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132-625: The twenty-year period begins on July 28, 1821, when General José de San Martín of the Liberating Expedition of Peru declared the Independence of Peru to a crowd gathered under the balcony of the Casa del Oidor , located at the main square of Lima , until then the capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru . However, Basadre claims that the period only begins, sensu stricto , with the installation of

264-608: A league . Are you going? Are you coming? Are we going? After this military disaster, the Junta and Congress were tremendously discredited in the eyes of public opinion. It was feared that the royalist troops stationed in Jauja would go on the offensive and reconquer Lima. The patriotic officers in command of the troops that garrisoned Lima, fearing a Spanish offensive, signed a request before Congress, dated February 23, 1823 in Miraflores , invoking

396-473: A brief reconnaissance of the royalist army, and noticed several flaws in their organization. Feeling secure of victory, he claimed that "Osorio is clumsier than I thought. Today's triumph is ours. The sun as witness!". The battle began at 11:00 am. The patriot artillery on the right fired on the royalist infantry on the left. Manuel Escalada led mounted grenadiers to capture the royalist artillery, turning them against their owners. Burgos' regiment severely punished

528-485: A detachment disembark to begin action on Upper Peru. Then he headed to Arica, where he remained without disembarking for three weeks, giving time for Viceroy La Serna, informed by his espionage service of the patriot presence, to order his lieutenants José de Canterac and Gerónimo Valdés to go with their forces to the threatened area. When at the end of December Alvarado landed in Arica and advanced on Moquegua , he encountered

660-604: A domestic war that dismantled the Spanish defensive system. It was the Olañeta rebellion, the consequent internal confrontation between the monarchists and the detachment of Valdés' division from the main royal army that allowed Bolívar to reorganize and recover the initiative, lost by the decision of Viceroy La Serna to abandon the persecution against Bolívar through the north, and direct his main forces against Olañeta, trying to preserve Upper Peru. While Bolívar prepared everything related to

792-614: A new government, and proposed San Martín as Supreme Director of Chile . He declined the offer and proposed O'Higgins in his stead: he recommended that the Supreme Director should be someone from Chile. San Martín would instead organize the navy to take the fight to Peru. He established a local chapter of the Lodge of Rational Knights , named as Logia Lautaro , in reference to Mapuche leader Lautaro . The victory in Chacabuco did not liberate

924-475: A pincer movement, with Soler leading the west column and O'Higgins the east one. O'Higgins, eager to avenge the defeat at Rancagua, rushed to the attack, instead of coordinating with Soler. This gave the royalists a brief advantage. San Martín instructed Soler to rush the attack as well. The combined attack was successful and San Martín's column secured the final victory. The battle ended with 600 royalists dead and 500 prisoners, with only 12 deaths and 120 injuries in

1056-412: A stealth operation. A spy informed San Martín that Osorio would make a surprise attack in the night, but the army could not be prepared in time. 1,000 soldiers fled, 120 died, and San Martín's assistant was killed. O'Higgins tried to resist with his unit, but retired when he was shot in the arm. Las Heras managed to retire his army in order, saving his 3,500 men. The patriots escaped to Santiago. Despite

1188-654: A subject of debate by later historians. San Martín is regarded as a national hero of Argentina, Chile, and Peru, a great military commander, and one of the Liberators of Spanish South America. The Order of the Liberator General San Martín ( Orden del Libertador General San Martín ), created in his honor, is the highest decoration conferred by the Argentine government. José de San Martín's father, Juan de San Martín, son of Andrés de San Martín and Isidora Gómez,

1320-484: A thousand battles. Jos%C3%A9 de San Mart%C3%ADn José Francisco de San Martín y Matorras ( Spanish pronunciation: [xoˈse ðe sam maɾˈtin] ; 25 February 1778 – 17 August 1850), nicknamed "the Liberator of Argentina, Chile and Peru", was an Argentine general and the primary leader of the southern and central parts of South America's successful struggle for independence from

1452-543: A total offensive against them as he had done in Chile. However, he was aware of the numerical inferiority of his forces, compared to that of the viceregals who dominated the interior of the country from Jauja to Upper Peru , and numbered a total of 23,000 soldiers, mostly Andean and mestizo recruits. San Martín only had 4,000 troops. An important triumph for the patriots was the surrender of the fortresses of Callao on September 19, 1821, whose leader, Marshal José de La Mar , joined

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1584-543: Is treating the human race like beasts…" and he adds: "Freedom is my idol, as it is the people's. Without it I don't want anything; The presence of only one in command offers me the hated image of the King." And thus the Supreme Governing Junta was formed, made up of three congressmen. Several declarations of this First Constituent Congress mark the end of monarchical efforts, such as the declaration of November 11, 1822 on

1716-521: The Patria Vieja period. San Martín initially proposed a regular-sized army, simply to reinforce Chile, but changed to propose a larger one, to liberate the country from the occupation. Chileans Bernardo O'Higgins , José Miguel Carrera , Luis Carrera and Manuel Rodríguez , the leaders of the deposed Chilean rule, sought refugee in Cuyo, along with their armies. O'Higgins and Rodríguez were well received, but

1848-589: The Battle of Moquegua on January 21, 1823. The patriot troops, reduced to a quarter of their original number, had to hastily reembark and return to Callao with nearly 1,000 survivors. From then on, the lyrics that the Spaniards spread from their camp located a short distance from Lima date back, in which they mocked the Congress: Congress, how are we doing after the tris tras of Moquegua? From here to Lima there's

1980-599: The Bay of Paracas in September of that year. He then settled in Pisco from where he sent delegates to convince viceroy Joaquín de la Pezuela to collaborate with independence, which he refused. Given this response, San Martín moved to Huaura , near Lima , and sent his lieutenant Juan Antonio Álvarez de Arenales to the mountains where he defeated the royalists in the Battle of Cerro de Pasco  [ es ] . Later, Viceroy Pezuela

2112-587: The Caquetá River ) declared war on Peru after the latter's military occupation of Bolivia , then under Bolivarian influence. The war concluded without a clear victor through the signing of the Treaty of Guayaquil . After the dissolution of the Greater Colombian state , Ecuador regained its independence and pursued a dispute of its own . Meanwhile, to the south, another war saw the division of Peru through

2244-534: The Carrera brothers intended to act as a government in exile . They ignored the local laws of Cuyo, and their soldiers committed acts of vandalism. San Martín imprisoned them and sent them to Buenos Aires. They proposed a plan to liberate Chile, different to the one outlined by San Martín, who rejected it as impractical. This initiated a rivalry between the Carreras and San Martín. San Martín immediately began to organize

2376-517: The Guayaquil Conference , held between July 26 and 27, 1822, they discussed three important questions: The interview did not produce any concrete results. Regarding the first point, Bolívar had already decided that Guayaquil belonged to Colombia and did not admit any discussion on the matter. Regarding the second point, Bolívar offered to send a Colombian auxiliary force of 2,000 men to Peru, which San Martín considered insufficient. And regarding

2508-670: The Liga Federal led by Artigas. He thought that the civil war was counter-productive to national unity, and that an end to hostilities would free resources needed for the navy. He calculated that Artigas might condition the peace on a joint declaration of war to colonial Brazil; so San Martín proposed to defeat the royalists first and then demand the return of the Eastern Bank to the United Provinces. O'Higgins recommended caution, fearing that San Martín might be captured. Pueyrredón rejected

2640-533: The Regiment of Mounted Grenadiers with Alvear and Zapiola. As Buenos Aires lacked professional military leaders, San Martín was entrusted with the protection of the whole city, but kept focused in the task of building the military unit. San Martín, Alvear and Zapiola established a local branch of the Lodge of Rational Knights , along with morenists, the former supporters of the late Mariano Moreno . This lodge sought to promote liberal ideas; its secrecy hides whether it

2772-748: The Second Banda Oriental campaign . Antonio Zabala, the leader of the Montevidean army, served under San Martín during the crossing of the Andes years later. Once again in Buenos Aires, San Martín and his wife attended to the first official performance of the Argentine National Anthem , on 28 May 1813 at the Coliseo Theater . Oral tradition has it that the premiere took place on 14 May 1813 at

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2904-793: The Spanish Empire who served as the Protector of Peru . Born in Yapeyú, Corrientes , in modern-day Argentina, he left the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata at the early age of seven to study in Málaga , Spain. In 1808, after taking part in the Peninsular War against France, San Martín contacted South American supporters of independence from Spain in London. In 1812, he set sail for Buenos Aires and offered his services to

3036-563: The United Provinces of the Río de la Plata , present-day Argentina and other countries. After the Battle of San Lorenzo and time commanding the Army of the North during 1814, he organized a plan to defeat the Spanish forces that menaced the United Provinces from the north, using an alternative path to the Viceroyalty of Peru . This objective first involved the establishment of a new army, the Army of

3168-466: The balcony of the Casa del Oidor , located at the main square : From this moment Peru is free and independent by the general will of the people and by the justice of its cause that God defends. Long live the Homeland! Long live freedom! Long live independence! San Martín had assumed the military and political command of the so-called free departments of Peru under the title of Protector , as stated in

3300-493: The first Constituent Congress on September 20, 1822. During this period, the newly formed Peruvian State not only established itself as a proper country, but notably attempted to both expand its territory and preserve its territorial integrity due to the overlapping disputes that arose from the end of the Spanish American wars of independence . To the north, Colombia (which already claimed territory located south of

3432-407: The "heel campaign" ( Spanish : Campaña del talón ), alluding to how close they were to the patriots who retreated, almost “on their heels.” Santa Cruz did not stop until he reached the port of Ilo where he embarked with 700 survivors. The campaign therefore ended in total failure for the patriots. When Lima was left unguarded, the royalist leader José de Canterac advanced from the mountains against

3564-472: The 16th century). San Martín supported this proposal, as well as Güemes and most deputies, except for those from Buenos Aires, who undermined the project and prevented its approval. Needing even more soldiers, San Martín extended the emancipation of slaves to the ages from 14 to 55, and even allowed them to be promoted to higher military ranks. He proposed a similar measure at the national level, but Pueyrredón encountered severe resistance. He included as well

3696-521: The Andes , in Cuyo Province , Argentina. From there, he led the Crossing of the Andes to Chile, and triumphed at the Battle of Chacabuco and the Battle of Maipú (1818), thus liberating Chile from royalist rule. Then he sailed to attack the Spanish stronghold of Lima , Peru. On 12 July 1821, after seizing partial control of Lima, San Martín was appointed Protector of Peru, and Peruvian independence

3828-747: The Army in Chile when Belgrano's lieutenant Viamonte signed an armistice with López; he thought that the conflict had ended. Casa Hacienda Punchauca The Casa Hacienda Santiago de Punchauca is a historic building at the 25th kilometre of the Lima– Canta Highway in Carabayllo District , Lima , Peru . The viceregal building was built over a Huaca and is part of the Cultural heritage of Peru since 1980. Named after its original owner and once owned by Nicolás de Ribera and Hipólito Unanue , it

3960-517: The Army of Andalusia to attack and seize Madrid. For his actions during this battle, San Martín was awarded a gold medal, and his rank raised to lieutenant colonel. On 16 May 1811, he fought in the battle of Albuera under the command of general William Carr Beresford . By this time, the French armies held most of the Iberian Peninsula under their control, except for Cádiz. San Martín resigned from

4092-460: The Army of the Andes. The army triumphantly entered Santiago de Chile the following day. Governor Francisco Marcó del Pont attempted to escape to Valparaíso and sail to Peru, but he was captured on 22 February and returned to Santiago. Several other officials were captured as well and sent as prisoners to San Luis, Argentina. San Martín sent Marcó del Pont prisoner to Mendoza. Three deputies from Coquimbo, Santiago and Concepción organized

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4224-493: The Army of the Andes. Carrera was an enemy of O'Higgins and sought to navigate to Chile and depose him, which led to his imprisonment by Pueyrredón and the confiscation of his ships. San Martín requested help from British Admiral William Bowles . He wrote from Chile and expected to find him in Buenos Aires, but Bowles had embarked for Rio de Janeiro. Bowles considered that San Martín was more trustworthy than Alvear, and praised his support for monarchism . San Martín did not obtain

4356-507: The Army of the Andes. He drafted all the citizens who could bear arms and all the slaves from ages 16 to 30, requested reinforcements to Buenos Aires, and reorganized the economy for war production . He took another leave to restore his health four months after taking power, so Alvear appointed Gregorio Perdriel . This appointment was resisted by the Mendoza Cabildo, which ratified San Martín. The government of San Martín repeated some of

4488-505: The Chileans who escaped Chile after the disaster of Rancagua, and organized them in four units, each one of infantry, cavalry, artillery and dragoons. At the end of 1816, the Army of the Andes had 5,000 men, 10,000 mules and 1,500 horses. San Martin organized military intelligence , propaganda and disinformation to confuse the royalist armies (such as the specific routes taken in the Andes), boost

4620-559: The Colombian Juan Paz del Castillo also influenced the paralysis of the preparations of the so-called Patriotic Army of the Centre. The campaign, commanded by the general Rudecindo Alvarado , ended in total failure as the complete plan was not followed and dynamism was not put into the actions, which gave time for the royalists to go on the defensive. Alvarado arrived in Iquique where he had

4752-544: The Dictatorship was installed. Canterac ordered the royalist generals José Ramón Rodil and Juan Antonio Monet  [ es ] to take advantage of this circumstance and take Lima. General Monet, from Jauja, and General Rodil, from Ica , met in Lurín , on February 27, 1824. The patriots of Lima were forced to abandon it, under the command of General Mariano Necochea , who together With 400 Montoneros on horseback, they were

4884-527: The Guayaquil meeting, Bolívar offered San Martín military aid to Peru, which materialized in July 1822, with the sending of troops under the command of Juan Paz del Castillo , but these were still insufficient. In September of that year, Bolívar offered another 4,000 soldiers, but the already installed junta only accepted the receipt of 4,000 rifles. Peru's relations with Colombia entered their most critical point due to

5016-424: The Junta and temporarily entrust the highest magistracy to the highest-ranking military leader, who was José Bernardo de Tagle y Portocarrero, 4th Marquess of Torre Tagle . On February 28, Congress ordered the release of General José de La Mar , who had been arrested at his home, and summoned General Andrés de Santa Cruz, who made an oral presentation of the position of the leaders and ended by saying that they obeyed

5148-466: The La Plata basin. He thought that Chile should organize the navy against Peru, not Buenos Aires. San Martín discussed with him and finally got financing of 500,000 pesos. He returned to Mendoza with his wife and daughter and received a letter from Pueyrredón, who said that Buenos Aires could only deliver one-third of the promised funds. This complicated the project, as neither Santiago de Chile nor Mendoza had

5280-429: The North. The viceroy of Peru sent Mariano Osorio in an attempt to reconquer Chile. The royalists would then advance by land from south to north towards Santiago. San Martín thought that it was not possible to defend Concepción, so he ordered O'Higgins to leave the city. 50,000 Chileans took cattle and grain and moved north, burning everything else, so that they did not leave supplies for the royalists. As he had done with

5412-616: The Peninsular War. It was a defensive war, and San Martín trusted that they could prevent a royalist advance in Jujuy . San Martín had health problems in April 1814, probably caused by hematemesis . He temporarily delegated the command of the Army to colonel Francisco Fernández de la Cruz and requested leave to recover. He moved to Santiago del Estero , and then to Córdoba where he slowly recovered. During this time King Ferdinand VII returned to

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5544-513: The Protectorate, which lasted just one year and 17 days, the following administrative policies were implemented: The Protectorate was a dictatorship that was based on a Statute, which had the following characteristics: Other provisions that occurred in Peru, during the Protectorate, were: San Martín's main issue was that of the war against the royalists, with some reproaching him for not undertaking

5676-758: The Regiment of Murcia in 1789, when he reached the required age of 11. He began his military career as a cadet in the Murcian Infantry Unit. San Martín took part in several Spanish campaigns in North Africa, fighting in Melilla and in Oran against the Moors in 1791, among others. His rank was raised to Sub-Lieutenant in 1793, at the age of 15. He began a naval career during the War of

5808-579: The Republic, this being the second citizen to adopt this title, after Riva-Agüero. Anarchy therefore spread in Peru, as two parallel governments existed at the same time. His governmental work took shape in the following points: The Peruvian Congress, following the recommendations of General Sucre, invited Bolívar to move to Peru "to consolidate independence." Bolívar embarked on the brig Chimborazo in Guayaquil, on August 7, 1823, arriving in Callao on September 1 of

5940-618: The Second Coalition , when Spain was allied with France against Great Britain, during the French Revolution . His ship Santa Dorotea was captured by the Royal Navy , who kept him as a prisoner of war for some time. Soon afterward, he continued to fight in southern Spain, mainly in Cádiz and Gibraltar with the rank of Second Captain of light infantry. He continued to fight Portugal on

6072-706: The Spaniards Francisco Chilavert and Eduardo Kailitz. They arrived on 9 March 1812, to serve under the First Triumvirate . A few days after his arrival in Buenos Aires in the United Provinces (formally named the Argentine Republic in 1826), San Martín was interviewed by the First Triumvirate. They appointed him a lieutenant colonel of cavalry, and asked him to create a cavalry unit, as Buenos Aires did not have good cavalry. He began to organize

6204-476: The Spanish Absolutist Restoration . San Martín was initiated in the Lodge of Rational Knights in 1811. They met at the house of Carlos María de Alvear , other members were José Miguel Carrera , Aldao, Blanco Encalada and other criollos , American-born Spaniards. They agreed to return to their home lands and join the local revolutionary movements. San Martín asked for his retirement from

6336-488: The Spanish army, for controversial reasons , and moved to South America, where he joined the Spanish American wars of independence . Historians propose several explanations for this action: the common ones are that he missed his native land, that he was in the employ of the British and the congruence of the goals of both wars. The first explanation suggests that when the wars of independence began San Martín thought that his duty

6468-590: The Supreme Director Antonio González de Balcarce the full military plan of operations. San Martín proposed that the country declare independence immediately, before the crossing. That way, they would be acting as a sovereign nation, and not as a mere rebellion. He had great influence over the Congress of Tucumán , a Congress with deputies from the provinces, which was established in March 1816. He opposed

6600-476: The Tucumán Congress, San Martín urged a declaration of independence, to legitimize the government and the military actions. The Chilean Declaration of Independence was issued on 18 February 1818, one year after the battle of Chacabuco. San Martín, Las Heras and Balcarce met in Curicó , and the royalists in Talca , in a plain known as "Cancha rayada". As the patriots had a numeric advantage, 7,000 against 4,600, Osorio tried to avoid open battle, and tried instead

6732-649: The afternoon. O'Higgins, still injured by the wound received in Cancha Rayada, arrived during the final action at the hacienda. He claimed "Glory to the savior of Chile!", in reference to San Martín, who praised him for going to the battlefield with his unhealed wound. They made an embrace on their horses, now known as the "Embrace of Maipú". The battle of Maipú secured Chilean independence. Except for Osorio, who escaped with 200 cavalry, all top royalist military leaders were captured. All their armed forces were either killed or captured, and all their artillery, weapons, military hospitals, money and resources were lost. The victory

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6864-514: The annexation of Guayaquil to Colombian territory. Added to this was the fact that Juan Paz del Castillo received instructions from his government not to commit his forces only in case success was guaranteed and only in northern Peru, so he came into conflict with the interests of Peru, which focused on attacking the royalists in the centre and south. Said Colombian officer returned to his homeland in January 1823, displeased at not being able to impose his conditions. Relations with Colombia cooled then, at

6996-426: The appointment of José Moldes , a soldier from Salta who was against the policies of Buenos Aires, as he feared Moldes would break national unity. He rejected proposals to be appointed Supreme Director himself. He supported his friend and lodge member Juan Martín de Pueyrredón for the office. Pueyrredón resumed the military aid to Cuyo. The Congress of Tucumán declared independence on 9 July 1816. Congress discussed

7128-410: The army, as it would hurt the soldiers' morale. However, the supreme director Gervasio Posadas (who replaced the triumvirate in government) insisted, and San Martín acted as instructed. San Martín stayed only a few weeks in Tucumán , reorganizing the army and studying the terrain. He also had a positive impression of the guerrilla war waged by Martín Miguel de Güemes against the royalists, similar to

7260-419: The attack from the southern Peruvian coast, a combined offensive by the Argentines through Upper Peru and the patriots from Lima through central Peru. However, the Junta could not obtain the support of the government of Buenos Aires , overwhelmed by internal difficulties, and did not grant the army that garrisoned Lima the necessary means to timely initiate an offensive into the central mountains. The departure of

7392-482: The authorities. He maintained his investiture as president, decreed the dissolution of Congress on July 19, 1823, and created a Senate made up of ten deputies. He formed troops and attempted to reinforce them with the remains of the Intermedios campaign. While in Lima, the Congress was again convened by the provisional president Torre Tagle, on August 6 of the same year. Congress recognized José Bernardo de Tagle y Portocarrero, 4th Marquess of Torre Tagle , as President of

7524-399: The brig Belgrano . The First Constituent Congress promulgated on November 12, 1823, the First Political Constitution of the Republic , with a clear liberal tendency. It was an ephemeral Constitution; When General Simón Bolívar arrived in Peru, the Constituent Congress itself had to suspend its effects in order to give him dictatorial powers. The primary mission of the Junta was to continue

7656-435: The campaign to Peru. He did not receive a good reception, as Pueyrredón thought that Chile should compensate Buenos Aires for the money invested in their liberation, as the support to San Martín reduced the support to Belgrano, and the Portuguese-Brazilian invasion of the Eastern Bank menaced Buenos Aires. Incapable of financial support, Buenos Aires sent lawyer Manuel Aguirre to the United States, to request aid and acknowledge

7788-488: The capital. Riva-Agüero then ordered the transfer of government agencies and troops to the Real Felipe Fortress, on June 16, 1823. On the 19th, Spanish forces regained control of Lima. In Callao, discord broke out between Congress and Riva-Agüero. Congress resolved that the Executive and Legislative powers be transferred to Trujillo . It also created a military power that he entrusted to the Venezuelan general Antonio José de Sucre (who had arrived in Peru in May of that year, at

7920-421: The central mountains, effectively supported by the Montoneras led by Marcelino Carreño. It arrived in Huánuco on June 26, 1824, and continued to Cerro de Pasco. Between July 31 and August 10, 1824, the patriot army was concentrated in the region of Quillota, Rancas and Sacramento. They numbered in total about 8,000 men. On August 2, Bolívar reviewed his army on the Rancas plain, 36 km from Cerro de Pasco. After

8052-532: The common understanding, the crossing of the Andes was not the first time that a military expedition crossed the mountain range. The difference from previous operations was the size of the army, and that it had to be ready for combat right after the crossing. The army was divided in six columns , each taking a different path. Colonel Francisco Zelada in La Rioja took the Come-Caballos pass towards Copiapó . Juan Manuel Cabot , in San Juan , moved to Coquimbo . Ramón Freire and José León Lemos led two columns in

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8184-463: The declaration of independence. However, the envoy failed, as the United States stayed neutral in the conflict as they were in the process of negotiating the Adams–Onís Treaty for the purchase of Florida from Spain. The Chilean José Miguel Carrera had obtained his own ships after the disaster of Rancagua which he intended to use to liberate Chile, however, as this had already been achieved by San Martín, he subsequently refused to place his fleet under

8316-424: The decree of August 3, 1821. For all practical purposes, Peru was divided militarily and administratively into two parts: that of Lima, the northern coast and the central highlands (under the control of the Patriots ) and that of the central and southern parts, headquartered in Cuzco and controlled by the Royal Army of Peru . Later, the title of Protector was changed to Protector of the Freedom of Peru . During

8448-423: The defeat, the soldiers were received as heroes in Santiago. Thanks to Las Heras, a potential disaster for the patriot armies turned into a minor setback. The army was reorganized again, but the deaths, injuries and desertions caused by the defeat at Cancha Rayada reduced its size to 5,000 soldiers, which was closer to the royalist forces. They took position next to the Maipo River , near Santiago. San Martín made

8580-450: The definition of American independence had to take place on the still-disputed Peruvian soil. San Martín could not finish the war against the Spanish. Although the entire north of Peru had voluntarily joined the patriot cause, its central and southern parts remained under the control of viceregal troops. San Martín considered external military aid necessary and in pursuit of it he went to meet with Bolívar in Guayaquil. In what became known as

8712-417: The designation of a single Supreme Chief "to order and be quickly obeyed”, replacing the collegiate body that made up the Junta. The name of the official indicated to assume the government was even suggested: Colonel José de la Riva Agüero . The crisis deepened when another request was presented to Congress by the civic militias quartered in Bellavista and a third headed by Mariano Tramarría. On February 27,

8844-465: The enemy ships from the top of the convent during the night. The royalists disembarked at dawn, ready to pillage and the regiment charged into battle. San Martín employed a pincer movement to trap the royalists. He led one column and Justo Bermúdez the other. San Martín's horse was killed during the battle, and his leg was trapped under the corpse of the animal after the fall. A royalist, probably Zabala himself, attempted to kill San Martín while he

8976-412: The entirety of Chile. Royalist forces still resisted in southern Chile, allied with local Mapuche chiefs. Las Heras occupied Concepción , but failed to occupy Talcahuano . The royalist resistance lasted for several months, and Talcahuano was only captured when most of the continent was already free. San Martín left O'Higgins in charge of the Army, and returned to Buenos Aires to request resources for

9108-412: The establishment of North Peru and South Peru , which shortly after joined Bolivia as the Peru–Bolivian Confederation that was ultimately dissolved in 1839 after a three-year war . With a reunited Peruvian state now reestablished, now president Agustín Gamarra unsuccessfully sought to annex its southern neighbour , which cost him his life during the Battle of Ingavi on November 18, 1841. Gamarra

9240-408: The fight against the royalists. Viceroy La Serna had more than 20,000 soldiers who occupied the territory between Cerro de Pasco and Upper Peru . San Martín had already foreseen that more forces were necessary to defeat the royalists, who had turned all that territory into a true bastion of his power. The help that Bolívar had offered to Peru to defeat the Spanish was still in progress. Indeed, during

9372-458: The final campaign of independence from his headquarters in Trujillo, Sucre toured the terrain in the mountains, and with the protection of the Montoneros he drew up sketches and plans of the territory that would inevitably be the scene of the war. The spy service was improved, the fields and forage for horses were prepared, and food depots were established along the route that the liberating army had to travel. Both soldiers and horses trained to face

9504-525: The fort, freed the Spanish prisoners, gave them back their positions and hierarchies and together with them, they raised the Spanish flag , committing treason to the liberating cause. This act of sedition caused confusion in Lima (February 5, 1824). Faced with such a delicate situation, Congress gave a memorable decree on February 10 giving Bolívar full powers to face the danger, annulling the authority of Torre Tagle. Thus

9636-549: The governorship of the Cuyo province, which was accepted. He took office on 6 September. The absolutist restoration in Spain and the growing influence of Artigas generated a political crisis in Buenos Aires, forcing Posadas to resign. Alvear became the new Supreme Director, but had to resign after three months. San Martín's plan was complicated as well by the Disaster of Rancagua , a royalist victory that restored absolutism in Chile, ending

9768-516: The head of 4,000 soldiers forced La Serna to send General Valdés to fight him with the royalist forces stationed in Puno . This situation motivated Bolívar to immediately open a campaign against the closest royalist army, which was that of José de Canterac, which was stationed between Jauja and Huancayo . The liberating army advanced to the Callejón de Huaylas . In the month of May, it continued its march towards

9900-517: The head of the first Colombian troops), and accredited a delegation to request the personal collaboration of Simón Bolívar in the war on June 19, 1823. Immediately, the same Congress granted Sucre powers equal to those of the President of the Republic for the duration of the crisis, and on June 23, it ordered that Riva-Agüero be exonerated from supreme command. Riva-Agüero did not comply with this congressional provision and embarked to Trujillo with part of

10032-571: The home of aristocrat Mariquita Sánchez de Thompson , with San Martín also attending, but there is no documentary evidence of that. The lyrics of the new anthem included several references to the secessionist will of the time. Although they were still allies, San Martín began to distance himself from Alvear, who controlled the Assembly and the lodge. Alvear opposed the merchants and the Uruguayan caudillo José Gervasio Artigas , San Martín thought that it

10164-522: The ideas outlined in the Operations plan , drafted by Mariano Moreno at the beginning of the war. A combination of incentives, confiscations and planned economy allowed the country to provision the army: gunpowder, pieces of artillery, mules and horses, food, military clothing, etc. Mining increased, with increased extraction of lead, copper, saltpeter, sulfur and borax, which had several uses and improved local finances. Hundreds of women wove clothing used by

10296-705: The incompatibility of the Order of the Sun and the Titles of Castile with the form of the government of Peru and the declaration of the November 12 of the same year, disavowing commissioners García del Río and James Paroissien. José de San Martín retired to Magdalena , where he had a country house . Accompanied by a small escort and an assistant, on the same night of his resignation, mounted on horseback, he headed to Ancón , north of Lima. At dawn on September 22, he embarked for Valparaíso aboard

10428-618: The last to withdraw on February 27. The royalists entered Lima on February 29 of the same year. Bolívar, now recovered from his illness, faced with the news that came to him from Lima, began preparations for a retreat to Guayaquil, fearing the territorial loss of Colombia achieved in the southern campaigns. He set up his headquarters in Trujillo and received help from the Peruvians, both in money, supplies and resources of all kinds, as well as in combatants. Indeed, outside of his regular army, Bolívar had

10560-492: The main columns to gather at Aconcagua valley , meeting at the slopes of Chacabuco. Royalist commander Rafael Maroto converged his armies on that location as well. Maroto had 2,450 men and 5 pieces of artillery, San Martín had 3,600 men and 9 pieces of artillery. The misdirection that concealed the path of the bulk of the Army allowed San Martín this advantage, as other royalist forces were scattered in other regions of Chile. The battle began on 12 February. San Martín organized

10692-518: The mediation, as he did not recognize Artigas as an equal to negotiate with him. Although Artigas was defeated by the Luso-Brazilian armies, his allies Estanislao López and Francisco Ramírez continued hostilities against Buenos Aires for its inactivity against the invasion. Pueyrredón called the Army of the Andes and the Army of the North (led by Belgrano) to aid Buenos Aires in the conflict. Guido noted to San Martín that if both armies did that,

10824-534: The military, and moved to Britain. He stayed in the country for a short time, and met many other South Americans at a lodge held at the house of Venezuelan general Francisco de Miranda at 27 Grafton Street (now 58 Grafton Way), Bloomsbury , London (the house now has a blue plaque with Miranda's name). Then he sailed to Buenos Aires aboard the British ship George Canning , along with the South Americans Alvear, Francisco José de Vera and Matías Zapiola, and

10956-531: The national fervor of his army and promote desertion among the royalists. Although the Congress of Tucumán had already formalized the flag of Argentina , the Army of the Andes did not use it, choosing a banner with two columns, light blue and white, and a coat of arms roughly similar to the Coat of arms of Argentina . The army did not use the flag of Argentina because it was not exclusively an Argentine army. Contrary to

11088-466: The north of Argentina and Chile would be easily reconquered by the royalists. San Martín also knew that most of the soldiers of the Army of the Andes would not be willing to aid Buenos Aires in the civil war, as most were from other provinces or from Chile. San Martín had doubts as well about the projected arrival of a large military expedition from Spain, as the absolutist restoration of Ferdinand VII had met severe resistance in Spain. San Martín finally kept

11220-427: The order of Congress but that if Riva-Agüero was not named President of the Republic , he and the military leaders would resign and leave the country. Given what was expressed by Santa Cruz, Congress appointed Riva-Agüero as president by 39 votes in favour of a total of 60. He was not assigned duties or deadlines. A few days later, on March 4, 1823, the same Congress promoted him to Grand Marshal and ordered that he use

11352-471: The original complement. Manuel Rodríguez had returned to Chile before the crossing, and began a guerrilla war in Santiago de Chile against the royalists, in support of the upcoming army. He was supported in the south of the city and the countryside. The strategy was to occupy nearby villages, seize the royalists' weapons and flee. The attacks on Melipilla and San Fernando, and a failed one at Curicó, demoralized

11484-654: The other shore of the Río de la Plata , was still a royalist stronghold. Argentine general José Rondeau laid siege to it, but the Montevidean navy eluded it by pillaging nearby cities. San Martín was sent with the new Regiment to watch the activities in the Paraná River shore. The Regiment followed the navy from a distance, avoiding detection. They hid in the San Carlos Convent , in San Lorenzo, Santa Fe . San Martín watched

11616-507: The patriot cause. Meanwhile, Viceroy La Serna reorganized his forces in the central and southern mountains of Peru and in Upper Peru, from where he carried out raids on the coast, destroying a patriot army in the battle of Ica (or La Macacona) , on April 7. of 1822. On May 24, 1822, Peruvian–Colombian troops defeated the royalists in the Battle of Pichincha and occupied Quito on May 25. The Peruvian contingent that participated in this battle

11748-513: The patriot forces under the command of Bolívar, and rather wanted to reach an agreement with the royalists. Bolívar himself opened the campaign against Riva-Agüero, marching north. But before the civil war broke out, Riva-Agüero was captured by his own officers led by Colonel Antonio Gutiérrez de la Fuente , who, disobeying the order to shoot him, banished him to Guayaquil on November 25, 1823. Bolívar entered Trujillo in December 1823 and thus dominated

11880-419: The patriot left wing, mainly composed of emancipated slaves, and took 400 lives. San Martín ordered the mounted grenadiers led by Hilarión de la Quintana to charge against the regiment. The firing suddenly ended and royalists began to fight with sword bayonets, under the cries "Long live the king!" and "Long live the homeland!" respectively. Finally, the royalists ended their cries and began to disperse. When

12012-658: The political and military scene of Peru. He then headed back to Lima. On January 1, 1824, he was in Nepeña and Huarmey , from there he went to Pativilca where he fell ill with malaria . The royalists, aware of Bolívar's illness, took advantage of the situation and managed to get the patriotic troops (from the River Plate and Chile) who were garrisoning the Real Felipe Fortress in Callao, to mutiny , demanding accrued payments and other mistreatment. The mutineers managed to take

12144-584: The precise moments when the so-called First Intermedios campaign was being fought. The Junta organized a military expedition against the Spanish who still dominated southern Peru. The Campaign of the Intermediate Ports took its name from the fact that the plan was to attack the Spanish from the southern coast located between the Peruvian ports of Ilo and Arica . This plan had been outlined by San Martín himself, but originally it contemplated, in addition to

12276-469: The reaction of the royalists was immediate. Viceroy La Serna sent his general Gerónimo Valdés to attack Santa Cruz, resulting in the battle of Zepita of August 25, 1823, on the shores of Lake Titicaca . The patriots remained masters of the field, but without obtaining a decisive victory. Immediately afterwards, Santa Cruz ordered the withdrawal towards the coast, being closely pursued by the forces of La Serna and Valdés, who contemptuously called this campaign

12408-560: The regiment of Burgos realized that their line was broken, they stopped resisting, and the soldiers began to disperse. The cavalry pursued and killed most of them. At the end of the battle, the royalists had been trapped among the units of Las Heras in the west, Alvarado in the middle, Quintana in the east and the cavalries of Zapiola and Freire. Osorio tried to fall back to the hacienda "Lo Espejo" but could not reach it, so he tried to escape to Talcahuano. Ordóñez made his last stand at that hacienda, where 500 royalists died. The battle ended in

12540-419: The resources needed. San Martín resigned from the Army, but it is unclear whether his decision to resign was sincere or was to apply pressure to his backers. The government of Buenos Aires still considered San Martín vital to the national defense, so Pueyrredón agreed to pay the 500,000 pesos requested, and encouraged San Martín to withdraw his resignation. San Martín proposed to mediate between Buenos Aires and

12672-433: The review, he harangued his soldiers displaying overwhelming eloquence, a virtue that was complemented by his military talent: Soldiers! You are going to complete the greatest work that heaven has entrusted to men: that of saving an entire world from slavery. Soldiers! The enemies you are going to destroy boast of fourteen years of triumphs. They, then, will be worthy of measuring their weapons with yours that have shined in

12804-486: The rigors of the climate. The army was concentrated between Cajamarca and Huaraz . The Peruvian division was commanded by Marshal José de La Mar, while the Colombians, reinforced with new troops arrived from Colombia under the command of generals Jacinto Lara and José María Córdova , were led by Sucre. Bolívar managed to form an army of about 10,000 men, but the viceregal forces numbered about 18,000. Olañeta's revolt at

12936-468: The risk that a foreign Executive Branch, isolated and separated from it, although of its own making, may form an opposition party," it determined that Congress retain the Executive Power. It was also decided that it should be made up of three people. One of the deputies, José Faustino Sánchez Carrión , stated on that occasion: "Three do not unite to oppress. One's government is more effective if governing

13068-432: The royalist forces that occupied better positions. Valdés went out to meet him, fighting the battle of Torata . The royalist leader resisted for eight hours until Canterac came to his aid with his cavalry; Together they put the patriots to flight, thus achieving victory for the king's flag on January 19, 1823. Valdés, encouraged by his success, pursued Alvarado's troops, catching up with them and definitively defeating them in

13200-504: The royalists. The columns that crossed the Andes began to take military actions. The column in the north led by Cabot defeated the royalists in Salala, seized Coquimbo and then Copiapó. In the south, Ramón Freire captured Talca . Las Heras routed royalist outposts in Juncalito and Potrerillos. Bernardo O'Higgins, who came from Los Patos pass, defeated the royalists at Las Coimas. This allowed

13332-409: The same year. On September 10, the Congress of Lima granted him supreme military authority throughout the Republic. Torre Tagle was still president, but he had to agree on everything with Bolívar. The only obstacle for Bolívar was Riva-Agüero, who dominated northern Peru, with his capital in Trujillo. Riva-Agüero gave no sign of wanting to reach an agreement that would make possible the unification of all

13464-417: The ships and interrupted the correspondence with Bowles for some months. He returned to Chile; his wife Remedios stayed in Buenos Aires with her daughter Mercedes because of her health problems. Unable to get help from either Buenos Aires or foreign powers, San Martín promoted a more decisive commitment from Chile to finance the navy. The failure to liberate Talcahuano was followed by naval reinforcements from

13596-598: The side of Spain in the War of the Oranges in 1801. He was promoted to captain in 1804. During his stay in Cádiz he was influenced by the ideas of the Spanish Enlightenment . At the outbreak of the Peninsular War in 1808, San Martín was named adjutant of Francisco María Solano Ortiz de Rosas . Rosas, suspected of being an afrancesado , was killed by a popular uprising which overran the barracks and dragged his corpse in

13728-418: The soldiers. Father José Luis Beltrán headed a military factory of 700 men, which produced rifles and horseshoes. San Martín stayed on good terms with both the government of Buenos Aires and the provincial caudillos , without fully allying with either one. He was able to receive provisions from both. He considered that the war of independence took priority over the civil wars . The army was not ready as of

13860-600: The south. The bulk of the armies left from Mendoza . San Martín, Soler and O'Higgins led a column across the Los Patos pass , and Juan Gregorio de Las Heras another one across the Uspallata Pass . The whole operation took nearly a month. The armies took dried food for the soldiers and fodder for the horses, because of the inhospitable conditions. They also consumed garlics and onions, to prevent altitude sickness . Only 4,300 mules and 511 horses survived, less than half

13992-613: The southern ports, from where he planned to attack the Spanish who still dominated all of southern Peru. This expedition was commanded by General Andrés de Santa Cruz and the then Colonel Agustín Gamarra was the chief of staff. Santa Cruz promised to return victorious or dead. It was the first time that an army made up entirely of Peruvians was put into action. Santa Cruz landed his forces in Iquique, Arica and Pacocha and advanced on Upper Peru. The patriots initially won some victories. Gamarra occupied Oruro and Santa Cruz occupied La Paz , but

14124-408: The streets. San Martín was appointed to the armies of Andalusia , and led a battalion of volunteers. In June 1808 his unit became incorporated into a guerrilla force led by Juan de la Cruz Mourgeón . He was nearly killed during the battle of Arjonilla , but was saved by Sergeant Juan de Dios. On 19 July 1808, Spanish and French forces engaged in the battle of Bailén , a Spanish victory that allowed

14256-401: The summer of 1815, delaying the crossing. Given the harsh conditions on the mountains, the crossing could only be done in the summer season, when there is less snow. Buenos Aires did not send more provisions after the ousting of Alvear. San Martín proposed to resign and serve under Balcarce, if they would support the campaign. San Martín and Guido wrote a report in the autumn of 1816, detailing to

14388-479: The third point, Bolívar was decidedly republican, thus opposing San Martín's monarchism. Disillusioned, San Martín returned to Peru, already convinced that he should withdraw to give way to Bolívar. Before the events of Guayaquil, San Martín had convened the First Constituent Congress of Peru , on May 1, 1822. 80 deputies were elected, and this legislature was solemnly installed on September 20, 1822. It

14520-507: The throne, began the absolutist restoration and began to organize an attack on the rogue colonies. After an interview with Tomás Guido , San Martín came up with a plan: organize an army in Mendoza, cross the Andes to Chile, and move to Peru by sea; all while Güemes defended the north frontier. This would place him in Peru without crossing the harsh terrain of Upper Peru, where two campaigns had already been defeated. To advance this plan, he requested

14652-532: The troops mobilized from their cantonments to the Balconcillo hacienda , half a league from Lima, from where they demanded the dismissal of the Junta. These rebels were led by General Andrés de Santa Cruz . It was the first coup d'état in Peruvian republican history, known as the Balconcillo mutiny , which inaugurated the succession of de facto governments that marked the course of republican life. Faced with such pressure, that same day, Congress agreed to dismiss

14784-522: The two-color sash as the insignia of the executive power that he administered. Since then all the Presidents of Peru have worn this presidential sash. José de la Riva Agüero launched great efforts to put Peru in a position to finish the war of independence on its own. His governmental work took shape in the following points: Riva-Agüero undertook another campaign that targeted the Intermediate Ports , embarking his troops from May 14 to 25, 1823, heading to

14916-582: The type of government of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata (modern Argentina). General Manuel Belgrano, who had made a diplomatic mission to Europe, informed them that independence would be more easily acknowledged by the European powers if the country established a monarchy. For this purpose, Belgrano proposed a plan to crown a noble of the Inca Empire as king (the Sapa Inca dynasty had been dethroned in

15048-539: The valuable help of 10,000 Montoneros . This huge contingent of irregular soldiers was made up mainly of Indians recruited in the free provinces. Bolívar commissioned the leaders of the Montoneros to act on the following fronts: Francisco de Paula Otero  [ es ] , named general commander of the Montoneros of the mountains; Ignacio Ninavilca  [ es ] , of the Huarochirí  [ es ] area, who

15180-667: The vote of three deputies and thus achieving a majority. As this caused a commotion, San Martín and Alvear intervened with their military force, and the Buenos Aires Cabildo disestablished the triumvirate. It was replaced by the Second Triumvirate of Juan José Paso , Nicolás Rodríguez Peña and Antonio Álvarez Jonte . The new triumvirate called the Assembly of the Year XIII and promoted San Martín to colonel. Montevideo , on

15312-632: Was a real Masonic lodge , or a lodge with political goals. It had no ties to the Premier Grand Lodge of England . In September 1812, San Martín married María de los Remedios de Escalada , a 14-year-old girl from one of the local wealthy families. The lodge organized the Revolution of 8 October 1812 when the terms of office of the triumvirs Manuel de Sarratea and Feliciano Chiclana ended. Juan Martín de Pueyrredón promoted antimorenist new members, Manuel Obligado and Pedro Medrano , by preventing

15444-476: Was also imprisoned and then killed in prison; this death may have been decided by the Lautaro lodge. San Martín could not have taken part in it, as he was already on the way to Buenos Aires. San Martín was not well received in Buenos Aires. Pueyrredón initially declined to give further help, citing the conflicts with the federal caudillos and the organization of a huge royalist army in Cádiz that would try to reconquer

15576-433: Was born in Yapeyú, Corrientes , an Indian reduction of Guaraní people . The exact year of his birth is disputed , as there are no records of his baptism. Later documents formulated during his life, such as passports, military career records and wedding documentation, gave him varying ages. Most of these documents point to his year of birth as either 1777 or 1778. The family moved to Buenos Aires in 1781, when San Martín

15708-687: Was born in the town of Cervatos de la Cueza , in the current Province of Palencia (former Kingdom of León , in Spain) and was lieutenant governor of the department. He served as a military man to the Spanish Crown and in 1774 he was appointed Governor of the Yapeyú Department, part of the Government of the Guaraní Missions, created to administer the thirty Guaraní Jesuit missions . After the order he

15840-508: Was changed to that of "Founder of the Freedom of Peru and Generalissimo of Arms" ( Spanish : Fundador de la Libertad del Perú y Generalísimo de las Armas ), a title that was accepted by San Martín, although in an honorary manner. His decision to retire was final. Congress accepted San Martín's resignation and agreed with Arce's proposal, saying that "since Congress must retain as much authority as possible to enforce its determinations, and running

15972-548: Was expelled from Hispanic America by Carlos III in 1767 based in Yapeyú reduction. His mother Gregoria Matorras del Ser was Spanish born 1738 in Paredes de Nava , Palencia , a few kilometres from where Juan de San Martin was born and the daughter of Domingo Matorras and María del Ser. In 1806 she eventually settled after the death of her daughter Elena and died in Orense , Galicia in 1813. He

16104-438: Was later nominated as a representative before congress; Colonel Juan Francisco de Vidal , of La Oroya ; Major Vicente Suárez, of Canta ; and Commander María Fresco, in charge of Junín . But Bolívar's salvation came from the rebellion or uprising of Pedro Antonio Olañeta , military chief of Upper Peru, which involved the entire Upper Peruvian royalist army, on January 22, 1824, against the authority of Viceroy La Serna, causing

16236-623: Was made up of 1,600 troops under the command of Colonel Andrés de Santa Cruz and joined the Colombian patriot troop in Saraguro , on February 9, 1822. This event is memorable, because for the first time they converged the two liberating currents, that of the North and that of the South. Later, General Simón Bolívar invaded Guayaquil , with the desire to annex it to Colombia , of which he was its undisputed leader. Both Bolívar and San Martín were convinced that

16368-403: Was officially declared on 28 July. On 26 July 1822, after a closed-door meeting with fellow libertador Simón Bolívar at Guayaquil , Ecuador, Bolívar took over the task of fully liberating Peru. San Martín unexpectedly left the country and resigned the command of his army, excluding himself from politics and the military, and moved to France in 1824. The details of that meeting would be

16500-586: Was praised by Güemes, Bolívar and the international press. San Martín made a new request for ships to Bowles, but received no answer. He moved again to Buenos Aires, to make a similar request. He arrived to Mendoza a few days after the execution of the Chileans Luis and Juan José Carrera , brothers of José Miguel Carrera. The specific initiative of those executions is controversial. Chilean historian Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna indicts San Martín, while J. C. Raffo de la Reta blames O'Higgins instead. Manuel Rodríguez

16632-547: Was presided over by the clergyman Francisco Xavier de Luna Pizarro . As soon as this First Constituent Congress was installed, it approved a proposition that said: "...that the Constituent Congress of Peru is solemnly constituted and installed, sovereignty resides in the nation, and its exercise in the Congress that legitimately represents it." After the installation and on the same date, this Congress offered General San Martín dictatorial powers, which he refused. The offer

16764-552: Was removed from the government and José de la Serna was appointed as the new Viceroy of Peru . He decided to meet with San Martín in Punchauca , but they did not reach any agreement, due to the problems that arose due to the advance of San Martín and his troops. Viceroy La Serna and his troops ultimately left for the mountains. Consequently, San Martín arrived in Lima and proclaimed the independence of Peru on July 28, 1821, while standing on

16896-524: Was risky to open such conflicts when the royalists were still a threat. The Army of the North , which was operating at the Upper Peru , was defeated at the battles of Vilcapugio and Ayohuma , so the triumvirate appointed San Martín to head it, replacing Manuel Belgrano . San Martín and Belgrano met at the Yatasto relay . The army was in poor condition, and San Martín initially refused to remove Belgrano from

17028-464: Was succeeded by interim President Manuel Menéndez , but his death led to political instability and ultimately served as the beginning of a period of anarchy where multiple generals declared themselves the head of state, beginning with Juan Crisóstomo Torrico on August 16, 1842. After the Independence of Chile , General José de San Martín , on August 20, 1820, at the head of the Liberating Expedition of Peru , set sail from Valparaíso and landed in

17160-552: Was three or four years old. Juan requested to be transferred to Spain, leaving the Americas in 1783. The family settled in Madrid , but as Juan was unable to earn a promotion, they moved to Málaga . Once in the city, San Martín enrolled in Málaga's school of temporalities, beginning his studies in 1785. It is unlikely that he finished the six-year-long elementary education, before he enrolled in

17292-483: Was to return to his country and serve in the military conflict. The second explanation suggests that Britain, which would benefit from the independence of the South American countries, sent San Martín to achieve it. The third suggests that both wars were caused by the conflicts between Enlightenment ideas and absolutism, so San Martín still waged the same war; the wars in the Americas only developed separatist goals after

17424-436: Was trapped under his dead horse where he suffered a saber injury to his face, and a bullet wound to his arm. Juan Bautista Cabral and Juan Bautista Baigorria of San Martín's regiment intervened and saved his life; Cabral was mortally wounded, and died shortly afterwards. The battle did not have a notable influence on the war and did not prevent further pillage. Montevideo was finally subdued by Admiral William Brown during

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