Vienna. To relieve the pressure, Marlborough marched up

7659-495: The dominant power in Northern Italy . Savoy consisted of two main geographic segments; Piedmont , which contained the capital Turin , and the Duchy of Aosta on the Italian side of the Alps , with the Duchy of Savoy and County of Nice in Transalpine France. The latter were almost impossible to defend and combined with the anti-Habsburg policy pursued by Louis XIV and his predecessors, this meant Savoy generally sided with France. However, Piedmont provided foreign powers access to

7770-452: The elimination of the privileges or Fueros held by the Aragonese states. It was no coincidence Archduke Charles had strong support in areas that were part of the Crown of Aragon, including Catalonia and Valencia . Under Louis XIV , France was the most powerful state in Europe, with revenue-generating capacities that far exceeded those of its rivals. Its geographical position provided enormous tactical flexibility; unlike Austria, it had

7881-425: The end of 1707, fighting in Italy ceased, apart from small-scale attempts by Victor Amadeus to recover Nice and Savoy. The first objective for the Grand Alliance in this theatre was to secure the Dutch frontiers, threatened by the alliance between France, Bavaria, and Joseph Clemens of Bavaria , ruler of Liège and Cologne . During 1702, the Grand Alliance repelled an assault on Nijmegen , captured Kaiserswerth ,

7992-403: The end of the War of Spanish Succession . He was called the "Buzzard" for his bold attacks and raids. Levasseur had an enormous treasure that is worth an estimated £1 billion. When he was about to be hanged in 1730, he threw away a cryptogram that he said would lead to his treasure. Many adventurers and treasure hunters have searched for the treasure, but none have found it. Paulsgrave Williams

8103-546: The issue of his successor was a matter of diplomatic debate for decades. For example, in 1670 Charles II of England agreed to support the rights of Louis XIV of France , while the 1689 Grand Alliance committed England and the Dutch Republic to back those of Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor . When Charles died in 1700, the Spanish Empire was no longer the dominant great power , but still included much of Italy and

8214-404: The original captain of the Katherine. A brigantine that Vane captured became his new flagship. In August he sailed to Charleston and took eight ships there. After seizing a slave ship, he put the slaves aboard Yeats' ship. Yeats sailed off with the slaves and surrendered to the governor of South Carolina in exchange for a pardon. The merchants of Charleston outfitted two sloops to hunt Vane, under

8325-454: The ostensible cause of the war. When Emperor Joseph I died in 1711, Archduke Charles succeeded his brother as Holy Roman Emperor . Since a union of Spain and Austria was as unwelcome as one with France, the new British government argued it was pointless to continue. By now, only British subsidies kept their allies in the war, and their withdrawal led to the Peace of Utrecht in 1713, followed by

8436-518: The pirates that King George I of Great Britain had extended an offer of pardon to all pirates who wished to surrender, Vane led the pirates who opposed taking the pardon, which included many with Jacobite leanings. On 23 February 1718, Captain Vincent Pearse arrived at Nassau in HMS ; Phoenix , in an attempt to get the pirates on the island to surrender. Vane was captured along with his sloop,

8547-458: The popularity of the motto "Gallicus amicus non vicinus" (France is a good friend, not a good neighbour) within the Dutch Republic. The War of Devolution (1667–68) and the Franco-Dutch War (1672–78) showed the Spanish could not defend the Southern Netherlands, and so the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick allowed the Dutch to place garrisons in eight key cities. They hoped this barrier would provide

8658-480: The population in present-day Scotland , Scandinavia and the Baltic states , plus another two million in France and Northern Italy . This combination of financial exhaustion and famine led to the October 1697 Treaty of Ryswick , a compromise that left the succession unresolved. Since it now seemed clear Charles would die without children, Leopold signed only with extreme reluctance, and all sides viewed Ryswick as only

8769-575: The republic would be torn apart internally. On 8 May the Dutch Republic declared war on France, followed by the British and the Emperor on 15 May and the Imperial Diet on 30 September. The importance of trade and economic interests to the participants is often underestimated; contemporaries viewed Dutch and English support for the Habsburg cause as primarily driven by a desire for access to Spanish markets in

8880-546: The restive southern French provinces of the Dauphiné and Vaunage , former Huguenot strongholds with a long history of rebellion. This provided Victor Amadeus II with a degree of leverage, allowing him to manoeuvre between opposing parties to expand his territories. During the Nine Years' War in 1690, Savoy joined the Grand Alliance before agreeing to a separate peace with France in 1696. The accession of Philip V in 1701 led to

8991-417: The ship for his own and renamed it Queen Anne's Revenge , equipping it with 40 guns. Teach would wear three pistols across his chest and put lit matches under his hat to create a terrifying mist, creating a notorious and fearsome look about him. There are no verified accounts of Teach murdering or harming his captives, despite his reputation. In June 1718, Teach ventured to the Governor of North Carolina for

9102-532: The ships they attacked. Rackham was captured after a drunken battle and he was sent to Port Royal to be hanged. His body was later gibbeted and put on display on a very small islet at a main entrance to Port Royal now known as Rackham's Cay . Stede Bonnet was a plantation owner on Barbados before he became a pirate. He became known as the "Gentleman Pirate". He plundered ships on the east coast of America before meeting up with Blackbeard in Nassau. During his battles he

9213-454: The struggle to contain France since the Rampjaar (Disaster Year) of 1672, when the Dutch Republic had nearly been overrun by the French army. Apart from the worry about the balance of power, the Dutch had long been concerned with the fate of the Spanish Netherlands, viewing it as a strategic buffer against France. This perception endured even during periods of alliance with France, as evidenced by

9324-511: The succession of Archduke Charles, insisting William help him enforce the Treaty of London meant he might achieve his territorial aims without fighting. However, his son the Dauphin rejected the idea; French diplomats also advised Austria would fight regardless, while neither the British nor Dutch would go to war for a settlement intended to avoid war. Louis therefore accepted on behalf of his grandson, who

9435-409: The treaties of Rastatt and Baden in 1714. Philip was confirmed as king of Spain but renounced his claim and those of his descendants to the French throne. The Spanish Empire ceded much of its Italian territories to Savoy and Austria, along with the Spanish Netherlands, although it remained largely intact outside Europe. Britain received Gibraltar and Menorca and acquired major trade concessions in

9546-476: The treaty was largely pointless. By early October 1700, Charles was dying; his final will left the throne to Louis XIV's grandson Philip, Duke of Anjou ; if he refused, the offer would pass to his younger brother the Duke of Berry , followed by Archduke Charles. Charles died on 1 November 1700, and on the 9th, Spanish ambassadors formally offered the throne to Philip. Louis briefly considered refusing; although it meant

9657-482: The vast majority of these imports were used to fund debt or pay foreign merchants. When the new Bourbon administration took over in 1701, they found the empire bankrupt and effectively defenceless, with fewer than 15,000 troops in Spain itself and a navy consisting of 20 ships in total. Almost constant warfare during the 17th century made the economy subject to long periods of low productivity and depression, and largely reliant upon others for its prosperity. In many ways,

9768-401: The way he dressed. He always wore a black coat and avoided wigs. Instead he showed his natural black hair. After a mutiny to Benjamin Hornigold in 1716, Bellamy became one of the richest pirates ever. New investigations of his flagship Whydah show that when he died in 1717, he had over five tons of cargo. Like so many other Pirates, Olivier Levasseur did not want to stop being a pirate after

9879-483: Was Bellamy's companion and with him looted the remains of the Spanish Treasure Fleet in 1716. But when he arrived much of the treasure had already been taken. Williams decided to "relieve" other ships of their treasure instead and started his career as a pirate. Unlike his partner Williams always wore a white wig. Many people commented on the big contrast between his white hair and sunburned skin. Edward England

9990-478: Was a pirate renowned for his sadistic and cruel ways. He ignored the Pirate code and showed little respect for his fellow crew members, despite his wittiness and skillfulness when it came to sailing. He was merciless towards his prisoners, turning to torture and murder when given the opportunity. Yet, Vane was admired for his great navigating and fighting skills. He made his first appearance in piracy history when he became

10101-484: Was a significant blow to Bourbon prestige. An attempt to retake it was defeated in August , with a land siege being abandoned in April 1705. The 1705 Pact of Genoa between Catalan representatives and Britain opened a second front in the north-east; the loss of Barcelona and Valencia left Toulon as the only major port available to the Bourbons in the Western Mediterranean. Philip tried to retake Barcelona in May 1706 but

10212-632: Was a woman to Anne Bonny. When she and Bonny were captured she said that they were pregnant to avoid hanging. She became sick and died in prison. Anne Bonny was a married woman who moved to Nassau sometime between 1714 and 1718, according to A General History of the Pyrates , a book published in 1724 by Captain Charles Johnson, a pen name for an author who remains unknown. According to this account, Bonny met Calico Jack Rackham and fell in love with him. She left her husband and joined Jack and Mary Read to become

10323-426: Was also known for a botched attack on a French merchant vessel, causing great diplomatic unrest. Driven by greed, Jennings' friend, Sam Bellamy , double-crossed Jennings, leading Jennings to brutally kill a group of captured British and French prisoners in retaliation. When Jennings returned to Jamaica following his latest raid, he found himself officially declared a pirate by King George I. Forced to flee, he headed for

10434-470: Was backed by France and most of Spain . His rival, Archduke Charles of Austria , was supported by the Grand Alliance , whose primary members included Austria , the Dutch Republic , and Great Britain . Significant related conflicts include the 1700 to 1721 Great Northern War , and Queen Anne's War . Although by 1701 Spain was no longer the predominant European power, its global empire still included

10545-490: Was captured by the pirate captain Christopher Winter and forced to join the crew. He took part in Henry Jennings' expedition for the sunken 1715 Treasure Fleet off the coast of Florida, and then began sailing with Charles Vane in 1718. Other prominent pirates accepting the King's Pardon, England and some of his men sailed for Africa. Along his way he spawned the career of Bartholomew Roberts , among others. War of

10656-530: Was ditched as captain and left on a small ship and in his place, his quartermaster, Calico Jack , was named captain. Vane was imprisoned in Port Royal by Captain Holford in 1719. Vane's former accomplices spoke out against him during trial and Vane gave no defense. Vane's piracy career was the most lucrative of any pirate, but it was his ego that eventually cost him his life. Vane was hanged on 29 March 1721 and his body

10767-459: Was given two months to cede his throne to Charles, while France was required to remove him by force if he did not comply, besides having to cede the strongholds, Thionville , Cambrai and Valenciennes as collateral. Although Spain was of less importance to them, the Dutch negotiators, led by Heinsius, considered these strict conditions necessary to ensure that peace conditions were honoured, as they doubted Louis' sincerity. They were concerned that

10878-426: Was hung at Gun Bay as a warning to others who defied the law. John Rackham started his pirate career during the mutiny against Charles Vane after he refused to attack a French ship. He is most known for his flag, the Jolly Roger, and that his crew consisted of both men and women. When Rackham went to Nassau he met Anne Bonny and started an affair with her. The two of them went out on the seas and recruited people from

10989-511: Was illustrated in 1703; despite the presence of an invading Allied army, the French ambassador urged Louis to allow Dutch and English merchants to purchase wool from Spanish farmers, "otherwise the flocks cannot be maintained". Enacting political or economic reform was extremely complex since Habsburg Spain was a personal union between the Crowns of Castile and Aragon , each with very different political cultures. Most of Philip's support came from

11100-418: Was imprisoned by Rogers. Vane returned to Nassau in September to marry, threatening to retake the city. In October, Vane sailed to Ocracoke Inlet and met with Blackbeard , perhaps attempting to convince Blackbeard to join forces with him. The two crews celebrated for several days but split up afterwards. In October, Vane raided Eleuthera , carrying away liquor and livestock. On 23 November, Vane spotted

11211-469: Was initially successful when the French surprised the Allied garrisons at Ghent and Bruges , it failed after the Allies defeated them at the Battle of Oudenaarde . In its aftermath the Allies managed to capture Lille , the strongest fortress of the French fortress belts, while a French assault on Brussels was reppelled and Ghent and Bruges recaptured. But despite losses like Lille and other strongpoints,

11322-606: Was never able to sustain himself outside the coastal regions, which could be supplied by the Anglo-Dutch navies. The Wittelsbach -controlled states of Bavaria , Liège , and Cologne allied with France, but the vast majority of the Empire remained neutral, or limited their involvement to the supply of mercenaries. Like Bavaria, the larger entities pursued their own policies; his claim to the Polish crown meant Augustus of Saxony focused on

11433-870: Was of greater concern to Emperor Leopold than Spain itself. This meant Britain was the only power inclined to help Victor Amadeus achieve this objective and he changed sides in 1703 after the Anglo-Dutch navies won control of the Western Mediterranean. The war in Italy primarily involved the Spanish-ruled Duchy of Milan and the French-allied Duchy of Mantua , considered essential to the security of Austria's southern borders. In 1701, French troops occupied both cities and Victor Amadeus II , Duke of Savoy, allied with France, his daughter Maria Luisa marrying Philip V. In May 1701, an Imperial army under Prince Eugene of Savoy moved into Northern Italy; by February 1702, victories at Carpi , Chiari , and Cremona forced

11544-473: Was only averted by the dismissal of General Slangenburg , while the imposition of Austrian rule in Bavaria caused a brief but vicious peasant revolt . In May 1706, the French were comprehensively defeated at Ramillies by an Allied army under Marlborough, which then occupied much of the Spanish Netherlands in under two weeks. France assumed a largely defensive posture for the rest of the war. The 1707 campaign

11655-468: Was ordered to capture Teach. This led to a bloody battle upon Maynard's ship and Teach was eventually killed after being stabbed 20 times and shot at least 5 times. His head was later hung from the bow of Maynard's ship. There is also documentation that his name was "Thatch" instead of "Teach", since "Thatch" is a recognized name in the British Navy during his training years but "Teach" is not. Charles Vane

11766-554: Was proclaimed Philip V of Spain on 16 November 1700. With most of his objectives achieved by diplomacy, Louis now made a series of moves that combined to make war inevitable. The Tory majority in the English Parliament objected to the Partition Treaties, chiefly the French acquisition of Sicily , an important link in the lucrative Levant trade. However, a foreign diplomat observed their refusal to become involved in

11877-495: Was repulsed, while his absence allowed an Allied force from Portugal to enter Madrid and Zaragoza . However, lack of popular support and logistical issues meant the Allies could not hold territory away from the coastline, and by November, Philip controlled Castile, Murcia , and parts of Valencia. Allied efforts to regain the initiative ended with defeat at Almansa in April 1707, followed by an unsuccessful siege of Toulon in August. Despite these failures, control of Gibraltar and

11988-406: Was tried for piracy and found guilty. Vane learned that Deal had been tried, convicted, and hanged sometime earlier. Vane was sentenced to death, and on 29 March he was hanged at Gallows Point in Port Royal. His corpse was hung in chains at Gun Cay . W. Morgan Sheppard portrayed Vane in the 1999 family film Treasure of Pirate's Point . Vane appears as a side character and minor antagonist in

12099-653: Was under the leadership of Henry Jennings , during Jennings' attack on the salvage camp for the wrecked Spanish 1715 Treasure Fleet off the coast of Florida . By 1717, Vane was commanding his own vessels and was one of the leaders of the Republic of Pirates in Nassau . In 1718, Vane was captured but agreed to stop his criminal actions and declared his intention to accept a King's Pardon ; however, just months later he and his men, including Edward England and Jack Rackham , returned to piracy. Unlike some other notable pirate captains of

12210-508: Was without any significant events, as both parties focussed on other fronts. The French, now under Marshal Vendôme, avoided battle and Marlborough did little to force one upon them. By 1708, the focus of both sides was again almost entirely on the fighting in the Low Countries. The allies once more set their sights on breaking French fortification belts, while the French themselves planned a major counteroffensive . Although this counteroffensive

12321-529: Was wounded and could not lead, instead he followed Blackbeard and his crew during many successful raids. Bonnet lost almost everything when his crew left him to serve aboard the Queen Anne's Revenge . Mary Read started her career in the Royal Navy disguised as a man. She became one of the pirates in Nassau after her ship was captured. In 1720, she joined Jack Rackham's crew. It is said that she only revealed that she

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