Feuchtwangen is a city in Ansbach district in the administrative region of Middle Franconia in Bavaria , Germany with around 12,000 citizens and 137km² of landmass making it the biggest city in the Ansbach district by Population and Landmass. In the year 2019 Feuchtwangen celebrated its 1200th jubilee based on the first mention of its Benedictine monastery.
122-491: Geographically and geologically the land around Feuchtwangen comprises the eastern part of the Swabian - Franconian Escarpment Land ( Schichtstufenland ), also sometimes called the gypsum - keuper landscape. Characteristic of this landform is the quick change from deep hollows to mostly wooded mountain ranges, which were formed as the result of keuper strata not being well able to withstand erosion. This also meant that streams in
244-535: A characteristic fabric . All three types may melt again, and when this happens, new magma is formed, from which an igneous rock may once again solidify. Organic matter, such as coal, bitumen, oil, and natural gas, is linked mainly to organic-rich sedimentary rocks. To study all three types of rock, geologists evaluate the minerals of which they are composed and their other physical properties, such as texture and fabric . Geologists also study unlithified materials (referred to as superficial deposits ) that lie above
366-485: A petrographic microscope , where the minerals can be identified through their different properties in plane-polarized and cross-polarized light, including their birefringence , pleochroism , twinning , and interference properties with a conoscopic lens . In the electron microprobe, individual locations are analyzed for their exact chemical compositions and variation in composition within individual crystals. Stable and radioactive isotope studies provide insight into
488-616: A railway branchline to the Nuremberg- Stuttgart mainline. Nevertheless, development stagnated in the 19th and 20th centuries until the Second World War . Although some of the communities that were later incorporated into Feuchtwangen were destroyed in the world wars, Feuchtwangen itself was left unscathed. A renewed upswing took root after the Second World War, spurred on by the arrival of people driven out of their lands in
610-540: A common wall, which helped to meld the two formerly separate communities into one. The margravate town, seat of a higher administrative office and place of many markets grew in importance and in the 15th and 16th centuries blossomed once again. The troubles in the German Peasants' War afforded an opportunity to introduce the Protestant Reformation , which happened throughout the margravate in 1533. The monastery
732-471: A continuing education institution. In 2000, the Feuchtwangen Casino opened, which in 2005 was once again the most visited and highest earning of all Bavarian casinos . In 1972, ten communities were amalgamated into Feuchtwangen: Aichau mit Thürnhofen, Aichenzell, Banzenweiler, Breitenau, Dorfgütingen, Heilbronn, Krapfenau, Larrieden, Mosbach and Vorderbreitenthann. The spruce tree coat of arms
854-434: A definite homogeneous chemical composition and an ordered atomic arrangement. Each mineral has distinct physical properties, and there are many tests to determine each of them. Minerals are often identified through these tests. The specimens can be tested for: A rock is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloids . Most research in geology is associated with the study of rocks, as they provide
976-777: A hospital with 80 beds. Since 1 January 2003, this has belonged to the Ansbach District Network Clinic, which is made up of hospitals in Rothenburg and Dinkelsbühl. The hospital in Feuchtwangen has the rheumatology and internal medicine departments. There are also a nursing home and many pharmacies in town. Within Feuchtwangen's industrial area, many firms, some quite large, have offices. The following companies can be found in Feuchtwangen: Feuchtwang has 6 Kindergartens at its disposal, found throughout
1098-623: A length of less than a meter. Rocks at the depth to be ductilely stretched are often also metamorphosed. These stretched rocks can also pinch into lenses, known as boudins , after the French word for "sausage" because of their visual similarity. Where rock units slide past one another, strike-slip faults develop in shallow regions, and become shear zones at deeper depths where the rocks deform ductilely. The addition of new rock units, both depositionally and intrusively, often occurs during deformation. Faulting and other deformational processes result in
1220-400: A long-term tactical and strategic problem. Historians disagree on the nature of the revolt and its causes, whether it grew out of the emerging religious controversy centered on Luther; whether a wealthy tier of peasants saw their own wealth and rights slipping away, and sought to weave them into the legal, social and religious fabric of society; or whether peasants objected to the emergence of
1342-448: A means to provide information about geological history and the timing of geological events. The principle of uniformitarianism states that the geological processes observed in operation that modify the Earth's crust at present have worked in much the same way over geological time. A fundamental principle of geology advanced by the 18th-century Scottish physician and geologist James Hutton
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#17328686450951464-465: A middle course in the Peasants' War, by criticizing both the injustices imposed on the peasants, and the rashness of the peasants in fighting back. He also tended to support the centralization and urbanization of the economy. This position alienated the lesser nobles, but shored up his position with the burghers . Luther argued that work was the chief duty on earth; the duty of the peasants was farm labor and
1586-681: A modernizing, centralizing nation state. One view is that the origins of the German Peasants' War lay partly in the unusual power dynamic caused by the agricultural and economic dynamism of the previous decades. Labor shortages in the last half of the 15th century had allowed peasants to sell their labor for a higher price; food and goods shortages had allowed them to sell their products for a higher price as well. Consequently, some peasants, particularly those who had limited allodial requirements, were able to accrue significant economic, social, and legal advantages. Peasants were more concerned to protect
1708-457: A new world order fused with the political and social demands of the peasantry. In the final weeks of 1524 and the beginning of 1525, Müntzer travelled into southwest Germany, where the peasant armies were gathering. Here he would have had contact with some of their leaders, and it is argued that he also influenced the formulation of their demands. He spent several weeks in the Klettgau area, and there
1830-608: A number of fields, laboratory, and numerical modeling methods to decipher Earth history and to understand the processes that occur on and inside the Earth. In typical geological investigations, geologists use primary information related to petrology (the study of rocks), stratigraphy (the study of sedimentary layers), and structural geology (the study of positions of rock units and their deformation). In many cases, geologists also study modern soils, rivers , landscapes , and glaciers ; investigate past and current life and biogeochemical pathways, and use geophysical methods to investigate
1952-562: A peasant wished to marry, he not only needed the lord's permission but had to pay a tax. When the peasant died, the lord was entitled to his best cattle, his best garments and his best tools. The justice system, operated by the clergy or wealthy burgher and patrician jurists, gave the peasant no redress. Generations of traditional servitude and the autonomous nature of the provinces limited peasant insurrections to local areas. The Swabian League fielded an army commanded by Georg, Truchsess von Waldburg , later known as "Bauernjörg" for his role in
2074-510: A pillage master. The peasants possessed an important resource, the skills to build and maintain field works. They used the wagon fort effectively, a tactic that had been mastered in the Hussite Wars of the previous century. Wagons were chained together in a suitable defensive location, with cavalry and draft animals placed in the center. Peasants dug ditches around the outer edge of the fort and used timber to close gaps between and underneath
2196-451: A sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rocks are mainly divided into four categories: sandstone, shale, carbonate, and evaporite. This group of classifications focuses partly on the size of sedimentary particles (sandstone and shale), and partly on mineralogy and formation processes (carbonation and evaporation). Igneous and sedimentary rocks can then be turned into metamorphic rocks by heat and pressure that change its mineral content, resulting in
2318-493: A single environment and do not necessarily occur in a single order. The Hawaiian Islands , for example, consist almost entirely of layered basaltic lava flows. The sedimentary sequences of the mid-continental United States and the Grand Canyon in the southwestern United States contain almost-undeformed stacks of sedimentary rocks that have remained in place since Cambrian time. Other areas are much more geologically complex. In
2440-399: A supreme commander and a marshal ( schultheiss ), who maintained law and order. Other roles included lieutenants, captains, standard-bearers, master gunner, wagon-fort master, train master, four watch-masters, four sergeant-majors to arrange the order of battle, a weibel (sergeant) for each company, two quartermasters, farriers, quartermasters for the horses, a communications officer and
2562-400: A variety of applications. Dating of lava and volcanic ash layers found within a stratigraphic sequence can provide absolute age data for sedimentary rock units that do not contain radioactive isotopes and calibrate relative dating techniques. These methods can also be used to determine ages of pluton emplacement. Thermochemical techniques can be used to determine temperature profiles within
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#17328686450952684-419: Is a branch of natural science concerned with the Earth and other astronomical objects , the rocks of which they are composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Modern geology significantly overlaps all other Earth sciences , including hydrology . It is integrated with Earth system science and planetary science . Geology describes the structure of the Earth on and beneath its surface and
2806-422: Is accomplished in two primary ways: through faulting and folding . In the shallow crust, where brittle deformation can occur, thrust faults form, which causes the deeper rock to move on top of the shallower rock. Because deeper rock is often older, as noted by the principle of superposition , this can result in older rocks moving on top of younger ones. Movement along faults can result in folding, either because
2928-460: Is an intimate coupling between the movement of the plates on the surface and the convection of the mantle (that is, the heat transfer caused by the slow movement of ductile mantle rock). Thus, oceanic parts of plates and the adjoining mantle convection currents always move in the same direction – because the oceanic lithosphere is actually the rigid upper thermal boundary layer of the convecting mantle. This coupling between rigid plates moving on
3050-433: Is horizontal). The principle of superposition states that a sedimentary rock layer in a tectonically undisturbed sequence is younger than the one beneath it and older than the one above it. Logically a younger layer cannot slip beneath a layer previously deposited. This principle allows sedimentary layers to be viewed as a form of the vertical timeline, a partial or complete record of the time elapsed from deposition of
3172-616: Is important for mineral and hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation, evaluating water resources , understanding natural hazards , remediating environmental problems, and providing insights into past climate change . Geology is a major academic discipline , and it is central to geological engineering and plays an important role in geotechnical engineering . The majority of geological data comes from research on solid Earth materials. Meteorites and other extraterrestrial natural materials are also studied by geological methods. Minerals are naturally occurring elements and compounds with
3294-478: Is primarily accomplished through normal faulting and through the ductile stretching and thinning. Normal faults drop rock units that are higher below those that are lower. This typically results in younger units ending up below older units. Stretching of units can result in their thinning. In fact, at one location within the Maria Fold and Thrust Belt , the entire sedimentary sequence of the Grand Canyon appears over
3416-541: Is some evidence to suggest that he helped the peasants to formulate their grievances. While the famous Twelve Articles of the Swabian peasants were certainly not composed by Müntzer, at least one important supporting document, the Constitutional Draft , may well have originated with him. Returning to Saxony and Thuringia in early 1525, he assisted in the organisation of the various rebel groups there and ultimately led
3538-568: Is that "the present is the key to the past." In Hutton's words: "the past history of our globe must be explained by what can be seen to be happening now." The principle of intrusive relationships concerns crosscutting intrusions. In geology, when an igneous intrusion cuts across a formation of sedimentary rock , it can be determined that the igneous intrusion is younger than the sedimentary rock. Different types of intrusions include stocks, laccoliths , batholiths , sills and dikes . The principle of cross-cutting relationships pertains to
3660-523: Is used for geologically young materials containing organic carbon . The geology of an area changes through time as rock units are deposited and inserted, and deformational processes alter their shapes and locations. Rock units are first emplaced either by deposition onto the surface or intrusion into the overlying rock . Deposition can occur when sediments settle onto the surface of the Earth and later lithify into sedimentary rock, or when as volcanic material such as volcanic ash or lava flows blanket
3782-404: The gemein , or community assembly, which was symbolized by a ring. The gemein had its own leader ( schultheiss ), and a provost officer who policed the ranks and maintained order. The use of the landsknechte in the German Peasants' War reflects a period of change between traditional noble roles or responsibilities towards warfare and practice of buying mercenary armies, which became
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3904-423: The landsknechts , the peasant bands used similar titles: Oberster feldhauptmann , or supreme commander, similar to a colonel , and lieutenants, or leutinger . Each company was commanded by a captain and had its own fähnrich , or ensign , who carried the company's standard (its ensign). The companies also had a sergeant or feldweibel , and squadron leaders called rottmeister , or masters of
4026-410: The rotte . Officers were usually elected, particularly the supreme commander and the leutinger . The peasant army was governed by a so-called ring , in which peasants gathered in a circle to debate tactics, troop movements, alliances, and the distribution of spoils. The ring was the decision-making body. In addition to this democratic construct, each band had a hierarchy of leaders including
4148-505: The Benedictine monastery, which was mentioned in a document in 818 or 819 as being "fairly well off". The state of affairs at the monastery was described in 16 letters by the learned monk Froumund and the abbot Wigo in the years 991 to 995. By no later than 1197, however, Feuchtwangen had become a house of secular canons ( Chorherrenstift ). The canons were not monks and lived in their own houses, but said their canonical prayers together at
4270-587: The Fachoberschule/Berufsoberschule (technical or professional college) in Ansbach. Worth seeing is the historic old town with its marketplace that the Handbuch der Deutschen Kunstdenkmäler (Handbook of German Artistic Memorials), published originally by Georg Dehio , described as "Franconia's ballroom". Also worthy of note is the former Benedictine monastery church with its Romanesque cloister, in which
4392-496: The Rhineland . The revolt was "suppressed by both Catholic and Lutheran princes who were satisfied to cooperate against a common danger". To the degree that other classes, such as the bourgeoisie , might gain from the centralization of the economy and the elimination of the lesser nobles' territorial controls on manufacture and trade, the princes might unite with the burghers on the issue. The innovations in military technology of
4514-500: The bedrock . This study is often known as Quaternary geology , after the Quaternary period of geologic history, which is the most recent period of geologic time. Magma is the original unlithified source of all igneous rocks . The active flow of molten rock is closely studied in volcanology , and igneous petrology aims to determine the history of igneous rocks from their original molten source to their final crystallization. In
4636-512: The geochemical evolution of rock units. Petrologists can also use fluid inclusion data and perform high temperature and pressure physical experiments to understand the temperatures and pressures at which different mineral phases appear, and how they change through igneous and metamorphic processes. This research can be extrapolated to the field to understand metamorphic processes and the conditions of crystallization of igneous rocks. This work can also help to explain processes that occur within
4758-402: The mantle below (separated within itself by seismic discontinuities at 410 and 660 kilometers), and the outer core and inner core below that. More recently, seismologists have been able to create detailed images of wave speeds inside the earth in the same way a doctor images a body in a CT scan . These images have led to a much more detailed view of the interior of the Earth, and have replaced
4880-440: The 1960s, it was discovered that the Earth's lithosphere , which includes the crust and rigid uppermost portion of the upper mantle , is separated into tectonic plates that move across the plastically deforming, solid, upper mantle, which is called the asthenosphere . This theory is supported by several types of observations, including seafloor spreading and the global distribution of mountain terrain and seismicity. There
5002-424: The Earth, such as subduction and magma chamber evolution. Structural geologists use microscopic analysis of oriented thin sections of geological samples to observe the fabric within the rocks, which gives information about strain within the crystalline structure of the rocks. They also plot and combine measurements of geological structures to better understand the orientations of faults and folds to reconstruct
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5124-478: The Grand Canyon in the southwestern United States being a very visible example, the lower rock units were metamorphosed and deformed, and then deformation ended and the upper, undeformed units were deposited. Although any amount of rock emplacement and rock deformation can occur, and they can occur any number of times, these concepts provide a guide to understanding the geological history of an area. Geologists use
5246-487: The Late Medieval period began to render the lesser nobility (the knights ) militarily obsolete. The introduction of military science and the growing importance of gunpowder and infantry lessened the importance of heavy cavalry and of castles . Their luxurious lifestyle drained what little income they had as prices kept rising. They exercised their ancient rights in order to wring income from their territories. In
5368-464: The Reformation. Some of the poorer clergy sought to extend Luther's equalizing ideas to society at large. Many towns had privileges that exempted them from taxes, so that the bulk of taxation fell on the peasants. As the guilds grew and urban populations rose, the town patricians faced increasing opposition. The patricians consisted of wealthy families who sat alone in the town councils and held all
5490-462: The abuses of simony and pluralism (holding several offices at once) were rampant. Some bishops , archbishops , abbots and priors were as ruthless in exploiting their subjects as the regional princes. In addition to the sale of indulgences , they set up prayer houses and directly taxed the people. Increased indignation over church corruption had led the monk Martin Luther to post his 95 Theses on
5612-474: The administrative offices. Like the princes, they sought to secure revenues from their peasants by any possible means. Arbitrary road, bridge, and gate tolls were instituted at will. They gradually usurped the common lands and made it illegal for peasants to fish or to log wood from these lands. Guild taxes were exacted. No revenues collected were subject to formal administration, and civic accounts were neglected. Thus embezzlement and fraud became common, and
5734-455: The aristocrats to put down the rebels like mad dogs. The movement was also supported by Huldrych Zwingli , but the condemnation by Luther contributed to its defeat. While around 20 veterans of the war went on to become leading figures in the Anabaptist movement, James Stayer notes that "no large number of known Anabaptists can be identified by name as participants in the 1525 upheaveal". In
5856-537: The beginning of the 20th century, advancement in geological science was facilitated by the ability to obtain accurate absolute dates to geological events using radioactive isotopes and other methods. This changed the understanding of geological time. Previously, geologists could only use fossils and stratigraphic correlation to date sections of rock relative to one another. With isotopic dates, it became possible to assign absolute ages to rock units, and these absolute dates could be applied to fossil sequences in which there
5978-549: The call of Luther of rebellion against the Church, two political uprisings responded, first, the one of lower nobility, headed by Franz von Sickingen in 1523, and then, the great peasant's war, in 1525; both were crushed, because, mainly, of the indecisiveness of the party having most interest in the fight, the urban bourgeoisie". (Foreword to the English edition of: 'From Utopy Socialism to Scientific Socialism', 1892) The plebeians comprised
6100-627: The central and eastern areas of Germany and present-day Austria . After the uprising in Germany was suppressed, it flared up briefly in several Swiss cantons . In mounting their insurrection, peasants faced insurmountable obstacles. The democratic nature of their movement left them without a command structure and they lacked artillery and cavalry. Most of them had little, if any, military experience. Their opposition had experienced military leaders, well-equipped and disciplined armies, and ample funding. The revolt incorporated some principles and rhetoric from
6222-546: The city expelled all its Jewish residents. Some of the expellees settled in Fürth , where they were called the "Feuchtwangers". This survived as a surname until this day. Until 1791, Feuchtwangen remained an administrative town of Brandenburg-Ansbach. The last Margrave, who was childless, ceded his land to the Kingdom of Prussia . Only 14 years later, the French briefly took over control of
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#17328686450956344-1414: The city, determined by formerly independent communities. Among them are: Aichau : Aichau, Jakobsmühle, Löschenmühle, Oberahorn, Thürnhofen, Unterahorn Aichenzell: Aichenzell, Esbach, Hammerschmiede, Herrnschallbach, Höfstetten, Kaltenbronn, Mögersbronn, Sommerau, Überschlagmühle, Walkmühle, Winterhalten, Zehdorf Banzenweiler: Banzenweiler, Bieberbach, Georgenhof, Jungenhof, Krebshof, Krobshausen, Leiperzell, Oberransbach, Oberrothmühle, Poppenweiler, Unterransbach, Unterrothmühle, Weiler am See Breitenau: Breitenau, Gehrenberg, Ratzendorf, Sperbersbach, Ungetsheim, Zischendorf, Zumhaus Dorfgütingen: Archshofen, Bonlanden, Bölhof, Bühl, Dorfgütingen, Dornberg, Krobshäuser Mühle, Neidlingen, Rödenweiler Heilbronn: Heilbronn, Herbstmühle, Lichtenau, Metzlesberg, Rißmannschallbach, Wüstenweiler, Zumberg Krapfenau: Bernau, Eschenlach, Hainmühle, Koppenschallbach, Krapfenau, Krapfenau-Mühle, Lotterhof, Oberlottermühle, Schönmühle, St. Ulrich, Unterlottermühle, Volkertsweiler, Wehlmäusel, Weikersdorf Larrieden: Heiligenkreuz, Larriden, Oberhinterhof, Unterhinterhof Mosbach: Bergnerzell, Kühnhardt a. Schlegel, Mosbach, Reichenbach, Seiderzell, Tribur Vorderbreitenthann: Charhof, Charmühle, Glashofen, Hinterbreitenthann, Oberdallersbach, Steinbach, Tauberschallbach, Unterdallersbach, Voderbreitenthann, Wolfsmühle Feuchtwangen's origins can be traced back to
6466-456: The city, losing it once more only a year later, in 1806, to the Kingdom of Bavaria. Feuchtwangen became the seat of a regional court set up by the regional office and the local court. In the long era of peace in the 19th century, the city's face was changed. The lower gate tower, along with great parts of the city defences were demolished. The Spitaltor burnt down in 1811. The city was connected by
6588-419: The city. Evangelical kindergarten, Sandweg 7 Evangelical kindergarten Wannenbad, Lauerhecke 4 Evangelical kindergarten, Wohlgemutstr. 10 Catholic kindergarten, Am Schwalbennest 2 Breitenau Breitenau 4, Mosbach Mosbach 51 Two primary schools : Two Hauptschulen : One special preschool: One Realschule : One Gymnasium : For further education, there is the possibility, through a bus link, of going to
6710-427: The clergy, who they felt had overstepped and failed to uphold their principles. They demanded an end to the clergy's special privileges such as their exemption from taxation, as well as a reduction in their numbers. The burgher-master (guild master, or artisan) now owned both his workshop and its tools, which he allowed his apprentices to use, and provided the materials that his workers needed. F. Engels cites: "To
6832-424: The countryside looking for work or engaging in highway robbery. To be effective the cavalry needed to be mobile, and to avoid hostile forces armed with pikes . The peasant armies were organized in bands ( haufen ), similar to the landsknecht . Each haufen was organized into unterhaufen , or fähnlein and rotten . The bands varied in size, depending on the number of insurgents available in
6954-726: The craftsmen's workshops are housed. Also, a fair amount of the town's old wall still stands, dating from about 1400. Of the town's original three gates, only one, the Upper Gate, is still maintained. The Lower Gate had to make way for traffic in the 19th century, and the Spitaltor , or Hospital Gate, fell down after a fire. The following sights are also to be seen in Feuchtwangen: Geology Geology (from Ancient Greek γῆ ( gê ) 'earth' and λoγία ( -logía ) 'study of, discourse')
7076-515: The creation of topographic gradients, causing material on the rock unit that is increasing in elevation to be eroded by hillslopes and channels. These sediments are deposited on the rock unit that is going down. Continual motion along the fault maintains the topographic gradient in spite of the movement of sediment and continues to create accommodation space for the material to deposit. Deformational events are often also associated with volcanism and igneous activity. Volcanic ashes and lavas accumulate on
7198-437: The crust, the uplift of mountain ranges, and paleo-topography. Fractionation of the lanthanide series elements is used to compute ages since rocks were removed from the mantle. Other methods are used for more recent events. Optically stimulated luminescence and cosmogenic radionuclide dating are used to date surfaces and/or erosion rates. Dendrochronology can also be used for the dating of landscapes. Radiocarbon dating
7320-593: The doors of the Castle Church in Wittenberg , Germany, in 1517, as well as impelling other reformers to radically re-think church doctrine and organization. The clergy who did not follow Luther tended to be the aristocratic clergy, who opposed all change, including any break with the Roman Church. The poorer clergy, rural and urban itinerant preachers who were not well positioned in the church, were more likely to join
7442-552: The duty of the ruling classes was upholding the peace. He could not support the Peasant War because it broke the peace, an evil he thought greater than the evils the peasants were rebelling against. At the peak of the insurrection in 1525, his position shifted completely to support of the rulers of the secular principalities and their Roman Catholic allies. In Against the Robbing Murderous Hordes of Peasants he encouraged
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#17328686450957564-571: The east . Feuchtwangen became a Bundeswehr garrison town. The town did lose its status as an administrative centre, but won itself a place among the ten largest cities in Bavaria (by land area) once Bavarian municipal reform had amalgamated ten other communities with it. The barracks were closed in 1997, but the lands came into use again only two years later when the Bavarian Building Academy ( Bayerische Bauakademie ) came to town to establish
7686-472: The emerging Protestant Reformation , through which the peasants sought influence and freedom. Some Radical Reformers , most famously Thomas Müntzer, instigated and supported the revolt. In contrast, Martin Luther and other Magisterial Reformers condemned it and sided with the aristocrats. In Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants , Luther condemned the violence as the devil's work and called for
7808-417: The equivalent of a half-company. At the beginning of the revolt the league members had trouble recruiting soldiers from among their own populations (particularly among peasant class) due to fear of them joining the rebels. As the rebellion expanded many nobles had trouble sending troops to the league armies because they had to combat rebel groups in their own lands. Another common problem regarding raising armies
7930-570: The fault is a normal fault or a thrust fault . The principle of inclusions and components states that, with sedimentary rocks, if inclusions (or clasts ) are found in a formation, then the inclusions must be older than the formation that contains them. For example, in sedimentary rocks, it is common for gravel from an older formation to be ripped up and included in a newer layer. A similar situation with igneous rocks occurs when xenoliths are found. These foreign bodies are picked up as magma or lava flows, and are incorporated, later to cool in
8052-403: The faults are not planar or because rock layers are dragged along, forming drag folds as slip occurs along the fault. Deeper in the Earth, rocks behave plastically and fold instead of faulting. These folds can either be those where the material in the center of the fold buckles upwards, creating " antiforms ", or where it buckles downwards, creating " synforms ". If the tops of the rock units within
8174-483: The folds remain pointing upwards, they are called anticlines and synclines , respectively. If some of the units in the fold are facing downward, the structure is called an overturned anticline or syncline, and if all of the rock units are overturned or the correct up-direction is unknown, they are simply called by the most general terms, antiforms, and synforms. Even higher pressures and temperatures during horizontal shortening can cause both folding and metamorphism of
8296-404: The formation of faults and the age of the sequences through which they cut. Faults are younger than the rocks they cut; accordingly, if a fault is found that penetrates some formations but not those on top of it, then the formations that were cut are older than the fault, and the ones that are not cut must be younger than the fault. Finding the key bed in these situations may help determine whether
8418-519: The framework of the empire, and several dozen others operated as semi-independent city-states . The princes of these dynasties were taxed by the Roman Catholic church. The princes stood to gain economically if they broke away from the Roman church and established a German church under their own control, which would then not be able to tax them as the Roman church did. Most German princes broke with Rome using
8540-579: The geological history of the Earth as a whole. One aspect is to demonstrate the age of the Earth . Geology provides evidence for plate tectonics , the evolutionary history of life , and the Earth's past climates . Geologists broadly study the properties and processes of Earth and other terrestrial planets. Geologists use a wide variety of methods to understand the Earth's structure and evolution, including fieldwork , rock description , geophysical techniques , chemical analysis , physical experiments , and numerical modelling . In practical terms, geology
8662-478: The history of rock deformation in the area. In addition, they perform analog and numerical experiments of rock deformation in large and small settings. German Peasants%27 War partly : Electors of Saxony Holy Roman Emperors Building Literature Theater Liturgies Hymnals Monuments Calendrical commemoration The German Peasants' War , Great Peasants' War or Great Peasants' Revolt ( German : Deutscher Bauernkrieg )
8784-423: The internal composition and structure of the Earth. Seismologists can use the arrival times of seismic waves to image the interior of the Earth. Early advances in this field showed the existence of a liquid outer core (where shear waves were not able to propagate) and a dense solid inner core . These advances led to the development of a layered model of the Earth, with a lithosphere (including crust) on top,
8906-459: The later end of the scale, it is marked by the present day (in the Holocene epoch ). The following five timelines show the geologic time scale to scale. The first shows the entire time from the formation of the Earth to the present, but this gives little space for the most recent eon. The second timeline shows an expanded view of the most recent eon. In a similar way, the most recent era is expanded in
9028-519: The latter. By maintaining the remnants of the ancient law which legitimized their own rule, they not only elevated their wealth and position in the empire through the confiscation of all property and revenues, but increased their power over their peasant subjects. During the Knights' War the "knights", the lesser landholders of the Rhineland in western Germany, rose up in rebellion in 1522–1523. Their rhetoric
9150-537: The locality. Peasant haufen divided along territorial lines, whereas those of the landsknecht drew men from a variety of territories. Some bands could number about 4,000; others, such as the peasant force at Frankenhausen , could gather 8,000. The Alsatian peasants who took to the field at the Battle of Zabern (now Saverne ) numbered 18,000. Haufen were formed from companies, typically 500 men per company, subdivided into platoons of 10 to 15 peasants each. Like
9272-454: The lowest layer to deposition of the highest bed. The principle of faunal succession is based on the appearance of fossils in sedimentary rocks. As organisms exist during the same period throughout the world, their presence or (sometimes) absence provides a relative age of the formations where they appear. Based on principles that William Smith laid out almost a hundred years before the publication of Charles Darwin 's theory of evolution ,
9394-417: The lowest stratum of society. In the early 16th century, no peasant could hunt, fish, or chop wood freely, as they previously had, because the lords had recently taken control of common lands. The lord had the right to use his peasants' land as he wished; the peasant could do nothing but watch as his crops were destroyed by wild game and by nobles galloping across his fields in the course of chivalric hunts. When
9516-493: The mantle and show the crystallographic structures expected in the inner core of the Earth. The geological time scale encompasses the history of the Earth. It is bracketed at the earliest by the dates of the first Solar System material at 4.567 Ga (or 4.567 billion years ago) and the formation of the Earth at 4.54 Ga (4.54 billion years), which is the beginning of the Hadean eon – a division of geological time. At
9638-405: The matrix. As a result, xenoliths are older than the rock that contains them. The principle of original horizontality states that the deposition of sediments occurs as essentially horizontal beds. Observation of modern marine and non-marine sediments in a wide variety of environments supports this generalization (although cross-bedding is inclined, the overall orientation of cross-bedded units
9760-676: The men served, others absorbed their workload. This sometimes meant producing supplies for their opponents, such as in the Archbishopric of Salzburg , where men worked to extract silver, which was used to hire fresh contingents of landsknechts for the Swabian League. However, the peasants lacked the Swabian League's cavalry, having few horses and little armour. They seem to have used their mounted men for reconnaissance. The lack of cavalry with which to protect their flanks, and with which to penetrate massed landsknecht squares, proved to be
9882-612: The moderate demands of the peasantry embodied in the Twelve Articles. His article Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants appeared in May 1525 just as the rebels were being defeated on the fields of battle. In this era of rapid change, modernizing princes tended to align with clergy burghers against the lesser nobility and peasants. Many rulers of Germany's various principalities functioned as autocratic rulers who recognized no other authority within their territories. Princes had
10004-442: The monastery church. Besides the monastery, there was already, since the earliest times, a village. With the help of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa came the establishment of a town sometime between 1150 and 1178. In 1241, Feuchtwangen became an imperial free city . From that time forth, Feuchtwangen consisted of two independent communities: the free city south of the line along Untere Torstraße ("Lower Gate Street") and Postgasse, and
10126-455: The monastery lands to the north. Together with other imperial free cities like Rothenburg ob der Tauber or Dinkelsbühl, the town tried to assert its interests to the princes through the Swabian League (founded in 1376 by 14 free cities). Feuchtwangen had become wealthy owing to its fortunate location on travel routes, and was many times given in pledge by the kings. In the end, in 1376, both
10248-453: The nationalistic slogan of "German money for a German church". Princes often attempted to force their freer peasants into serfdom by increasing taxes and introducing Roman civil law . Roman civil law advantaged princes who sought to consolidate their power because it brought all land into their personal ownership and eliminated the feudal concept of the land as a trust between lord and peasant that conferred rights as well as obligations on
10370-437: The new class of urban workers, journeymen, and peddlers. Ruined burghers also joined their ranks. Although technically potential burghers, most journeymen were barred from higher positions by the wealthy families who ran the guilds. Thus their "temporary" position devoid of civic rights tended to become permanent. The plebeians did not have property like ruined burghers or peasants. The heavily taxed peasantry continued to occupy
10492-556: The nobility and the rich, while others appealed to the masses. However, the clergy was beginning to lose its overwhelming intellectual authority. The progress of printing (especially of the Bible ) and the expansion of commerce raised literacy rates, according to Engels. Engels held that the Catholic monopoly on higher education was accordingly reduced. Over time, some Catholic institutions had slipped into corruption. Clerical ignorance and
10614-454: The nobility to swiftly and violently eliminate the rebelling peasants, stating,"[the peasants] must be sliced, choked, stabbed, secretly and publicly, by those who can, like one must kill a rabid dog." After the conclusion of the Peasants' War, he was criticized for his writings in support of the violent actions taken by the ruling class. He responded by writing an open letter to Caspar Muller , defending his position. However, he also stated that
10736-465: The nobles were too severe in suppression of the insurrection, despite having called for severe violence in his previous work. Luther has often been sharply criticized for his position. Thomas Müntzer was the most prominent radical reforming preacher who supported the demands of the peasantry, including political and legal rights. Müntzer's theology had been developed against a background of social upheaval and widespread religious doubt, and his call for
10858-489: The norm throughout the 16th century. The league relied on the armored cavalry of the nobility for the bulk of its strength; the league had both heavy cavalry and light cavalry, ( rennfahne ), which served as a vanguard. Typically, the rehnnfahne were the second and third sons of poor knights, the lower and sometimes impoverished nobility with small land-holdings, or, in the case of second and third sons, no inheritance or social role. These men could often be found roaming
10980-414: The north of Germany many of the lesser nobles had already been subordinated to secular and ecclesiastical lords. Thus, their dominance over serfs was more restricted. However, in the south of Germany their powers were more intact. Accordingly, the harshness of the lesser nobles' treatment of the peasantry provided the immediate cause of the uprising. The fact that this treatment was worse in the south than in
11102-405: The north was the reason that the war began in the south. The knights became embittered as their status and income fell and they came increasingly under the jurisdiction of the princes, putting the two groups in constant conflict. The knights also regarded the clergy as arrogant and superfluous, while envying their privileges and wealth. In addition, the knights' relationships with the patricians in
11224-457: The patrician class, bound by family ties, became wealthier and more powerful. The town patricians were increasingly criticized by the growing burgher class, which consisted of well-to-do middle-class citizens who held administrative guild positions or worked as merchants. They demanded town assemblies made up of both patricians and burghers, or at least a restriction on simony and the allocation of council seats to burghers. The burghers also opposed
11346-436: The preceding Bundschuh movement and the Hussite Wars , the war consisted of a series of both economic and religious revolts involving peasants and farmers, sometimes supported by radical clergy like Thomas Müntzer . The fighting was at its height in the middle of 1525. The war began with separate insurrections, beginning in the southwestern part of what is now Germany and Alsace , and spread in subsequent insurrections to
11468-413: The primary record of the majority of the geological history of the Earth. There are three major types of rock: igneous , sedimentary , and metamorphic . The rock cycle illustrates the relationships among them (see diagram). When a rock solidifies or crystallizes from melt ( magma or lava ), it is an igneous rock . This rock can be weathered and eroded , then redeposited and lithified into
11590-569: The principles of succession developed independently of evolutionary thought. The principle becomes quite complex, however, given the uncertainties of fossilization, localization of fossil types due to lateral changes in habitat ( facies change in sedimentary strata), and that not all fossils formed globally at the same time. Geologists also use methods to determine the absolute age of rock samples and geological events. These dates are useful on their own and may also be used in conjunction with relative dating methods or to calibrate relative methods. At
11712-423: The processes that have shaped that structure. Geologists study the mineralogical composition of rocks in order to get insight into their history of formation. Geology determines the relative ages of rocks found at a given location; geochemistry (a branch of geology) determines their absolute ages . By combining various petrological, crystallographic, and paleontological tools, geologists are able to chronicle
11834-402: The rebel army in the ill-fated Battle of Frankenhausen on 15 May 1525. Müntzer's role in the Peasants' War has been the subject of considerable controversy, some arguing that he had no influence at all, others that he was the sole inspirer of the uprising. To judge from his writings of 1523 and 1524, it was by no means inevitable that Müntzer would take the road of social revolution. However, it
11956-782: The region could carve broad valleys. The city of Feuchtwangen lies in the Sulzach valley. The city's sprawling area also takes in parts of the Wörnitz valley. Through Feuchtwangen flows the Sulzach, a tributary to the Wörnitz. Neighbouring Feuchtwangen are Schnelldorf, Wörnitz, Dombühl, Aurach, Herrieden, Wieseth, Dentlein am Forst, Dürrwangen, Schopfloch, Dinkelsbühl (all in Ansbach district, Bavaria) and Kreßberg (in Schwäbisch Hall district , Baden-Württemberg ). Feuchtwangen has 87 divisions within
12078-482: The right to levy taxes and borrow money as they saw fit. The growing costs of administration and military upkeep impelled them to keep raising demands on their subjects. The princes also worked to centralize power in the towns and estates. Accordingly, princes tended to gain economically from the ruination of the lesser nobility, by acquiring their estates. This ignited the Knights' War that occurred from 1522 through 1523 in
12200-428: The rocks. This metamorphism causes changes in the mineral composition of the rocks; creates a foliation , or planar surface, that is related to mineral growth under stress. This can remove signs of the original textures of the rocks, such as bedding in sedimentary rocks, flow features of lavas , and crystal patterns in crystalline rocks . Extension causes the rock units as a whole to become longer and thinner. This
12322-433: The simplified layered model with a much more dynamic model. Mineralogists have been able to use the pressure and temperature data from the seismic and modeling studies alongside knowledge of the elemental composition of the Earth to reproduce these conditions in experimental settings and measure changes within the crystal structure. These studies explain the chemical changes associated with the major seismic discontinuities in
12444-683: The sixteenth century, many parts of Europe had common political links within the Holy Roman Empire , a decentralized entity in which the Holy Roman Emperor himself had little authority outside of his own dynastic lands, which covered only a small fraction of the whole. At the time of the Peasants' War, Charles V , King of Spain, held the position of Holy Roman Emperor (elected in June 1519). Aristocratic dynasties ruled hundreds of largely independent territories (both secular and ecclesiastical) within
12566-403: The social, economic and legal gains they had made than about seeking further gains. Their attempt to break new ground was primarily seeking to increase their liberty by changing their status from serfs , such as the infamous moment when the peasants of Mühlhausen refused to collect snail shells around which their lady could wind her thread. The renewal of the signeurial system had weakened in
12688-524: The southwestern United States, sedimentary, volcanic, and intrusive rocks have been metamorphosed, faulted, foliated, and folded. Even older rocks, such as the Acasta gneiss of the Slave craton in northwestern Canada , the oldest known rock in the world have been metamorphosed to the point where their origin is indiscernible without laboratory analysis. In addition, these processes can occur in stages. In many places,
12810-550: The subsurface. Sub-specialities of geology may distinguish endogenous and exogenous geology. Geological field work varies depending on the task at hand. Typical fieldwork could consist of: In addition to identifying rocks in the field ( lithology ), petrologists identify rock samples in the laboratory. Two of the primary methods for identifying rocks in the laboratory are through optical microscopy and by using an electron microprobe . In an optical mineralogy analysis, petrologists analyze thin sections of rock samples using
12932-543: The suppression of the revolt. He was also known as the "Scourge of the Peasants". The league headquarters was in Ulm , and command was exercised through a war council which decided the troop contingents to be levied from each member. Depending on their capability, members contributed a specific number of mounted knights and foot soldiers, called a contingent, to the league's army. The Bishop of Augsburg, for example, had to contribute 10 horse (mounted) and 62 foot soldiers, which would be
13054-407: The surface of the Earth and the convecting mantle is called plate tectonics . The development of plate tectonics has provided a physical basis for many observations of the solid Earth . Long linear regions of geological features are explained as plate boundaries: Plate tectonics has provided a mechanism for Alfred Wegener 's theory of continental drift , in which the continents move across
13176-488: The surface of the Earth over geological time. They also provided a driving force for crustal deformation, and a new setting for the observations of structural geology. The power of the theory of plate tectonics lies in its ability to combine all of these observations into a single theory of how the lithosphere moves over the convecting mantle. Advances in seismology , computer modeling , and mineralogy and crystallography at high temperatures and pressures give insights into
13298-474: The surface, and igneous intrusions enter from below. Dikes , long, planar igneous intrusions, enter along cracks, and therefore often form in large numbers in areas that are being actively deformed. This can result in the emplacement of dike swarms , such as those that are observable across the Canadian shield, or rings of dikes around the lava tube of a volcano. All of these processes do not necessarily occur in
13420-742: The surface. Igneous intrusions such as batholiths , laccoliths , dikes , and sills , push upwards into the overlying rock, and crystallize as they intrude. After the initial sequence of rocks has been deposited, the rock units can be deformed and/or metamorphosed . Deformation typically occurs as a result of horizontal shortening, horizontal extension , or side-to-side ( strike-slip ) motion. These structural regimes broadly relate to convergent boundaries , divergent boundaries , and transform boundaries, respectively, between tectonic plates. When rock units are placed under horizontal compression , they shorten and become thicker. Because rock units, other than muds, do not significantly change in volume , this
13542-407: The third timeline, the most recent period is expanded in the fourth timeline, and the most recent epoch is expanded in the fifth timeline. Horizontal scale is Millions of years (above timelines) / Thousands of years (below timeline) Epochs: Methods for relative dating were developed when geology first emerged as a natural science . Geologists still use the following principles today as
13664-522: The town and the monastery were pledged, or transferred, to the Burgravate of Nuremberg , which later became the Margravate of Brandenburg-Ansbach . The townsfolk could no longer buy their town's freedom, thus leading to a relatively early end to Feuchtwangen's status as an imperial free city. About 1400, after the city was destroyed in 1388 by the Swabian League, both parts of Feuchtwangen were surrounded by
13786-517: The towns was strained by the debts owed by the knights. At odds with other classes in Germany, the lesser nobility was the least disposed to the changes. They and the clergy paid no taxes and often supported their local prince. The clergy in 1525 were the intellectuals of their time. Not only were they literate in Latin, but in the Middle Ages they had produced most books. Some clergy were supported by
13908-577: The wagons. In the Hussite Wars, artillery was usually placed in the center on raised mounds of earth that allowed them to fire over the wagons. Wagon forts could be erected and dismantled quickly. They were quite mobile, but they also had drawbacks: they required a fairly large area of flat terrain and they were not ideal for offense. Since their earlier use, artillery had increased in range and power. Peasants served in rotation, sometimes for one week in four, and returned to their villages after service. While
14030-541: Was a widespread popular revolt in some German-speaking areas in Central Europe from 1524 to 1525. It was Europe's largest and most widespread popular uprising before the French Revolution of 1789. The revolt failed because of intense opposition from the aristocracy, who slaughtered up to 100,000 of the 300,000 poorly armed peasants and farmers. The survivors were fined and achieved few, if any, of their goals. Like
14152-455: Was composed of smaller units of 10 to 12 men, known as rotte . The landsknechte clothed, armed and fed themselves, and were accompanied by a sizable train of sutlers , bakers, washerwomen, prostitutes and sundry individuals with occupations needed to sustain the force. Trains ( tross ) were sometimes larger than the fighting force, but they required organization and discipline. Each landsknecht maintained its own structure, called
14274-402: Was confiscated in 1563, with its possessions going to the margrave. The Thirty Years' War brought woe and hardship to Feuchtwangen, especially with the plundering of the city wrought by Tilly 's unruly men. In 1632 and 1634, Swedish and Imperial forces took away what was left, and so it went on for decades before the town and its surrounding area recovered. In 1555, following a pogrom ,
14396-615: Was datable material, converting the old relative ages into new absolute ages. For many geological applications, isotope ratios of radioactive elements are measured in minerals that give the amount of time that has passed since a rock passed through its particular closure temperature , the point at which different radiometric isotopes stop diffusing into and out of the crystal lattice . These are used in geochronologic and thermochronologic studies. Common methods include uranium–lead dating , potassium–argon dating , argon–argon dating and uranium–thorium dating . These methods are used for
14518-581: Was originally the city's second arms. Since 1819, however, it has been the only arms. The city maintains partnerships with: Feuchtwangen lies on Bundesstraße (Federal Highway) B 25, as well as on the A 6 und A 7 Autobahnen . Feuchtwangen lies on the railway line running between Nördlingen and Dombühl , which was opened in sections from 1876 to 1881, and on which there has been no regular passenger service since 1985. The Bavarian Railway Museum ( Bayerisches Eisenbahnmuseum ) runs museum trains, including ones from Feuchtwangen as of 2006. Feuchtwangen has
14640-468: Was precisely on this same theological foundation that Müntzer's ideas briefly coincided with the aspirations of the peasants and plebeians of 1525: viewing the uprising as an apocalyptic act of God, he stepped up as 'God's Servant against the Godless' and took his position as leader of the rebels. Luther and Müntzer took every opportunity to attack each other's ideas and actions. Luther himself declared against
14762-418: Was religious, and several leaders expressed Luther's ideas on the split with Rome and the new German church. However, the Knights' War was not fundamentally religious. It was conservative in nature and sought to preserve the feudal order. The knights revolted against the new money order, which was squeezing them out of existence. Martin Luther , the dominant leader of the Reformation in Germany, initially took
14884-580: Was that while nobles were obligated to provide troops to a member of the league, they also had other obligations to other lords. These conditions created problems and confusion for the nobles as they tried to gather together forces large enough to put down the revolts. Foot soldiers were drawn from the ranks of the landsknechte . These were mercenaries , usually paid a monthly wage of four guilders, and organized into regiments ( haufen ) and companies ( fähnlein or little flag) of 120–300 men, which distinguished it from others. Each company, in turn,
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