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71-423: The U.S. Flammable Fabrics Act is an act that was passed in 1953 to regulate the manufacture of highly flammable clothing. It was enacted after years of rayon viscose fabrics being proven to be the primary cause of quick starting, high temperature fires as well as having the secondary effect of causing illnesses in factory workers. Viscose is the key word when describing the chemical dangers of rayon fabrics, because

142-566: A century. Cuprammonium rayon has properties similar to viscose; however, during its production, the cellulose is combined with copper and ammonia ( Schweizer's reagent ). Due to the detrimental environmental effects of this production method, cuprammonium rayon is no longer being produced in the United States . The process has been described as obsolete, but cuprammonium rayon is still made by one company in Japan. Tetraamminecopper(II) sulfate

213-408: A chemical named carbon disulfide is used to convert cellulose into a viscose fabric capable of being threaded together for clothing. This is an important distinction to make for the sake of clarity as cellulose fabrics are still commonly advertised as "green" in the sense that the fabric is derived from the cellulose in plants, but the introduction of carbon disulfide in the manufacturing process creates

284-409: A discrepancy in the ability to identify natural fibers in a marine environment via Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy . Later research of oceanic microfibers instead found cotton being the most frequent match (50% of all fibers), followed by other cellulosic fibers at 29.5% (e.g., rayon/viscose, linen, jute, kenaf, hemp, etc.). Further analysis of the specific contribution of rayon to ocean fibers

355-584: A few years the process became highly successful and was responsible for transforming the silk weaver into the world's leading man-made fibre production company. Courtaulds also entered the market of cellulosics ( viscose and acetate ) in North America with the setting up of the American Viscose Corporation (AVC) in 1909. The investment in the US was highly successful, but its sale at a knock-down price

426-820: A highly viscous solution. Cross and Bevan took out British Patent No. 8,700, "Improvements in Dissolving Cellulose and Allied Compounds" in May, 1892. In 1893, they formed the Viscose Syndicate to grant licences and, in 1896, formed the British Viscoid Co. Ltd. The first commercial viscose rayon was produced by the UK company Courtaulds Fibres in November 1905. Courtaulds formed an American division, American Viscose (later known as Avtex Fibers), to produce their formulation in

497-437: A hostile takeover attempt by Imperial Chemical Industries was defeated. Throughout the 1980s, Courtaulds conducted research on solvent-spun cellulose fibres, using amine oxides. This process had previously been suggested by Eastman-Kodak, but their patent was nearing expiration. By the 1990s, this research led to pilot scale facilities and a subsequent patent battle with Lenzing. These companies initially cross-licensed, but

568-551: A less environmentally-harmful process for making Rayon led to the development of the lyocell method for producing Rayon. The lyocell process was developed in 1972 by a team at the now defunct American Enka fibers facility at Enka, North Carolina . In 2003, the American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC) awarded Neal E. Franks their Henry E. Millson Award for Invention for lyocell. In 1966–1968, D. L. Johnson of Eastman Kodak Inc. studied NMMO solutions. In

639-502: A pilot plant in 1990, and commercial production in 1997, with 12 metric tonnes/year made in a plant in Heiligenkreuz im Lafnitztal , Austria. When an explosion hit the plant in 2003 it was producing 20,000 tonnes/year, and planning to double capacity by the end of the year. In 2004 Lenzing was producing 40,000 tons [sic, probably metric tonnes]. In 1998, Lenzing and Courtaulds reached a patent dispute settlement. In 1998 Courtaulds

710-406: A reaction that is remarkably toxic to the workers who are developing and working with the fabric. There was also a series of tragic deaths in the 1940s caused by the highly flammable nature of the fabric involving children who were wearing long rayon pile cowboy chaps or brushed rayon sweaters. The Federal Trade Commission was initially placed as the enforcement authority but this responsibility

781-487: A significant role in the development of Courtaulds from a rather sedate, man-made fibres producer to the world's largest textile manufacturer, a position the company attained in the mid-1970s. The economics department then influenced the early stages of the subsequent extensive restructuring of the company, a process that culminated in the demerging of its textile activities as a separately quoted company in March 1990. In 1962

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852-408: A soft, silky feel. They are sometimes identified by the trade name Modal. Modal is used alone or with other fibers (often cotton or spandex ) in clothing and household items like pajamas, underwear, bathrobes, towels, and bedsheets. Modal can be tumble-dried without damage. The fabric has been known to pill less than cotton due to fiber properties and lower surface friction. The trademarked Modal

923-414: A solvent, N-methyl morpholine N-oxide (NMMO). The process starts with cellulose and involves dry jet-wet spinning. It was developed at the now defunct American Enka Company and Courtaulds Fibres. Lenzing's Tencel is an example of a lyocell fiber. Unlike the viscose process, the lycocell process does not use highly toxic carbon disulfide. "Lyocell" has become a genericized trademark, used to refer to

994-424: A starting material. The use of woody sources of cellulose makes viscose cheaper, so it was traditionally used on a larger scale than the other methods. On the other hand, the original viscose process generates large amounts of contaminated wastewater. Newer technologies use less water and have improved the quality of the wastewater. The raw material for viscose is primarily wood pulp (sometimes bamboo pulp ), which

1065-480: A wide range of colors. Rayon fabrics are soft, smooth, cool, comfortable, and highly absorbent, but they do not always insulate body heat, making them ideal for use in hot and humid climates, although also making their "hand" (feel) cool and sometimes almost slimy to the touch. The durability and appearance retention of regular viscose rayons are low, especially when wet; also, rayon has the lowest elastic recovery of any fiber. However, HWM rayon (high-wet-modulus rayon)

1136-455: A year until 2015. In May 2006, Sara Lee sold Courtaulds Textiles (but not its pension debt) for an undisclosed sum. It was bought by a consortium led by PD Enterprise Limited, a private company based in Hong Kong. At the time, Courtaulds had about a thousand employees in the UK, of whom 300 were employed at a tights factory. Times Brenda Barnes commented that Sara Lee had effectively "given away"

1207-408: Is also used as a solvent. The viscose process builds on the reaction of cellulose with a strong base, followed by treatment of that solution with carbon disulfide to give a xanthate derivative. The xanthate is then converted back to a cellulose fiber in a subsequent step. The viscose method can use wood as a source of cellulose, whereas other routes to rayon require lignin -free cellulose as

1278-477: Is chemically converted into a soluble compound. It is then dissolved and forced through a spinneret to produce filaments, which are chemically solidified, resulting in fibers of nearly pure cellulose. Unless the chemicals are handled carefully, workers can be seriously harmed by the carbon disulfide used to manufacture most rayon. To prepare viscose, pulp is treated with aqueous sodium hydroxide (typically 16–19% by mass ) to form " alkali cellulose ", which has

1349-437: Is emitted per kilogram of rayon produced. Control technologies have enabled improved collection of carbon disulfide and reuse of it, resulting in a lower emissions of carbon disulfide. These have not always been implemented in places where it was not legally required and profitable. Carbon disulfide is volatile and is lost before the rayon gets to the consumer; the rayon itself is basically pure cellulose . Studies from

1420-584: Is made by a slightly different solvent recovery process, and is considered a different fiber by the US FTC. Tencel lyocell was first produced commercially by Courtaulds' Grimsby plant in England. The process, which dissolves cellulose without a chemical reaction, was developed by Courtaulds Research. Birla Cellulose is also a volume manufacturer of rayon. They have plants located in India , Indonesia and China . Accordis

1491-413: Is made by spinning beech-tree cellulose and is considered a more eco-friendly alternative to cotton, as the production process uses on average 10–20 times less water. In 2018, viscose fiber production in the world was approximately 5.8 million tons, and China was the largest producer with about 65% of total global production. Trade names are used within the rayon industry to label the type of rayon in

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1562-576: Is much stronger and exhibits higher durability and appearance retention. Recommended care for regular viscose rayon is dry-cleaning only. HWM rayon can be machine-washed. Regular rayon has lengthwise lines called striations and its cross-section is an indented circular shape. The cross-sections of HWM and cupra rayon are rounder. Filament rayon yarns vary from 80 to 980 filaments per yarn and vary in size from 40 to 5000 denier . Staple fibers range from 1.5 to 15 denier and are mechanically or chemically crimped. Rayon fibers are naturally very bright, but

1633-401: Is produced from the ripened solutions by treatment with a mineral acid, such as sulfuric acid . In this step, the xanthate groups are hydrolyzed to regenerate cellulose and carbon disulfide: Aside from regenerated cellulose, acidification gives hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S), sulfur, and carbon disulfide. The thread made from the regenerated cellulose is washed to remove residual acid. The sulfur

1704-475: Is stretched as it is made, aligning the molecules along the fibers. Two forms are available: "polynosics" and "high wet modulus" (HWM). High-wet-modulus rayon is a modified version of viscose that is stronger when wet. It can be mercerized like cotton. HWM rayons are also known as "polynosic". Polynosic fibers are dimensionally stable and do not shrink or get pulled out of shape when wet like many rayons. They are also wear-resistant and strong while maintaining

1775-403: Is then removed by the addition of sodium sulfide solution, and impurities are oxidized by bleaching with sodium hypochlorite solution or hydrogen peroxide solution. Production begins with processed cellulose obtained from wood pulp and plant fibers. The cellulose content in the pulp should be around 87–97%. The steps: The lyocell process relies on dissolution of cellulose products in

1846-526: The Vereinigte Glanzstoff Fabriken AG in Oberbruch (near Aachen ). Improvement by J. P. Bemberg AG in 1904 made the artificial silk a product comparable to real silk. English chemist Charles Frederick Cross and his collaborators, Edward John Bevan and Clayton Beadle, patented their artificial silk in 1894. They named it "viscose" because its production involved the intermediacy of

1917-422: The firebrat —can eat rayon, but damage was found to be minor, potentially due to the heavy, slick texture of the tested rayon. Another study states that "artificial silk [...] [was] readily eaten" by the grey silverfish . A 2014 ocean survey found that rayon contributed to 56.9% of the total fibers found in deep ocean areas, the rest being polyester , polyamides , acetate and acrylic . A 2016 study found

1988-459: The "prohibition of the introduction or movement in interstate commerce of articles of wearing apparel and fabrics which are so highly flammable as to be dangerous when worn by individuals, and for other purposes." This distinction was an integral one because it drew a clear line in the sand that American companies would not be allowed or expected to tolerate highly flammable fabrics to be manufactured or used in manufacturing. This act would also lead to

2059-463: The 1800s). Data on these additional risks came out in the 1960s. Courtaulds worked hard to prevent publication of this data in the UK. Courtaulds was one of the earliest companies in the UK to establish an economics department. In the three decades following World War II that department made notable contributions to the understanding of investment appraisal and the formulation of British, and later European, trade policy. The function also played

2130-694: The 1930s show that 30% of American rayon workers experienced significant health impacts due to carbon disulfide exposure. Courtaulds worked hard to prevent this information being published in Britain. During the Second World War , political prisoners in Nazi Germany were made to work in appalling conditions at the Phrix rayon factory in Krefeld . Nazis used forced labour to produce rayon across occupied Europe. In

2201-682: The 1930s. Wishing to reduce their dependence on natural silk, in 1904 Courtaulds acquired the Cross and Bevan 's patents to the viscose process for manufacturing artificial silk or rayon from dissolving pulp . They set up the first factory to produce it in Coventry UK in 1905. The early yarns were first woven into fabrics at the Halstead Mill in Essex in March 1906, but the process remained troublesome until further inventions improved yarn strength. However, in

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2272-502: The 1980s the patent was licensed by Akzo to Courtaulds and Lenzing. The fibre was developed by Courtaulds Fibres under the brand name "Tencel" in the 1980s. In 1982, a 100 kg/week pilot plant was built in Coventry, UK, and production was increased tenfold (to a ton/week) in 1984. In 1988, a 25 ton/week semi-commercial production line opened at the Grimsby, UK, pilot plant . The process

2343-464: The 1990s, viscose rayon producers faced lawsuits for negligent environmental pollution . Emissions abatement technologies had been consistently used. Carbon-bed recovery , for instance, which reduces emissions by about 90%, was used in Europe, but not in the US, by Courtaulds. Pollution control and worker safety started to become cost-limiting factors in production. Courtaulds Courtaulds

2414-613: The CTA—later merged into Rhone Poulenc in France, and Snia Viscose in Italy). Courtaulds' activities in continental Europe consisted in a wholly owned, one-factory viscose fibre business employing some 3,000 people in France, a 50% share in a similar business in Germany (of which the other 50% was owned by VGF, the major competitor), and a minority shareholding which controlled 20% of the voting capital in

2485-578: The Contessa lingerie chain and McIlroys had been sold by 1995. In 2000, the American-based Sara Lee acquired Courtaulds Textiles in a hostile takeover for £150million. "Courtaulds Textile" remained as a division of Sara Lee, unlike the chemical merger, which saw "Courtaulds" disappear into Akzo Nobel . In the early 2000s, many jobs and factories were eliminated, especially in the UK, where manufacturing costs were higher. Marks and Spencer

2556-542: The Fire Research and Safety Act of 1968, which was tasked to study different preventative methods against loss of life and injury by fire. 90th United States Congress cleared Senate bill S. 1003 on December 1, 1967. U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson enacted the Flammable Fabrics Act Amendment on December 14, 1967. Rayon Rayon production involves solubilizing cellulose to allow turning

2627-593: The Italian firm Snia Viscosa, also primarily a viscose fibre producer. This activity expanded until the 1960s, when these products were replaced by newer developments. In 1964 Courtaulds acquired Fine Spinners and Doublers for £14 million and the Lancashire Cotton Corporation for £22 million. Carbon disulfide , used in rayon production, increases the risk of heart attacks and strokes in rayon workers (among other health risks, some of them known since

2698-487: The Lyocell process became Lenzing property after the demise of Courtaulds Plc in 1998. The lyocell process does not use carbon disulfide. By the late 1980s, the manufacture of clothing was quickly moving to South East Asia and China . Courtaulds had closed many of its UK factories and moved production to new Asian sites. Further, its main profit was coming from its fibre and chemicals businesses, which were being held back by

2769-533: The Tencel division with other fibre divisions under the Acordis banner, then sold them off to private equity ( CVC Capital Partners ). In 2000, CVC sold the Tencel division to Lenzing AG , who combined it with their "Lenzing Lyocell" business, but maintained the brand name Tencel. At this time "Tencel" production was at 80,000 tonnes/year. In September 2000, Courtaulds Fibers Inc. was found guilty of negligence for polluting

2840-566: The US in 1910. The name "rayon" was adopted in 1924 , with "viscose" being used for the viscous organic liquid used to make both rayon and cellophane . In Europe, though, the fabric itself became known as "viscose", which has been ruled an acceptable alternative term for rayon by the US Federal Trade Commission (FTC). Rayon was produced only as a filament fiber until the 1930s, when methods were developed to utilize "broken waste rayon" as staple fiber. Manufacturers' search for

2911-459: The addition of delustering pigments cuts down on this natural brightness. The physical properties of rayon remained unchanged until the development of high-tenacity rayon in the 1940s. Further research and development led to high-wet-modulus rayon (HWM rayon) in the 1950s. Research in the UK was centred on the government-funded British Rayon Research Association . High-tenacity rayon is another modified version of viscose that has almost twice

U.S. Flammable Fabrics Act - Misplaced Pages Continue

2982-612: The aerospace business has annual sales of approximately $ US240 million, employs 1,200 people. In the US it manufactures sealants in Glendale, California, US and Shildon , England; coatings and sealants in Mojave, California, US; glazing sealants at Gloucester City, New Jersey, US; and also coatings at Gonfreville, France. The business also operates 14 application-support centres in North America, Europe, Africa, Asia and Australia. After its demerger, Courtaulds Textiles sold off its retail businesses;

3053-474: The approximate formula [C 6 H 9 O 4 −ONa] n . This material is allowed to depolymerize to an extent. The rate of depolymerization (ripening or maturing) depends on temperature and is affected by the presence of various inorganic additives, such as metal oxides and hydroxides. Air also affects the ripening process, since oxygen causes depolymerization. The alkali cellulose is then treated with carbon disulfide to form sodium cellulose xanthate : Rayon fiber

3124-498: The company closed a viscose plant in Calais , France, allowing its other plants to boost output to 93% capacity, compared with an industry average of 75%. The share price doubled in the first three years following the demerger. CEO Sipko Huismans had focused the company on rationalisation and cost cutting, saying "We have to cut costs. We can't count on sales growth to pay us more or to allow us to buy more of our favorite things." In 1993

3195-700: The company employed 23,000 and had £2 billion in annual revenue, with 30% of revenue from the United States, 40% from Europe and 15% from Asia-Pacific. Seeking to expand its business, specifically in Asia-Pacific, Courtaulds plc delivered part of its development in joint ventures, particularly with Akzo Nobel . It sought to merge with Akzo-Nobel, which the EU approved subject to the sale of Courtauld's aerospace business. In 1998 it merged with competitor Akzo Nobel . The name "Courtaulds" disappeared. Akzo Nobel combined

3266-639: The company until just before he died in March 1881. His great-nephew Samuel Courtauld (1876–1947) became chairman of the Courtauld company in 1921 but is chiefly remembered today as the founder of the Courtauld Institute of Art in London . William Julien Courtauld was also a benefactor of the arts: he gave artworks to the Essex County Council chamber at Chelmsford and the town hall at Braintree in

3337-510: The decade 1969 to 1979, American Enka tried unsuccessfully to commercialize the process. The operating name for the fibre inside the Enka organization was "Newcell", and the development was carried through pilot plant scale before the work was stopped. The basic process of dissolving cellulose in NMMO was first described in a 1981 patent by Mcorsley for Akzona Incorporated (the holding company of Akzo). In

3408-646: The environment outside its plant in Axis, Alabama , US with carbon disulfide . 1991 emissions were more than double those of the nine other plants in Alabama combined, and made minimal improvements to abide by the 1990 amendments to the United States' Clean Air Act . In Europe, Courtaulds had taken much more stringent emissions-reduction measures. In October 2000, PPG Industries announced it had agreed to buy Courtaulds Aerospace for $ US512.5 million. Based in Glendale, California , US

3479-522: The fibers into required form. Three common solubilization methods are: French scientist and industrialist Hilaire de Chardonnet (1838–1924) invented the first artificial textile fiber, artificial silk . Swiss chemist Matthias Eduard Schweizer (1818–1860) discovered that cellulose dissolved in tetraamminecopper dihydroxide . Max Fremery and Johann Urban developed a method to produce carbon fibers for use in light bulbs in 1897. Production of cuprammonium rayon for textiles started in 1899 in

3550-517: The firm and cut output drastically. The foreign intervention was seen as humiliating by the fascists. In Europe Courtaulds expanded its cellulosics business both directly and in joint ventures , including British Cellophane . In 1945 Courtaulds remained one of the four groups which dominated the man-made fibre industry in Europe (counting the German VGF and the Dutch AKU as one group, and including also

3621-541: The health of people living near rayon plants and their livestock. Rates of disability in modern factories (mainly in China, Indonesia, and India) are unknown. This has raised ethical concerns over viscose rayon production. As of 2016 , production facilities located in developing countries generally do not provide environmental or worker safety data. Most global carbon disulfide emissions come from rayon production, as of 2008. As of 2004 , about 250 g of carbon disulfide

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3692-455: The interwar era, Courtaulds, along with its domestic rival, British Celanese , both benefitted from tariff protection extended to the rayon industry by the Finance Act of 1925. In 1927–28 Courtaulds and Vereinigte Glanzstoff-Fabriken (VGF) gained control of the Italian rayon manufacturer SNIA Viscosa from Riccardo Gualino . A German director of VGF, Karl Scherer, replaced Gualino as head of

3763-401: The largest lyocell producer at 130,000 tonnes/year. Rayon is produced by dissolving cellulose, then converting this solution back to insoluble fibrous cellulose. Various processes have been developed for this regeneration. The most common methods for creating rayon are the cuprammonium method, the viscose method, and the lyocell process. The first two methods have been practiced for more than

3834-567: The largest producers of rayon in the world, and Asia Pacific Rayon (APR) of the country has an annual production capacity of 0.24 million tons. The biodegradability of various fibers in soil burial and sewage sludge was evaluated by Korean researchers. Rayon was found to be more biodegradable than cotton, and cotton more than acetate . The more water-repellent the rayon-based fabric, the more slowly it will decompose. Subsequent experiments have shown that wood-based fibres, like Lyocell, biodegrade much more readily than polyester. Silverfish —like

3905-468: The lyocell process for making cellulose fibers. As of 2018 , the lyocell process is not widely used, because it is still more expensive than the viscose process. Rayon is a versatile fiber and is widely claimed to have the same comfort properties as natural fibers, although the drape and slipperiness of rayon textiles are often more like nylon . It can imitate the feel and texture of silk , wool , cotton , and linen . The fibers are easily dyed in

3976-412: The man-made cellulosics manufacturers globally on the same scoring platform. The scoring from the 2020 report scores all such manufacturers on a scale of 35, the highest scores having been achieved by Birla Cellulose (33) and Lenzing (30.5). Carbon disulfide is highly toxic . It is well documented to have seriously harmed the health of rayon workers in developed countries, and emissions may also harm

4047-466: The product. Viscose rayon was first produced in Coventry, England in 1905 by Courtaulds. Bemberg is a trade name for cuprammonium rayon developed by J. P. Bemberg . Bemberg performs much like viscose but has a smaller diameter and comes closest to silk in feel. Bemberg is now only produced in Japan. The fibers are finer than viscose rayon. Modal and Tencel are widely used forms of rayon produced by Lenzing AG . Tencel, generic name lyocell ,

4118-435: The strength of HWM. This type of rayon is typically used for industrial purposes such as tire cord. Industrial applications of rayon emerged around 1935. Substituting cotton fiber in tires and belts, industrial types of rayon developed a totally different set of properties, amongst which tensile strength and elastic modulus were paramount. Modal is a genericized trademark of Lenzing AG , used for (viscose) rayon which

4189-603: The textiles business. In 1990, Courtaulds plc demerged itself into two parts: In 1990, the company began pilot production of Tencel , a brand of lyocell rayon. The production of lyocell does not use carbon disulfide , but is more expensive than viscose rayon. In January 1993, the Tencel plant in Mobile, Alabama , US reached full production levels of 20,000 tons per year, by which time Courtaulds had spent £100 million and 10 years on Tencel development. Tencel revenues for 1993 were estimated as likely to be £50 million. In 1991,

4260-580: The unit. In 2007, Courtaulds Textiles employed around 20,000 people across 16 countries in Europe, North America and Asia. It had moved most of its manufacturing jobs offshore, most of which was divested in joint ventures for flexibility. One of these joint venture was Slimline (Pvt) Ltd, Sri Lanka 's largest apparel manufacturer, employing 1450 people and with a turnover of 25 million British pounds, and Courtaulds Clothing Lanka, which employed 700 people to make men's underwear. The whole company had an annual turnover exceeding £1billion. PD Enterprise Ltd.,

4331-593: Was a United Kingdom -based manufacturer of fabric , clothing , artificial fibres , and chemicals. It was established in 1794 and became the world's leading man-made fibre production company before being broken up in 1990 into Courtaulds plc and Courtaulds Textiles Ltd . The company was founded by George Courtauld and his cousin Peter Taylor (1790–1850) in 1794 as a silk , crepe and textile business at Pebmarsh in north Essex trading as George Courtauld & Co . In 1810, his American -born son Samuel Courtauld

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4402-406: Was a major manufacturer of cellulose-based fibers and yarns. Production facilities can be found throughout Europe, the U.S. and Brazil . Visil rayon and HOPE FR are flame retardant forms of viscose that have silica embedded in the fiber during manufacturing. North American Rayon Corporation of Tennessee produced viscose rayon until its closure in the year 2000. Indonesia is one of

4473-499: Was acquired by competitor Akzo Nobel , which combined the Tencel division with other fibre divisions under the Accordis banner, then sold them to private equity firm CVC Partners . In 2000, CVC sold the Tencel division to Lenzing AG , which combined it with their "Lenzing Lyocell" business, but maintained the brand name Tencel. It took over the plants in Mobile and Grimsby, and by 2015 were

4544-442: Was enforced in 1941 as part of the negotiations which preceded Lend-Lease . Courtaulds was Canada 's only rayon manufacturer in the 1980s, and was criticized for polluting Cornwall, Ontario . By 1989 the company was dumping "an average of 12 million litres of water a day, loaded with acids, zinc, murky solid materials and other contaminants.... Tests in 1986 showed the company's waste killed healthy trout within five minutes." In

4615-520: Was female. By 1850, Courtauld employed over 2,000 people in his three silk mills, and he had recruited partners including (in 1828) his brother, George Courtauld II (1802–1861) and (in 1849) fellow Unitarian social reformer Peter Alfred Taylor (1819-1891 – son of Peter Taylor who died the following year). By this time, Courtauld was a wealthy man but was also suffering from deafness . He had planned to spend more time on his country estate Gosfield Hall near Halstead, but continued to play an active role in

4686-584: Was first commercialized at Courtaulds' rayon factories at Mobile, Alabama (1990 ), and at the Grimsby plant (1998) . In January 1993, the Mobile Tencel plant reached full production levels of 20,000 tons per year, by which time Courtaulds had spent £100 million and 10 years on Tencel development. Tencel revenues for 1993 were estimated as likely to be £50 million. A second plant in Mobile was planned. By 2004, production had quadrupled to 80,000 tons. Lenzing began

4757-478: Was given the authority, under the U.S. Flammable Fabrics Act, to issue mandatory flammability standards. Flammability standards for clothing textiles, vinyl plastic film in clothing, carpets, rugs, children's sleepwear, mattresses, and mattress pads have all been established. The amendment of the act in 1967 was meant to further the initial intention of the US Flammable Fabrics act by extending it to include

4828-543: Was later transferred over to the Consumer Product Safety Commission in 1967 when the act was amended to include interior furnishings, paper, plastic, foam, and other materials used in wearing apparel and interior furnishings. A provision of the act makes willful violation a felony with maximum penalties of a $ 10,000 fine and 3 years in prison, which reflects how seriously the dangers of flammable fabrics were being taken. The Consumer Product Safety Commission

4899-631: Was managing his own silk mill in Braintree, Essex . In 1818, George Courtauld returned to America , leaving Samuel Courtauld and Taylor to expand the business, now known as Courtauld & Taylor , by building further mills in Halstead and Bocking . In 1825 Courtauld installed a steam engine at the Bocking mill, and then installed power looms at Halstead. His mills, however, remained heavily dependent on young female workers – in 1838, over 92% of his workforce

4970-435: Was not performed due to the difficulty in distinguishing between natural and man-made cellulosic fibers using FTIR spectra. For several years, there have been concerns about links between rayon manufacturers and deforestation. As a result of these concerns, FSC and PEFC came on the same platform with CanopyPlanet to focus on these issues. CanopyPlanet subsequently started publishing a yearly Hot Button report, which puts all

5041-527: Was squeezing its suppliers for lower costs. In 2007, 40% of Courtauld's turnover was from sales to Marks & Spencer (though sales had declined rapidly, as of 2006 ). In February 2005, Brenda C. Barnes became the chairman and CEO of Sara Lee, and tried to sell the Courtaulds Textile division. In April 2006, the UK pension regulator required Sara Lee to increase payments into Courtaulds' $ 483 million (£260 million) pension deficit from £20m to £32m

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