Rio de Janeiro ( Portuguese pronunciation: [ˈʁi.u dʒi ʒɐˈne(j)ɾu] , [ˈʁi.u dʒɐˈ-] ) is one of the 27 federative units of Brazil . It has the second largest economy of Brazil, with the largest being that of the state of São Paulo . The state, which has 8.2% of the Brazilian population, is responsible for 9.2% of the Brazilian GDP .
238-592: Anarchism was an influential contributor to the social politics of the First Brazilian Republic . During the epoch of mass migrations of European labourers at the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century, anarchist ideas started to spread, particularly amongst the country’s labour movement . Along with the labour migrants, many Italian , Spanish, Portuguese and German political exiles arrived, many holding anarchist or anarcho-syndicalist ideas. Some did not come as exiles but rather as
476-709: A "Motion of the Militant Workers" to the Committee of the Revolutionary Forces, with 28 signatures, published in A Plebe of July 25, 1924. The motion proposed the fixing of a minimum wage and a maximum price table, the right to found schools, the right to association for all working classes, the freedom of the working press, the generalization of the eight-hour working day and the repeal of the expulsion law on political and social issues. First Brazilian Republic The First Brazilian Republic , also referred to as
714-706: A big internal market with overland transportation, except for the mule trains, impeded internal economic integration, political cohesion and military efficiency. The regions, "the Brazils" as the British called them, moved to their own rhythms. The Northeast exported its surplus cheap labor and saw its political influence decline as its sugar lost foreign markets to Caribbean producers. The wild rubber boom in Amazônia lost its world primacy to efficient Southeast Asian colonial plantations after 1912. The nationally oriented market economies of
952-487: A broad coalition of middle-class industrialists, planters from outside São Paulo, and the reformist faction of the military known as the tenentes . Together, these disparate groups made up the Liberal Alliance . Support was especially strong in the provinces of Minas Gerais , Paraíba and Rio Grande do Sul , because in nominating another Paulista to succeed himself, outgoing President Washington Luís had violated
1190-594: A campaign in Portugal , Spain and Italy , to discourage emigration to Brazil. At the end of 1912, the COB Reorganizing Commission sent a circular to workers associations asking them to nominate delegates for the 2nd Brazilian Workers' Congress, to be held in Rio de Janeiro. The 2nd Brazilian Workers' Congress was held in Rio de Janeiro, during the second week of September, at the headquarters of Centro Cosmopolita, by
1428-414: A central government dominated by the coffee interests. Under considerable middle class pressure, a more activist, centralized state adapted to represent the interests that the new bourgeoisie had been demanded for years — one that could utilize a state interventionist policy consisting of tax breaks, lowered duties, and import quotas to expand the domestic capital base. Manufacturers, white-collar workers, and
1666-483: A conflict broke out between the strikers and the military brigade. The strikers sought refuge wherever doors were open. Some of those who were already safe closed a door, hurriedly, to a worker. The soldiers killed him with a gunshot. On the 8th, troops from the military brigade, under the orders of the governor, invaded the headquarters of FORGS, the Union of Light Workers and União Metalúrgica; its leaders were imprisoned and by
1904-402: A day—with little time for rest and leisure. These workers lived in precarious housing or, in the case of company towns , in residences subject to employer control. They suffered from transportation and infrastructure problems. In the case of illness, disability, or unemployment, workers without a charitable fund from the company or a subscription to an aid society were completely unassisted due to
2142-410: A federation that was officially governed by a president, a bicameral National Congress (Congresso Nacional; hereafter, Congress), and a judiciary. However, the real power was held by the states, and by local potentates called "colonels." The colonels largely controlled Brazil's internal politics through a system of unwritten agreements known as coronelismo . Coronelismo, which supported state autonomy,
2380-507: A financial crisis, appointed Marshal Floriano Vieira Peixoto Minister of War to ensure the allegiance of the military. The officers who joined Field Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca in ending the Empire had made an oath to uphold it. The officer corps would eventually resolve the contradiction by linking its duty to Brazil itself, rather than to transitory governments. The Republic was born rather accidentally: Deodoro had intended only to replace
2618-400: A frank decline in 1921, with the end of several publications and the reduction of the periodicity of others. A Plebe went from June to September with no publication. At the same time, the workers' movement was going through an ideological crisis. The federative model and the strategies of revolutionary syndicalism came to be criticized by some militants, such as Astrogildo Pereira, who defend
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#17328912547242856-413: A general secretariat, comprising a secretary general (Edgard Leuenroth), treasurer and five itinerant secretaries, responsible for the five geographic areas into which the country was divided. The itinerant secretaries were Domingos Passos (Center), José Elias da Silva (North), Jorge Adalberto de Jesus (Far North), Teófilo Ferreira (South) and Alberto Lauro (Far South). The Congress also decided to instruct
3094-468: A general strike, nor to form a commission to manage any type of strike, even though several categories were paralyzed. These striker categories then demobilized as they achieved some results. In Rio Grande do Sul, significant movements were triggered in Porto Alegre and Pelotas . In the capital of Rio Grande do Sul, the general strike broke out between the end of July and the beginning of August. Following
3332-520: A great influence on the workers' movement, especially at workers' congresses and in the strikes of the period. Anarchists also contributed to the creation of a series of periodicals for the workers' press and founded several Modern Schools around the country. Anarchism ceased to be hegemonic in Brazil's workers' movement from the 1920s, when the Communist Party of Brazil (PCB) was created and, mainly, due to
3570-564: A law from taking effect". In October 1915, the COB called for an International Peace Congress, in Rio de Janeiro, in which two delegates from Argentine libertarian associations participated, in addition to representatives from five Brazilian states and the Federal District. This event resulted in the creation of the Committee of International Relations, with the aim of organizing a South American confederation of union entities for future membership of
3808-551: A lesser extent Pernambuco and Bahia . Because the monarchy had been overthrown by the Brazilian military, the history of the outset of republic in Brazil is also the story of the development of the Army as a national regulatory and interventionist institution. With the monarchy suddenly eliminated, the Army was left as the country's only long-lasting and powerful national institution. Although
4046-691: A modern, industrialized society inspired by positivism — the "world power of the future". This sentiment was later nurtured throughout the Vargas years and under successive populist governments, before the 1964 military junta repudiated Brazilian populism. While these populist groups were somewhat ineffectual under the Old Republic, the structural changes in the Brazilian economy opened up by the Great War strengthened these demands. The outbreak of World War I in August 1914
4284-495: A new president. During the First Republic, the country's presidency was dominated by the most powerful states of São Paulo and Minas Gerais . Because of the power of these two states, based on the production of coffee and dairy, respectively, the Old Republic's political system has been described as " milk coffee politics ". At local level, the country was dominated by a form of machine politics known as coronelism , in which
4522-599: A new wave of strikes that lasted until the economic recession of 1914. In their first months, the workers obtained a series of victories, as was the case of a salary increase granted to shoemakers in Rio de Janeiro. On several occasions, the strikers agreed to return to work under the employers' promise to partially comply with their demands. The most important of these strikes occurred in Minas Gerais , in Juiz de Fora , where, in August, several circumstances paralyzed their activities and
4760-453: A pejorative used to refer to the bureaucratic elite of the Federal District. Only when the city lost its status as Federal District (to Brasília ) and became the State of Guanabara in 1960 did carioca become an official demonym along with guanabarino . In 1975, Guanabara State was incorporated into Rio de Janeiro State, becoming the present City of Rio de Janeiro. Carioca became the demonym of
4998-558: A reduction in wages, even though striking outbreaks extended until July. Other generalized strike movements were triggered in Salvador , Recife and Porto Alegre. The strike in Salvador, declared in early June 1919 by fabric and construction workers, spread within a few days, paralyzing the city. After a five-day strike, the Bahian workers won an agreement that granted them the eight-hour day without
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#17328912547245236-497: A reduction in wages; the contract tables were recalculated based on an additional 20%. The moderate action of the police, one of the features of the general strike in Salvador, was also noted as a characteristic of the general strike in Recife. In Porto Alegre, the strike acquired a more violent character. Initiated by the workers of the Light & Power Company on September 4, the movement soon
5474-756: A resolution in which it welcomed the Russian Revolution and the initiatives taken carried out by the Communist International. Finally, an Executive Committee of the Third Congress (CETC) was appointed in order to coordinate activities for the execution of the Resolutions taken, being assigned a mandate that would go on until the meeting of the Four Brazilian Workers' Congress, scheduled for 1921 and that did not end up. Rio de Janeiro would host
5712-548: A series of demands were presented at a rally convened by the Union of Various Crafts (SOV). Among the demands were the establishment of the 8-hour day, the equalization of wages between men and women, hygiene measures in the workplace, the decrease in rents, food prices and land transport fees and fluvial. The strike spread, including the action of the strike commission created from the SOV meetings, which were coordinated by militants linked to revolutionary syndicalism. The state government, in
5950-425: A significant share of industry and little influence on the agricultural sector, which represents only 0.4% of the product gross domestic state. In the past, sugar cane and later, coffee had a considerable impact on the economy of Rio de Janeiro. The area around Campos dos Goytacazes was most affected by the fall of sugar cane: at the beginning of the 20th century, Campos had 27 mills in operation and, throughout
6188-546: A syndicalism along the lines of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), organized in a more centralized way, forming “one big union of all workers, with a single secretariat, a single source of propaganda, a single coordination center.” Some anarchists, realizing the lack of a methodical and systematic action in the work of propaganda and organization, started to stimulate the formation of libertarian affinity groups. As news of
6426-475: A threat of mass layoffs at the Corcovado fabric factory. The Chief of Police, Aurelino de Araújo Leal [ pt ] , informed that the speakers, at rallies, had advised depredations and attacks on the police itself, launched a circular banning workers' rallies. On May 11, more than 2,500 people, disrespecting the order of the police chief, moved towards the Corcovado fabric factory, where violent clashes with
6664-463: A type of political entrepreneur, including Giovanni Rossi 's anarchist commune , the Cecília Colony , which lasted few years but at one point consisted of 200 individuals. The working conditions and the oligarchic political system of the First Republic, which made it difficult for workers to participate, meant that anarchism quickly gained strength among workers. Revolutionary syndicalism exerted
6902-438: A union of employees in hotels, cafes, restaurants and the like. 117 delegates represented two state federations, five municipal federations, 52 unions, societies, leagues and four journals. Congress decided that cooperative associations that did not agree with direct action methods should not be admitted to the COB federative system. Within this system, unions would organize themselves by industry or profession. For its constitution,
7140-618: A year. According to the IBGE of 2022, there were 16,055,174 people residing in the state. The population density was 367 inhabitants per square kilometre (950/sq mi). Urbanization : 96.9% (2004); Population growth : 1.3% (1991–2000). The last PNAD (National Household Survey) census revealed the following numbers: 6,739,901 White people (42.0%), 6,682,740 Pardo ( Multiracial ) people (41.6%), 2,594,253 Black people (16.2%), 21,837 Asian people (0.1%), 15,904 Amerindian people (0.1%). People of Portuguese ancestry predominate in most of
7378-423: Is also known for producing significant athletes in volleyball , yachting , swimming , basketball , skateboarding , surfing , beach volleyball , rowing , jiu-jitsu and MMA . The state hosted the 1950 and 2014 FIFA World Cup finals, as well as the 2016 Summer Olympics . It also hosted the 2007 Pan American Games , the 1995 FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m) , the 1954 FIBA World Championship and
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7616-604: Is not uncommon in some mountainous cities such as Teresópolis, Nova Friburgo and Petrópolis and snow has been reported occasionally in the Itatiaia National Park. Annual mean temperatures on the coast are around 23 °C (73 °F), 26 °C (79 °F) in summer and 20 °C (68 °F) in winter. In the mountains annual mean temperatures are around 18 °C (64 °F) but can range from 20 °C (68 °F) at an elevation of 600 to 700 metres (2,000 to 2,300 ft) above sea level to 7 °C (45 °F) in
7854-519: Is part of the Mata Atlântica biome and is made up of two distinct morphological areas: a coastal plain , known as baixada , and a plateau , which are disposed in parallel fashion from the shoreline on the Atlantic Ocean inland towards Minas Gerais . The coastline extends 635 kilometers and is formed by the bays of Guanabara , Sepetiba , and Ilha Grande . There are prominent slopes near
8092-644: Is served by several quick access routes, such as the Linha Vermelha/Red Line and Linha Amarela/Yellow Line freeways and Avenida Brasil/Brazil Avenue , thus conveniently serving residents of the city's southern, northern and western zones. There are special shuttle buses linking Galeão to Santos Dumont, and bus and taxi service to the rest of the city. The airport complex also has Brazil's longest runway at 4,240 metres (13,910 ft), and one of South America's largest and best equipped cargo logistics terminals. Rio de Janeiro has several important ports, such as
8330-463: Is the 4th producer in the country (116 million fruits in 2019), which is produced in the cities of São Francisco de Itabapoana , São João da Barra , Campos dos Goytacazes and Quissamã . It has small productions of cassava (216 thousand tons in 2019, 20th place in the country), banana (76 thousand tons in 2019, 20th place in the country), orange (68 thousand tons in 2019, 10th place in the country), tangerine (37 thousand tons in 2019, 5th place in
8568-501: Is the city that receives the most foreign tourists in all of Latin America. In Brazil, it receives almost 40% of foreign tourists who visit the country and receives the most tourists in all of Brazil. It was named one of the ten most beautiful cities in the world by global travel guide website Ucityguides. It is the city that receives the most tourists from cruise ships. During the summer, the city receives more than three million tourists, being
8806-482: Is the largest component of GDP at 51.6%, followed by the service sector at 47.8%. Agriculture represents 0.6% of GDP (2004). Rio de Janeiro (state) exports: petroleum 44.8%, fuel 17.5%, siderurgy 13%, chemicals 3.6%, nonferrous metals 2.8%, vehicles 2.1% (2002). Participation in the Brazilian economy: 15.6% (2004). There are 3,915,724 vehicles in the state (as of Jan. 2006), 10 million mobile phones, 5.3 million telephones, and 92 cities. Rio de Janeiro
9044-512: Is the smallest state by area in the Southeast macroregion and one of the smallest in Brazil. It is, however, the third most populous Brazilian state , with a population of over 16 million people at the 2022 Census (making it the most densely populated state in Brazil ), and it has the third longest coastline in the country (after those of the states of Bahia and Maranhão ). In the Brazilian flag ,
9282-559: The 1963 FIBA World Championship , among many others. Horse racing takes place at the Gávea Hippodrome . Jacarepaguá was the venue for the Brazilian leg of the Formula One Grand Prix , between 1978 and 1990, and Champ Car (1996–1999). The WCT and WQS surf tours took place on Rio's beaches between 1985 and 2001. The capital also hosts an ATP 500 tennis tournament . The capital has three major stadiums: Maracanã ,
9520-717: The Central Powers ' strategic ones (demonstrated for example in the German submarine campaign as well as in the Ottoman control over the Middle East), Brazilian involvement in the war would be inevitable. So he advised that the most logical way to proceed would be to follow the United States, which was working for a peace agreement but at the same time since the sinking of the RMS Lusitania
9758-566: The International Workers' Association . In the same month and year, and with similar points of discussion, anarchists, taking advantage of the presence of militants in the Federal District, started the South American Anarchist Congress, which sought to define common strategies for libertarians on the continent, whose deliberations did not distance themselves much of those held at workers' congresses. The prolongation of
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9996-693: The Maracanã stadium are among the main visiting points. Among the biggest events in the carioca calendar is the Carnival , which, according to the Guinness Book, is the biggest party on the planet with five million revelers playing in the streets of the city, and the New Year's party in Copacabana, which is also Listed in Guinness Book as the largest New Year's party in the world, with more than 4 million people spread across
10234-592: The Middle East . The world's largest Japanese community outside Japan is in São Paulo . In contrast, Brazil's indigenous population, located mainly in the northern and western border regions and in the upper Amazon Basin , continued to decline during this same period; largely due to the effects of contact with the outside world such as commercial expansion into the interior. Consequently, indigenous full-blooded Amerindians now constitute less than 1% of Brazil's population. In
10472-555: The Old Republic ( Portuguese : República Velha , Portuguese pronunciation: [ʁeˈpublikɐ ˈvɛʎɐ] ), officially the Republic of the United States of Brazil , refers to the period of Brazilian history from 1889 to 1930. The Old Republic began with the coup d'état that deposed emperor Pedro II in 1889, and ended with the Revolution of 1930 that installed Getúlio Vargas as
10710-613: The Port of Rio de Janeiro , the Port of Itaguaí and the Port of Açu , in addition to others such as Niterói and Angra dos Reis. All ports in the state have several rail and road accesses.The Port of Rio de Janeiro is a major exporter of Minas Gerais iron, steel products and vehicles, importing containers, wheat, steel products and zinc concentrate. The Port of Itaguaí exports Minas Gerais iron ore and containerized cargo, importing coal, coal coke, containerized cargo, alumina and steel products. Açu, in 2023,
10948-581: The Republican Party of São Paulo (PRP), denounced in 1893 the entry of anarchist immigrants into the country, classifying them as dangerous individuals, heads of "a terrible destructive sect", which aimed to "implant disorder and a fratricidal struggle, incompatible with the abundance and excellence of our living resources." During the activities of the 1898 May Day, several anarchists were arrested in São Paulo. Anarchist experiments took place in Brazil during
11186-476: The Roman Catholic Church continued its presence throughout the country, it was not national but rather international in its personnel, doctrine, liturgy, and purposes. The Army assumed this new position strategically; the monarchy had become unpopular with Brazil's conservative economic elite after the abolition of slavery, and the Army capitalized on that shift in opinion to amass support for itself within
11424-469: The Royal Military Academy [ PT ] . There followed a process of cultural enhancement influenced not only by the arrival of the royal family, but also by the presence of European graphic artists who were hired to record the society and Brazilian natural features. During this same time, The Royal School of Sciences, Arts, and Works [ PT ] was founded as well. In 1834,
11662-811: The Serra da Mantiqueira which forms the physical border with neighbouring Minas Gerais . Its principal rivers are the Guandu , the Piraí , the Paraíba do Sul , the Macaé and the Muriaé . The entire state is located within the tropics (the Tropic of Capricorn passes just a few kilometers south of the state's southernmost point) so a tropical climate is predominant. However, due to altitude, temperatures can drop to freezing point or below in some parts. Frost
11900-429: The coffee cycle . Industrial establishments, however, tripled in Brazil during the 1880s, and many immigrants went to the nascent industrial centers after disastrous experiences in coffee plantations. The industrial centers also received new waves of European immigrants, now coming from urban areas, having previous experiences with union organization. In this context, anarchism started to spread among Brazilian workers in
12138-456: The comparative advantage system and lack of an open market, Brazilian industries could not compete against the technologically superior Anglo-American economies. In this context the Encilhamento (a Boom & Bust process that first intensified, and then crashed, in the years between 1889 and 1891) occurred, the consequences of which were felt in all areas of the Brazilian economy throughout
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#173289125472412376-421: The demonstrations against the 2014 World Cup . Historiography normally attributes the roots of Brazilian anarchism to European immigration . After the abolition of slavery in Brazil during second half of the 19th century, political elites were convinced that the arrival of European workers would bring advantages to the country's economy. Brazilian intellectuals agreed that this would have a beneficial effect on
12614-490: The generals Tasso Fragoso and Mena Barreto and Admiral Isaiah de Noronha ousted President Washington Luís on October 24 and formed a joint government. At 3pm on November 3, 1930, the junta handed power and the presidential palace to Getulio Vargas; the new administration abrogated the 1891 Constitution, dissolved the National Congress and started to rule by decree, ending the Old Republic. A Constituent Assembly
12852-416: The "whitening" of the Brazilian population. Very stimulated by Brazilian government propaganda, waves of Europeans came to Brazil between 1870 and the beginning of World War I , mostly Italians, Portuguese and Spaniards. Most of the initial immigrants were of rural origin and without previous political or union experience. They often intended to work in agriculture, especially São Paulo coffee farms during
13090-474: The 11th the strike was over, with the restoration of services offered by the Light & Power Company. In the same year, the anarchists, still under the impact of the Russian Revolution, founded the Libertarian Communist Party, believing in the need to form a political nucleus that could lead, more clearly, anarchist actions in different sectors of society. The First Communist Conference in Brazil
13328-792: The 12th of a meeting of industrialists from São Paulo, heard Rodolfo Crespi agree to grant his workers a wage increase, followed by other industrialists the very next day. At the time, the Proletarian Defense Committee had already prepared a list of 11 common claims. A working-class crowd, gathered at the former hippodrome in Mooca, decided that the strike movement would only end when such demands were met. Among them, they included: salary increase; eight-hour day, with increased pay for all overtime work; guarantee of "permanent work"; abolition of night work for women and children under 18; and abolition of work in factories for those under 14 years old. On
13566-403: The 14th, through a committee of journalists gathered at the headquarters of O Estado de S. Paulo , the Proletarian Defense Committee negotiated with the employers and the state government the agenda of demands. The industrialists maintained their agreement to grant increased wages; they were willing to respect the workers' right to form associations, not to dismiss any employee for taking part in
13804-449: The 1890s through propaganda groups and periodicals. Among the pioneers were: Gli Schiavi Bianchi (1892), L'Asno Umano (1894) and L'Avvenire (1894–1895), published in São Paulo by groups composed mostly of Italian immigrants; O Despertar (1898) and O Protesto (1898–1900), published in Rio de Janeiro by groups that brought together Brazilians, Spaniards and Portuguese. In the last decade of
14042-576: The 1890s, such as the Cecília Colony , undertaken by the Italian Giovanni Rossi . The experimental rural community, formed in 1890 in Palmeira, Paraná , sought to put libertarian (anarchist) principles into practice, such as collectivized work, a communal income fund, and sanctioned free love . The experiment ended in 1894, buffeted by sectors of the local elite and internal problems, such as material poverty and some settlers' difficulty adapting to
14280-426: The 1950s, would later respond to these demands. During this time period, the state of São Paulo was at the forefront of Brazil's economic, political, and cultural life. Known colloquially as a "locomotive pulling the 20 empty boxcars" (a reference to the 20 other states) and still today Brazil's industrial and commercial center, São Paulo led this trend toward industrialization due to the foreign revenues flowing into
14518-709: The 1970s, with the transfer of the capital to Brasilia, Rio de Janeiro began to be one of the worst states in the country in terms of economic dynamism. There was no political discussion about the course of the city after it ceased to be the country's capital. "Rio de Janeiro was a job hanger for politicians from all over Brazil. Everyone referred a friend, a relative to take a position in the federal district," explains Marieta de Moraes Ferreira, history professor at UFRJ . Left-wing governors and mayors such as Leonel Brizola , Saturnino Braga , Marcello Allencar , César Maia , Anthony Garotinho , and Benedita da Silva , among others, helped drive away many industries that still existed in
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#173289125472414756-476: The 19th century, anarchist action was guided by mainly informal propaganda groups, who published periodicals, educated workers, and participated in various working class associations. As early as 1892, anarchists organized the first May Day activities in Brazil and were soon the target of repression. In Rio de Janeiro, the police reported meetings of foreigners who sought to spread libertarian ideas among workers. The newspaper Correio Paulistano , official body of
14994-848: The 19th century, there were several mutualist associations in Brazil that provided assistance to members in the event of illness, disability, unemployment, or death. During the early years of the labor movement, anarchist militants turned these associations into unionist bases with broader labor objectives such as the eight-hour day and a labor press. From 1900, multiple anarchist publications appeared in Brazil: O Libertário and A Terra Livre in Rio de Janeiro; O Amigo do Povo , A Lanterna and La Battaglia in São Paulo; A Luta in Porto Alegre ; O Despertar in Curitiba ; and O Regenerador in Ceará . Conditions in
15232-551: The 3rd Brazilian Workers 'Congress began a period of general dismantling of the workers' organization. The Brazilian economy retreated and two especially repressive laws were enacted by Epitácio Pessoa : Decree No. 4,247 of January 6, 1921, by Arnolfo Rodrigues de Azevedo [ pt ] , which regulated the expulsions of foreigners who were in the country for less than five years, stipulating that they could be expelled from national territory if they were considered harmful to public order; and Decree No. 4,269, by Adolfo Gordo, with
15470-564: The Algarves from 1815 to 1822, and of later independent Brazil as a kingdom and republic from 1822 to 1960. The state's 22 largest cities are Rio de Janeiro , São Gonçalo , Duque de Caxias , Nova Iguaçu , Niterói , Campos dos Goytacazes , Belford Roxo , São João de Meriti , Petrópolis , Volta Redonda , Magé , Macaé , Itaboraí , Cabo Frio , Armação dos Búzios , Angra dos Reis , Nova Friburgo , Barra Mansa , Barra do Piraí , Teresópolis , Mesquita and Nilópolis . Rio de Janeiro
15708-605: The Allies' Naval Forces in the Mediterranean . During 1918, protests broke out against the military recruitment; this, in conjunction with the news of the ongoing revolution in Russia , only strengthened the isolationist sentiment among the Brazilian elites. In addition, the devastating advent of Spanish flu further prevented the Brás administration from getting involved more deeply. Ultimately,
15946-418: The Army, the second consisted of Army sergeants and officers, and the third consisted of military aviators , both of Army and Navy. The Army's members were attached to the French Army , and the Navy's aviators to the British Royal Air Force . By 1918 all three groups were already in action in France. By that time Brazil had also sent a Naval fleet , the Naval Division in War Operations or DNOG , to join
16184-423: The CETC to enter into agreements with the associations of maritime and railway workers in order to obtain a formal commitment from them that they would refuse to transport the deported workers, and was instructed to promote a South American Workers' Congress and to maintain contact with international federations that agreed with the union orientation followed by the 3rd Brazilian Workers' Congress. The year following
16422-422: The COB since its founding. The COB also sent delegates to states where the workers' organization was at a critically low level. José Elias da Silva [ pt ] was sent to Pernambuco, where he managed to transform most of the cooperative associations into unions fighting for a salary increase and the eight-hour workday, in addition to founding the Pernambuco Workers Resistance Federation, in 1914. However,
16660-404: The Catete Palace, where they would depose the President and proclaim a Soviet republic. On November 18, the strike was triggered and about 400 workers went to Campo de São Cristovão, but the movement did not have the support of the military, resulting in a violent confrontation between the army and the workers. The main leaders of the movement were arrested while meeting at the home of José Oiticica,
16898-523: The Congress and the one that immediately followed it, coupled with the process of mobilization of various categories of workers with the increase in economic activity, gave a strong stimulus to the expansion of resistance associations, including where they were not yet taking place. Still in 1908, Bahian anarchists founded the Bahia Workers' Federation and the Alagoas Workers' Union joined the COB. In early November 1913, strikes by weaving workers broke out in Alagoas, Cachoeira and Rio Largo , which lasted until
17136-655: The Federation of Vehicle Drivers, who declared a general strike on March 23. On March 24, metallurgists, members of the Cosmopolitan Center, tailors, bakers, stokers, shoemakers, taxi drivers, weavers and a large number of construction workers also went on strike. During the stoppage, the headquarters of the FTRJ and other unions were invaded by the police and a series of workers' leaders were arrested, including Mâncio Teixeira, Fábio Luz, José Oiticica and Octávio Brandão . Without
17374-474: The Federation of Workers and Leopoldina's employee unions. The Mogiana strike, which started on March 20 of the same year, was marked by open conflicts between workers and police. Shootings, sometimes fatal, took place at several railway stations serviced by the company. At the White House station, on March 31, police soldiers charged with a silent bayonet against more than 200 strikers, who entrenched themselves at
17612-465: The First World War. The anarchists of São Paulo, in a meeting with Pedro Augusto Motta, recognized that the military uprising had not been carried out by the people. However, they established a link between their character and popular desires. Examining the fact that they did not have sufficient strength, among the working and popular classes, to make their own revolution, they decided to participate in
17850-653: The General Union of Employees in Hotels and Restaurants called a meeting against the arrest of Pedro Maurini, an anarchist born abroad, the police raided the headquarters of the entity; shortly afterwards, the police also closed the headquarters of the Union of Workers in Civil Construction, where they arrested Florentino de Carvalho [ pt ] . With the inauguration of the President Artur Bernardes ,
18088-648: The German Navy sank Brazilian civilian ships off the French coast, creating such an opportunity. On October 26 the government declared war on the Central Powers : Germany, Austria-Hungary , and the Ottoman Empire . Soon after, the navy was ordered to capture Central Powers' ships found on the Brazilian coast, and three small military groups were dispatched to the Western Front . The first group consisted of medical staff from
18326-441: The Itatiaia National Park. Summers in these areas tend to be warm but not hot, with averages around 22 °C (72 °F). Winters are quite chilly by Brazilian standards with lows around 8 to 9 °C (46 to 48 °F) Rains tend to be concentrated in the summer (December to March) with a dry season in the winter (June to September). Most of the state receives between 1,000 and 1,500 millimetres (39 and 59 in) of rainfall in
18564-558: The Lagos region are also very popular, in the towns of Cabo Frio and Arraial do Cabo ; and Ilha Grande . The mountainous region is home to the imperial city, Petrópolis , seat of Brazil's ancient empire; its neighbor Teresópolis ; Nova Friburgo , colonized by the Germans; Penedo , colonized by the Finns, and the village of Visconde de Mauá, in the municipality of Resende , as winter refuges to enjoy
18802-460: The Legislature, dominated by the ruling oligarchs). This system resulted in the presidency of Brazil alternating between the oligarchies of the dominant states of São Paulo and Minas Gerais , who governed the country through the Republican Party of São Paulo (PRP) and the Republican Party of Minas Gerais (PRM). This regime is often referred to as " café com leite ", 'coffee with milk', after
19040-457: The May 1 of that year. In Rio de Janeiro, a speaker took the floor to deliver an impassioned speech, saying that hunger was knocking on the doors of the working class and that it was necessary that "the people act with energy, going to the warehouses where the goods that are missing in the workman's home are stacked and accumulated." In the same month, several strikes broke out in the textile industry after
19278-697: The Presidente Dutra highway was re-tendered to enable a billion-dollar upgrade project for the Serra das Araras road, the oldest section of the highway, built in the 1920s. Generally, the state's highways have a large movement of freight and passenger vehicles. The main Federal highways that cross the state are: Since August 2004, with the transfer of many flights from Santos Dumont Airport , to Rio de Janeiro-Galeão International Airport , Rio de Janeiro has second international airport of Brazil. According to data from
19516-568: The Press Law was passed, which prescribed punishments for offenses made in newspapers to the President of the Republic, to "public morals or good manners", as well as to "some sovereign, foreign head of state or their diplomatic representatives". The Fourth Auxiliary Police Station was also created, with the specific objective of social and political control of militants opposed to the regime. In July 1924,
19754-510: The Russian Revolution reached Brazil, the latent differences between anarchism and Bolshevism became clearer to workers' militants. In March 1922, Astrojildo Pereira and other former anarchist militants founded the Communist Party of Brazil (PCB). The founding of the PCB generated a division in the workers' movement, although initially the Communists only exercised influence in Rio de Janeiro. Following
19992-617: The Russian soviets and the revolutions underway in Hungary and Germany . In the Federal Capital, the demonstration had about 60 thousand people who, in addition to saluting the aforementioned revolutions, organized stoppages to pressure the bosses for the 8-hour day. In São Paulo, shortly after the celebrations, a general strike broke out, which started at the Matarazzo factory, where a worker accused
20230-504: The Second Industrial Revolution in the advanced countries, Latin America responded to mounting European and North American demand for primary products and foodstuffs. A few key export products— coffee , sugar , and cotton — thus dominated agriculture. Because of specialization , Brazilian producers neglected domestic consumption, forcing the country to import four-fifths of its grain needs. As in most of Latin America ,
20468-589: The South were not dramatic, but their growth was steady and by the 1920s allowed Rio Grande do Sul to exercise considerable political leverage. Real power resided in the coffee-growing states of the Southeast— São Paulo , Minas Gerais , and Rio de Janeiro — which produced the most export revenue. Those three and Rio Grande do Sul harvested 60% of Brazil 's crops, turned out 75% of its industrial and meat products, and held 80% of its banking resources. Following
20706-456: The São Paulo oligarchies) and led to the ascension of Getúlio Vargas as president, heralding the start of the Vargas Era . On November 15, 1889, Field Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca deposed Emperor Pedro II , declared Brazil a republic, and reorganized the government. According to the new republican Constitution enacted in 1891, the government was a constitutional democracy , but democracy
20944-537: The War. The anarchists of the Feminine Center for Young Idealists, led by Emma Mennocchi, launched a Committee of Agitation Against Compulsory Military Service, composed of Maria Antonia Soares, Sofia Loise, Encarnación Mejias and Esperança Maestre, and published a manifesto to the mothers of Brazil, in which "after exposing the evils that will result from this law, I appeal for maternal feelings to come with you to prevent such
21182-627: The absence of social policies. The First Republic 's electoral system, with open voting and control of elections by the ruling parties, hindered workers' ability to participate in political life. This exclusionary, oligarchic political model and lack of institutional channels for social demands strengthened Brazilian anarchism during the First Republic. Workers included a considerable proportion of ex-slaves and proletarianized immigrants with very low civil, political, and social rights—circumstances that encouraged worker direct action . Revolutionary syndicalism, spread by anarchist militants, greatly influenced
21420-421: The achievement of the eight-hour day in most factories. Also in Rio de Janeiro there were several strikes in the first half of 1919, initiated by seafarers, demanding a salary increase and an eight-hour day. On May 18, the number of workers absent from their jobs was estimated at 10,000. But the majority remained on strike for a short time, because employers, in general, were ready to grant the eight-hour day without
21658-407: The adherents of these and other minorities constitute 6.2% of Rio de Janeiro's population. Rio de Janeiro is the state with the lowest percentage of Catholics in Brazil, and the state with the highest percentage of people without religion (such as atheists and agnostics ). In addition, it is the state with the highest percentage of spiritists in Brazil. The variety of denominations is a mark of
21896-437: The agrarian oligarchies. This process was further accelerated by the declining world demand for coffee during World War I. The central government, dominated by rural gentries, responded to falling world coffee demand by bailing out the oligarchs, reinstating the valorization program. Valorization, government intervention to maintain coffee prices by withholding stocks from the market or restricting plantings, had some successes in
22134-404: The armed forces were divided over their status, relationship to the political regime, and institutional goals. The lack of military unity, and the disagreement among civilian elites about the military's role in society, explain partially why a long-term military dictatorship was not established. Although the military did not directly control Brazil, military men were very active in politics; early in
22372-574: The armistice in November 1918 prevented the government from carrying out its plan for war . Despite its modest participation, Brazil gained the right to partake in the Paris Peace Conference . From 1875 until 1960, about 3 million Europeans emigrated to Brazil, settling mainly in the four southern states of São Paulo , Paraná , Santa Catarina , and Rio Grande do Sul . Immigrants came mainly from Portugal, Italy, Germany, Spain, Japan, Poland, and
22610-507: The barrel of oil reached $ 93.48. But oil revenues, used by the government to repay financing debts, including the payroll of idle workers, fell to 1.6 billion reais. The international price of a barrel fell to USD 50.48 in 2016 and reached a low of USD 28. Petrobras became the target of the largest anti-corruption operation in Brazil, with the participation of governors such as Sérgio Cabral Filho and Pezão , linked to leftist Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , pushing back investments that were to be at
22848-472: The beginning of a struggle by the urban bourgeoisie to seize power from the coffee-producing oligarchy. This era sparked the Tenente revolts as well. Junior military officers ( tenentes , or lieutenants), who had long been active against the ruling coffee oligarchy, staged their own revolt in 1922 amid demands for various forms of social modernization, calling for agrarian reform, the formation of cooperatives, and
23086-524: The beginning of the Revolution. It spread quickly through the country. Eight state governments in the northeast of Brazil were deposed by revolutionaries. On the 10th of October, Vargas launched the manifesto, "Rio Grande standing by Brazil" and left, by rail, towards Rio de Janeiro , the national capital at the time. It was expected that a major battle would occur in Itararé (on the border with Paraná ), where
23324-682: The best-known Brazilian city abroad. The capital of Rio de Janeiro is internationally known for the beauty of its beaches and hills, in addition to having several sites. According to Embratur , it is the most sought-after destination by foreign tourists who visit Brazil for leisure, and second place in business and events tourism. Christ the Redeemer , elected one of the seven wonders of the modern world , Sugarloaf (with its famous cable car), Rodrigo de Freitas Lagoon , Copacabana , Ipanema and Barra da Tijuca beaches, Tijuca forest , Quinta da Boa Vista , Rio de Janeiro Botanical Garden , Cinelândia and
23562-448: The cabinet, but the republicans manipulated him into founding a republic. The history of the Old Republic was dominated by a quest for a viable form of government to replace the monarchy . This quest lurched back and forth between state autonomy and centralization. The constitution of 1891, establishing the United States of Brazil ( Estados Unidos do Brasil ), granted extensive autonomy to the provinces, now called States. A federal system
23800-463: The capital of São Paulo, asked for a salary increase. The demand was rejected and the cotton workers went on strike. Cotton workers were joined by other workers from the Mooca neighborhoods, Brás and Cambuci . In July, a gap opened up in the impasse, when the workers of the fabric factory of the firm Nami Jafet, in the Cambuci neighborhood, agreed to return to their jobs, after receiving a salary raise for
24038-538: The capital. Italians and Spaniards are also present in the capital as well as in the surrounding cities. Racial groups of Rio de Janeiro in 2022 Religion in Rio de Janeiro (2010) According to the 2010 Brazilian census, there were 7,324,315 Roman Catholics (45.8%), 4,696,906 Protestants (29.4%), 647,572 Spiritists (4%), and 2,416,303 people without religion (14.6%). There are also adherents of Islam , Judaism , Buddhism , Hinduism , esoterism , neo-paganism , afro-Brazilian religions and Asian religions. Together,
24276-434: The century, it was one of the largest producers in the world. In Brazil, however, as of 2020, only two sugar mills were operating in the city. The state, which harvested about 10 million tonnes in the 1980s, reached only 1 million tonnes in 2017, when it began to recover, harvesting 1.8 million tonnes in the 2019/ 20. In the agricultural field, the State of Rio currently stands out for some products, such as pineapple , where it
24514-476: The city of Rio de Janeiro was established by Estácio de Sá . In the 17th century, cattle raising and sugar cane cultivation stimulated the city's progress, which was definitively assured when the port started to export gold extracted from Minas Gerais in the 18th century. In 1763, Rio de Janeiro became the capital of Colonial Brazil. With the flight of the Portuguese royal family from Portugal to Brazil in 1808,
24752-491: The city of Rio de Janeiro was transformed into a "neutral city" , remaining as capital of the state, while the captainships became provinces, with headquarters in Niterói , a neighbouring city. In 1889, the city became the capital of the Republic, the neutral city became the federal district and the province a state. In 1894, Petrópolis became the capital of Rio de Janeiro, until 1902 when Niterói recovered its capital status. With
24990-491: The city of Rio de Janeiro. José Oiticica started promoting meetings at his home with the participation of important figures of the libertarian movement in Rio de Janeiro and militants from other states such as Manuel Campos, Agripino Nazaré [ pt ] , José Elias da Silva [ pt ] , João da Costa Pimenta [ pt ] , Álvaro Palmeira [ pt ] and Astrogildo Pereira [ pt ] . At these meetings, Oiticica stated that it
25228-438: The city's beaches, including 2 million on Copacabana Beach alone. Of the 10 most visited cities in the country by leisure tourists, 4 are in the state of Rio. In addition to the capital, in the lake region, Armação dos Búzios , and in the south of the state, Angra dos Reis , both focused on high-end tourism; also in the south of the state, the town of Paraty , with its colonial architecture and cobbled streets. The beaches of
25466-505: The city, while fluminense continues to be used for the state as a whole. European presence in Rio de Janeiro dates back to 1502. Rio de Janeiro originated from parts of the captainships of de Tomé and São Vicente. Between 1555 and 1567, the territory was occupied by the French, who intended to install a colony, France Antarctique . Aiming to prevent the occupation of the Frenchmen, in March 1565,
25704-447: The closure of associations, the workers were prone to reconstitute and expand their organizations in more favorable circumstances. Union organizations often formed part of local or state federations. In revolutionary syndicalist tendencies, a federalist structure prevailed with non-hierarchical structures and no paid employees. In the First Republic, the male labor force was instrumental in manufacturing and industrial work and female labor
25942-429: The coffee industry. Prosperity contributed to a rapid rise in the population of recent working class Southern and Eastern European immigrants, a population that contributed to the growth of trade unionism , anarchism , and socialism . In the post-World War I period, Brazil was hit by its first wave of general strikes and the establishment of the Communist Party in 1922. Meanwhile, the divergence of interests between
26180-564: The coffee oligarchs— devastated by the Depression— and the burgeoning, dynamic urban sectors was intensifying. According to prominent Latin American historian Benjamin Keen, the task of transforming society "fell to the rapidly growing urban bourgeois groups, and especially to the middle class, which began to voice even more strongly its discontent with the rule of the corrupt rural oligarchies". In contrast,
26418-540: The cold. The state of Rio de Janeiro is one of the best in the country in terms of infrastructure, although it has some shortcomings, mainly due to its mountainous terrain. In the highway sector, there are about 800 km of highways , the main highway being BR-101 , then BR-116 . The Presidente Dutra highway, the name given to the BR-116 on the section that connects the country's two main cities (São Paulo to Rio), passing through Volta Redonda , Barra Mansa and Resende,
26656-417: The company in favor of the strikers' demands. The election of marshal Hermes da Fonseca as president of Brazil in 1910 brought some novelties to the traditional political framework and to the relations between the State and the labor movement. Fonseca was the first presidential candidate to mention the existence of a workers' problem to be solved on his platform. During his government, he sought dialogue with
26894-503: The conference, called for the suppression of the state, all religious authority and all laws; general resolutions would be taken in public assemblies, and minorities would enjoy full freedom for the formation of new communities. The social precepts of the document determined the elimination of private property and the administration of factories, railways and other public services by the workers and their respective associations, without anyone assuming management functions. In August 1919, under
27132-412: The confirmation of Martínez's death on July 10, approximately 10,000 people attended his funeral the following day, heading for the city center. Once there, the police blocked access to the government palace square and the central police headquarters. The crowd, forced to pass through other avenues, stopped at Rua 15 de Novembro to call for the freedom of the imprisoned workers. Back at the cemetery, part of
27370-471: The country), lemon (20 thousand tons in 2019, 5th place in the country) and persimmon , where it has 6% of national production, being 4th place in the country. The state was also an important producer of coconuts , in the regions of Quissamã and the Lakes Region, and in 2009 it was the 7th national producer, but between 2010 and 2020 several producers abandoned the activity. The industrial sector
27608-443: The country. Its personnel, its interests, its ideology, and its commitments were national in scope. In the last decades of the 19th century, the United States, much of Europe , and neighboring Argentina expanded the right to vote. Brazil, however, moved to restrict access to the polls. In 1874, in a population of about 10 million, the franchise was held by about one million, but in 1881 this had been cut to 145,296. This reduction
27846-651: The creation of organizations influenced by the especifismo of the Federación Anarquista Uruguaya (FAU), in a process that resulted in the foundation of the Coordenação Anarquista Brasileira (CAB) in 2012. Anarchists have since maintained a relevant, albeit minority, participation in various types of collective actions, such as union organizations, community and neighborhood associations, student mobilizations, homeless and landless movements and in waves of protests, like those of 2013 and
28084-693: The creation of the republic in 1889, there were many political and social rebellions that had to be subdued by the regime, such as the Two Naval Revolts (1891 & 1893–94), the Federalist Rebellion (1893–95), War of Canudos (1896–97), Vaccine Revolt (1904), Revolt of the Whip (1910) and the Revolt of Juazeiro ("Sedição de Juazeiro", 1914). The Contestado War , a rebellion pitting settlers against landowners, also raged from 1912 to 1916. Therefore, with
28322-550: The crowd went to Praça da Sé , staying there to listen to a series of speeches on the situation of the working class. It was soon decided to send a delegation to meet Tirso Martins, Chief of Police of São Paulo, to demand the reopening of the Liga Operária da Mooca and the release of the imprisoned workers; another part of the crowd, less peaceful, walked the streets of the neighborhoods of Brás, Mooca and Cambuci and, through persuasion or violence, managed to join more workers, closing
28560-538: The decade, ten of the twenty state governors were officers. The Constituent Assembly, which drew up the constitution of 1891, was divided between two factions. One group sought to limit executive power, which was dictatorial in scope under President Deodoro da Fonseca ; the other was the Jacobins, radical authoritarians who opposed the paulista coffee oligarchy and who wanted to preserve and intensify presidential authority. The constitution created by this assembly established
28798-494: The desired proportions". Police repression, deportations and the systematic work of reformist and cooperative groups had been producing unfavorable results for revolutionary organizations directly linked to syndicalism. It was in this troubled situation that, between April 23 and 30, 1920, the 3rd Brazilian Workers' Congress took place. The meetings took place at the headquarters of the Union of Workers in Fabric Factories, with
29036-407: The direction of José Oitica and Astrogildo Pereira, the Libertarian Communist Party started to publish the weekly newspaper Spártacus [ pt ] . Still in 1919, the anarchists organized in the Libertarian Communist Party prepared an insurrection that would have the participation of militants from São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais, Paraná, Rio Grande do Sul and Pernambuco. However,
29274-437: The domination of the republic's politics by the landed gentries of that state (dominated by the coffee industry) and Minas Gerais , dominated by dairy interests, known then by observers as the politics of café com leite ; 'coffee with milk'. Long before the first revolts of the urban middle classes to seize power from the coffee oligarchs in the 1920s, Brazil's intelligentsia and farsighted agro-capitalists, dreamed of forging
29512-470: The early 1900s were favorable for the emergence of workers' movements, including the 1903 economic boom and the proliferation of workers' organizations that grew from late 1890s militant action. A 1903 textile industry strike in the Federal District assembled workers across industries laid the groundwork for further direct action among Rio de Janeiro unions. A series of worker federations were founded in
29750-432: The early twentieth century, demographic changes and structural shifts in the economy threatened the primacy of the agrarian oligarchies. Under the Old Republic, the growth of the urban middle sectors, though slowed by dependency and entrenched oligarchy, was eventually strong enough to propel the middle class into the forefront of Brazilian political life. In time, growing trade, commerce, and industry in São Paulo undermined
29988-431: The economy around the start of the 20th century therefore rested on certain cash crops produced by the fazendeiros , large estate owners exporting primary products overseas who headed their own patriarchal communities. Each typical fazenda (estate) included the owner's chaplain and overseers, his indigent peasants, his sharecroppers, and his indentured servants. Brazil's dependence on factory-made goods and loans from
30226-472: The entire population, such as the decrease in the price of food, tram passes and the installation of free markets in working-class neighborhoods. Porto Alegre workers promoted a massive mobilization that paralyzed the city from July 31 to August 4, 1917, when Borges de Medeiros received a League commission at the Government Palace, committing himself to take measures to control the food prices and increase
30464-517: The establishments that were still active, including the Nami Jafet factory, which had given in days before to the demands of its workers. It is estimated that by July 12 the number of strikers in the city of São Paulo had increased from 15 to 20 thousand workers, with the addition of chauffeurs and staff from Companhia Light & Power, Cia. Do Gás and most small factories and workshops in the city. The assaults on Light & Power trams led it to suspend
30702-630: The event of defeat in the union elections, remained active. New elements started to influence the Brazilian political situation. On July 5, 1922, there was the 18 of the Copacabana Fort revolt , beginning the tenentist movement, led by the soldiers of the middle layers of the military hierarchy dissatisfied with the regime. Military conspirators came to seek the support of José Oiticica in organizations under anarchist influence and initiated contacts with Evaristo de Morais [ pt ] and Sarandy Raposo, whose CSBC supposedly exercised control of
30940-436: The example of what happened in the capital of São Paulo, a Popular Defense League was formed, composed of anarchists experienced in the union struggle, such as Cecílio Villar and Zenon de Almeida [ pt ] , and by some emerging leaders, such as Abílio de Nequete . The League launched a manifesto to the people and workers, with a list of specific demands, such as the increase in workers' wages, and general demands for
31178-640: The execution of anarchist educator Francisco Ferrer by the Spanish government. The last major strike of the period took place in January 1909, involving the Great Western railroad workers in Pernambuco , Paraíba , Rio Grande do Norte and Alagoas , demanding wage improvements. The movement ended after twelve days, with the promise of the governor of Pernambuco, Herculano Bandeira [ pt ] , to intervene with
31416-548: The explosion of a bomb in the neighborhood of Brás on October 19, which led to the death of four militant workers, one of them being the Spanish José Prol, allowed the police to discover the insurrectional plans. Even though anarchists denied the accusations, saying that the bombs and propaganda materials found had been planted by the police themselves, the repression intensified and the Libertarian Communist Party dismantled. The upsurge in repression became particularly evident in
31654-446: The express purpose of repressing anarchism, establishing prison sentences for crimes committed with a view to subversion of the social order and punishments for those who contributed to the practice of such crimes through meetings or propaganda instruments, in addition to giving the authorities the right to indefinitely close unions and civil entities that committed acts deemed harmful to public security. The workers' press also demonstrated
31892-504: The federal troops were stationed to halt the advance of the revolutionary forces, led by Colonel Góis Monteiro . However, on October 12 and 13, the Battle of Quatiguá took place (possibly the biggest fight of the revolution), although it has been little studied. Quatiguá is located to the east of Jaguariaíva, near the border between São Paulo state and Paraná. The battle did not occur in Itararé since
32130-488: The federative method of organization. The Civil Construction Workers League of São Paulo, represented by Deoclécio Fagundes and Teófilo Ferreira, proposed that the congress join the Communist International . But Edgard Leuenroth objected, as it was not "a genuinely union organization", being supported by Astrojildo Pereira and José Elias. Instead of joining the Communist International, the 3rd Workers' Congress passed
32368-409: The few exceptions of unions organized and run exclusively by women, and were driven by anarchists such as Elvira Boni , Elisa Gonçalves de Oliveira, Aída Morais, Isabel Peleteiro, and Noêmia Lopes. Strikes organized with the strong female presence usually involved, in addition to demands for better wages and reduced working hours, complaints of sexual abuse and mistreatment by masters and foremen. From
32606-424: The following year, the wholesale prices of various products went up, such as beans and manioc flour; and wheat became scarce and expensive. Wages, however, remained at the same levels as in the years before the war. Food prices continued to rise during the first six months of 1917. Basic items tended to be 20% to 150% more expensive than the previous year. The favorable environment for the satisfaction of demands due to
32844-410: The forefront of the pre-salt exploration. Even when state municipalities received millions of reais in royalties, public spending was used for marginal improvements, for beautification, such as porcelain floors, whale-shaped monuments, without generating revenue or benefit. jobs for the population. Political leaders are blamed for the lack of a unified project for Rio de Janeiro's economy. The state
33082-1265: The former largest stadium in the world in terms of capacity; Engenhão , planned to host the athletics and football events of the 2007 Pan American Games, and São Januário , the largest private stadium in Rio. In the state of Rio, Olympic medalists were born such as: Martine Grael , Clínio de Freitas , Daniel Adler , Eduardo Penido , Isabel Swan , Kiko Pelicano , Marcelo Ferreira , Marcos Soares , Nelson Falcão and Ronaldo Senfft in yachting; Thiago Pereira , Bruno Fratus and Jorge Fernandes in swimming; Robson Caetano and José Telles da Conceição in athletics; Luiz Felipe de Azevedo in horse riding; Afrânio da Costa and Fernando Soledade in shooting; Affonso Évora , Alfredo da Motta , Algodão , Edson Bispo , Fernando Brobró , Fritz , Marcus Vinícius Dias , Ruy de Freitas and Sérgio Macarrão in basketball; Adriana Samuel , Ana Cristina , André Nascimento , Bernard , Bernardinho , Bruninho , Fabiana Alvim , Fernanda Ferreira , Fernandão , Janina , Kátia Lopes , Leandro Vissotto , Marcelo Elgarten , Nalbert , Rui , Tande , Thaísa and Valeskinha in volleyball; Bárbara Seixas , Jackie Silva , Raquel da Silva, Sandra Pires in beach volleyball, in addition to Hugo Calderano ,
33320-400: The greatest table tennis player in the history of Brazil; Nelson Piquet , three-time F1 world champion, Bob Burnquist , considered one of the greatest skateboarders of all time and Marcus Vinicius D'Almeida , archery world runner-up. An eagle , symbol of Brazil's royal family, appears on the state flag with the rock formation Dedo de Deus (" The Finger of God ") near Teresópolis in
33558-512: The knowledge of the federations, but with the assent of part of the Leopoldina workers' leaders, reformist leaders negotiated with the government to end the strike, in exchange for promises to release prisoners, readmission of dismissed strikers and suspension of any other form of punishment. The anarchists accused the cooperative leaders of treason for having signed an agreement that ignored the conditions of Leopoldina workers, without having consulted
33796-541: The labor movement in order to prevent new movements from beginning. This repression, supported by legislation, was very effective in preventing the formation of labor unions considered to be really free by the workers involved. There were two main lines of thought regarding Brazil's joining the war: One, led by Ruy Barbosa, called for joining the Entente ; another side was concerned about the bloody and fruitless nature of trench warfare, nurturing critical and pacifist feelings in
34034-463: The labor movement in the interior of the state and in the rest of the country. In the Federal District, the July 1917 strike movement, triggered after the end of the São Paulo strike, brought together carpenters, shoemakers, metalworkers, bakers, construction workers, textiles, tailors and hatters. Due to resistance from reformist union members who collaborated with the government, it was not possible to trigger
34272-407: The labor movement remained small and weak (despite a wave of general strikes in the postwar years), lacking ties to the peasantry, who constituted the overwhelming majority of the Brazilian population. As a result, disparate social reform movements would crop up in the 1920s, ultimately culminating in the Revolution of 1930. The 1920s revolt against the seating of Artur Bernardes as president signaled
34510-428: The labor movement. Worker organization was a hallmark of Brazil during the First Republic, to which anarchists contributed. The volume of associations were particularly visible at times when the labor movement was on the rise, when favorable economic conditions conferred greater bargaining power on the workers and strike movements were more likely to succeed. Despite economic recessions and repression, which could lead to
34748-502: The last decade of the 19th century and the first of the 20th, a free press created by European immigrant anarchists started to develop, and, due to non-segregated conformation (ethnically speaking) of Brazilian society, spread widely, particularly in large cities. During this period, Brazil did not have a significantly integrated national economy. Rather, Brazil had a grouping of regional economies that exported their own specialty products to European and North American markets. The absence of
34986-530: The libertarian lifestyle. The Cecília Colony did not leave deep marks in the history of the Brazilian anarchist movement, but later some of its ex-colonists joined the military in São Paulo, Paraná, and Rio Grande do Sul. Organized workers initially believed the Proclamation of the Republic would inaugurate a new era of political and social rights, but the republican regime ultimately disappointed them. Most workers were subjected to long working hours—up to 16 hours
35224-442: The main leader of the uprising in the capital. Some remained imprisoned, such as Astrogildo Pereira, others were exiled to distant regions of the interior of Brazil, such as José Oiticica. In 1919, there was a resumption of the strike movement, this time, facing a patronage organized in class entities and better articulated with the repression. On May 1 of that year, there were demonstrations in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo in favor of
35462-471: The master general of harassing him for having spoken on the 1st of May. After a rough bout, the worker was fired. Many of his colleagues quit their jobs and took to the streets urging employees at other factories to follow their example. At the end of the day, around 10,000 workers were on strike, and demands were made. Once again the eight-hour day became one of the main demands, accompanied by others such as weekly rest, equal pay for men and women, recognition of
35700-616: The middle of the following month. In June 1914, in Pará , there were strikes by carters and construction workers, resulting in the deportation without trial of several Portuguese syndicalist, including the Galician anarchist Antônio Dominguez [ pt ] . In the same year, in Manaus , there were successive port strikes, and the anarchists organized the Amazonas Workers' Federation, affiliated to
35938-462: The mobilizations of the previous year reached. In this sense, the anarchists of Rio de Janeiro formed, that same year, the Anarchist Alliance, "an organ of unity, understanding, alliance of all anarchists of Rio de Janeiro, formed in groups or not". This organization was responsible for a series of articulations to promote an insurrection with the support of the army and categories of workers in
36176-566: The more capital-intensive industries, distinguishing Brazil's industrial revolution from that of the rest of the West. With manufacturing on the rise and the coffee oligarchs imperiled, the old order of café com leite and coronelismo eventually gave way to the political aspirations of the new urban groups: professionals, government and white-collar workers , merchants, bankers, and industrialists. Increasing support for industrial protectionism marked 1920s Brazilian politics with little support from
36414-476: The movement assumed the dimension of a general strike. In addition to the strikes to reduce working hours, between 1912 and 1913 there were several demonstrations against expulsions of foreigners and campaigns against the loss of life. The new rise of the workers' movement brought reactions from the authorities, with intensified repression and an attempt to expand and tighten the terms of the Adolfo Gordo Law. On
36652-417: The movement, in an attempt to influence it; they soon offered to take up arms, proposing the formation of battalions of autonomous civilians, without military discipline and interference. Isidoro, heeding the warnings of José Carlos de Macedo Soares [ pt ] regarding the infiltration of radical elements, absolutely rejected the proposal of the anarchists. The proposal rejected, the anarchists sent
36890-497: The nationalization of mines. Though ultimately unsuccessful, the Tenente revolts illustrated the conflicts that would go on to underpin the Revolution of 1930. The Great Depression set off the tensions that had been building in Brazilian society for some time, spurring revolutionary leaders to action. The elections of 1930 pitted Júlio Prestes , of the pro-establishment Republican Party of São Paulo , against Getúlio Vargas , who led
37128-466: The night shift. However, on the 9th, the severe repression of a demonstration by the São Paulo Public Force resulted in the death of the anarchist shoemaker Francisco José Martinez [ pt ] , the arrest of several militants and the closure of the Liga Operária da Mooca, and served as a catalyst for the generalization of the movement. On the same day, the Proletarian Defense Committee
37366-449: The ocean, featuring also diverse environments, such as restinga vegetation , bays , lagoons and tropical forests . Most of the state however consists of highlands, often higher than 1000 m, formed by several mountain chains like the Serra do Mar which separates Rio from the state of São Paulo . The highest point of the state, the Pico das Agulhas Negras (Black Needles Peak) is located in
37604-403: The official Brazilian travel bureau, Embratur, nearly 40% of foreign tourists who visit Brazil choose Rio as their gateway, meaning Galeão Airport. Besides linking Rio to the rest of Brazil with domestic flights, Galeão has connections to 18 other countries. It can handle up to 15 million passengers a year in two passenger terminals. Located 20 kilometers from downtown Rio, the international airport
37842-632: The official demonym of the Royal Captaincy of Rio de Janeiro and subsequently of the Province of Rio de Janeiro. From 1783 through the Imperial Regime , carioca remained an unofficial term which other Brazilians used for the inhabitants of the city as well as the province. During the first years of the Brazilian Republic, carioca came to be the name given to those who lived in the city's slums or
38080-675: The onset of World War I , Brazilian elites were interested in studying the events of the Mexican Revolution with more attention than those related to the War in Europe. By 1915 it was also clear that the Brazilian elites were dedicated to making sure Brazil followed a conservative political path; they were unwilling to embark upon courses of action, whether domestically (i.e. adopting the secret ballot and universal suffrage) or in foreign affairs (making alliances or long-term commitments), that could have unpredictable consequences and potentially risk
38318-603: The other hand, Hermes da Fonseca's collaboration with the reformists made it possible, in November 1912, for the so-called Fourth Brazilian Workers' Congress, at the seat of the Federal Senate and with the support of federal deputy Mário Hermes. Such a congress, excluding revolutionary tendencies, was aimed at the creation of a Workers' Party and a new central, the Brazilian Labor Confederation (CBT). The resolutions of this congress, however, did not go much beyond
38556-571: The other states in the same Southeast macroregion: Minas Gerais ( N and NW ), Espírito Santo ( NE ) and São Paulo ( SW ). It is bounded on the east and south by the South Atlantic Ocean . Rio de Janeiro has an area of 43,653 km (16,855 sq mi). Its capital is the city of Rio de Janeiro , which was the capital of the Portuguese Colony of Brazil from 1763 to 1815, of the following United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and
38794-515: The pay of workers at the service of the state, in what they expected to be followed by businessmen. In Pelotas, the strike occurred between the 9th and 17 August, and a Popular Defense Commission was formed. The occurrence of conflicts during the strike caused the state government to send the Chief of Police to mediate the conflict, and the stoppage ended with a positive balance for the workers. Another important stoppage occurred in Recife, on August 14, when
39032-616: The person of the President Manoel Borba [ pt ] , severely criticized the movement, causing an increase in police persecution. At this juncture and with the arrest of several leaders, the Chief of Police started negotiations with the Confederação Operária de Pernambuco (COP), a supporter of a reformist unionism and allied with the government. As a mediator of the conflict, the Academic Congress, representing
39270-449: The police in August 1917, the General Union of Workers of Rio de Janeiro (UGT) was created. This Union, a clear attempt to regroup the resistance unions, saw the immediate adhesion of 13 class entities. Even in August, despite the repression, a strike at Companhia Cantareira e Viação Fluminense, which operated on the crossing of Baía da Guanabara between Rio de Janeiro and Niterói , took on the shape of an insurrection. The radicalization of
39508-446: The police took place. The FORJ appointed João Gonçalves da Silva to head a delegation of three people to have an audience with the then President of the Republic, Venceslau Brás . Upon arriving at Palácio do Catete , they were informed that the President, although he was always ready to receive "from the most humble to the most powerful", could not receive a delegation that was part of "an agitator dominated by anarchist influences". After
39746-490: The political and economic spheres were centered around local bosses, who controlled elections. The country was also marked by a series of rebellions and revolutions against the ruling oligarchies, which culminated into the Revolution of 1930 , when the Liberal Alliance , a force of urban middle-class, planters from outside São Paulo and military reformists composed mostly by junior officers (known as Tenetism ), deposed ruling president Washington Luís (representative of
39984-404: The population of Rio, and those with a Portuguese father or a Portuguese mother accounted for 30,84%. In other words, native born Portuguese and their children accounted for 51,20% of the inhabitants of Rio, or a total of 267664 people in 1890. Other European ethnic groups , such as Swiss , Finnish and Germans settled mostly in the mountainous areas ( Nova Friburgo , Petrópolis , etc.) and in
40222-408: The presence of 116 delegates from 64 entities from various parts of the country. At this congress, as a symptom of the adaptation to the new post-war Brazilian industry framework, a resolution was approved that prioritized the creation of unions by industry, to the detriment of organization by trades. Many of the decisions of previous Congresses, of 1906 and 1913, were reiterated, such as the adoption of
40460-402: The presence of religious diversity in the demographic profile of the state. The state of Rio de Janeiro has the 4th best education in Brazil, second only to the Federal District , São Paulo and Goiás . The state has the fourth lowest illiteracy rate in Brazil, about 4% of its population. The illiteracy rate in the state is compared to countries like Singapore, Portugal, and China. Most of
40698-479: The presidency between them for many years. The system consolidated the state oligarchies around families that had been members of the old monarchical elite. And to check the nationalizing tendencies of the army, this oligarchic republic and its state components strengthened the navy and the state police. In the larger states, the state police were soon turned into small armies. The Head of the Brazilian army ordered that it would doubled so they could defend them. Around
40936-424: The presidential refusal, João Gonçalves and FORJ, who remained in permanent session during the events, declared that the workers did not consider themselves humble. The main labor unrest of 1917 occurred in the city of São Paulo. On June 10, the weavers of the Cotonificio Rodolfo Crespi [ pt ] , owned by Commander Rodolfo Crespi [ pt ] , located in the industrial district of Mooca , in
41174-416: The principles of 1906, based on direct action against capitalism, freedom of association, federalism and the religious and political neutrality of the unions. A complementary motion by the anarchist José Borobio tried to contemplate the complaints of his fellow Santos, trying to make it clear that, within the unions, a "wide exposition and discussion of all political and philosophical ideas" among its affiliates
41412-524: The publication of a booklet, having little or no practical results in terms of national articulation, of building a new central or workers' party. On the contrary, the disclosure of their preparations motivated anarchists to foster a re-articulation with the union movement and the definition of new directions to combat cooperatives. The FORJ, practically inactive since 1910, was invigorated by a meeting of several union leaders in May 1912 and, in early October, brought together worker leaders from Rio de Janeiro with
41650-452: The purpose of reactivating the COB, preparing a Reorganizing Commission. The Commission declared, in January 1913, the reconstitution of the COB, whose direction included Rosendo dos Santos as general secretary, and João Leuenroth as treasurer. The newspaper A Voz do Trabalhador was also reactivated. It was up to COB to organize the campaign against the expulsion law, which, in addition to promoting rallies in several Brazilian cities, triggered
41888-593: The railroad workers and miners of the three southern states from the country. The collusion was denounced by spies of the Chief of Police, Carneiro da Fontoura. As a result, several Army and Navy officers were arrested. In search of evidence against the suspected military, the police raided the home of oppositionist Evaristo Dias, arresting him and confiscating his books and papers, which were not returned to him. Other prisoners in Rio de Janeiro were Luís Peres, Octávio Brandão, José Gonçalves, Antônio de Oliveira, Pedro Maurini, Vicente Llorca, Silvano Borges and Joaquim Silva. When
42126-410: The recommendations of the Third International, the Communists insisted on a united front policy, establishing an alliance with the CSCB cooperatives, established in 1923 and lasting until 1925, in order to combat the influence of anarchism in the unions. It also oversaw the creation of organized communist factions, which formed oppositions in the unions under the control of anarchists, and which, even in
42364-450: The reformist trade unionists, incorporating the reformist leader Sarandy Raposo, founder of the Brazilian Cooperative Trade Union Confederation (CSCB), at the Ministry of Agriculture 's Unions and Cooperatives Propaganda Office, in addition to initiating a program for the construction of proletarian villages, interrupted in 1914. However, Hermes da Fonseca also supported a hardening of the Adolfo Gordo Law. In August 1912, some unions started
42602-420: The refugees of the Paris Commune , bringing communist and anarchist ideas. Because of those ideas, problems for the very conservative regime of large estate owners emerged. Further on, masses of industrial workers became unhappy with the status quo and began engaging in massive protests, mostly in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro . After a General Strike in 1917 , the government attempted to brutally repress
42840-439: The region soon benefited from urban reforms to house the Portuguese. Chief among the promoted changes were the transformation of agencies of public administration and justice, the creation of new churches and hospitals, the foundation of the first bank of the country (the Bank of Brazil ) and the Royal Press, with the Gazette do Rio of Janeiro. The following years witnessed the creation of the Jardim Botânico (Botanical Garden) and
43078-435: The relocation of the federal capital to Brasília in 1960, the city of Rio de Janeiro became Guanabara State . Niterói remained the state capital for Rio de Janeiro state, while Rio de Janeiro served the same status for Guanabara. In 1975, a further change took place, with the merger of the states of Rio de Janeiro and the state of Guanabara, restoring the then city-state to the status of a municipality, governed by mayors. In
43316-456: The repression promoted by the government of Artur Bernardes . Revolutionary syndicalism went into crisis during Getúlio Vargas ' government, when the unions started to come under the control of the State, resulting in the decline of anarchism, now without spaces for social insertion. Between 1946 and 1964, anarchists concentrated their efforts on building an anarchist political organization and on cultural actions, while maintaining initiatives in
43554-407: The request, but the strikers still got back to work. In 1918 there was a certain cooling of the strike movements, but localized strikes continued and, above all, the effort to expand and consolidate the workers' organizations started in the previous year. Repression and the impact of the Russian Revolution brought to militants new questions about the actions to be taken to advance the intensity that
43792-462: The respective agricultural products of the two states. The Brazilian republic was not an ideological offspring of the republics born of the French or American Revolutions , although the Brazilian regime would attempt to associate itself with both. The republic did not have enough popular support to risk open elections. It was a regime born of a coup d'état that maintained itself by force. The republicans made Deodoro president (1889–91) and, after
44030-401: The resumption of industrial activity led the labor movement to an accelerated process of reorganization in disarticulated resistance societies during the crisis, resulting in a strike wave starting in 1917. In January 1917, the FORJ promoted a Central Committee of Agitation and Propaganda Against the Excess and the Tax Increase. The increase in the cost of living was the theme of the speeches of
44268-515: The resumption of industrial activity was short-lived, and the cycle of economic crisis was resumed with the decrease in production and the consequent increase in unemployment, worsening with the outbreak of World War I in August 1914. With the outbreak of war, anarchists became involved in the anti-militarist struggle. In March 1915, FORJ created a Popular Commission for Agitation Against War. In São Paulo, labor leaders and directors of proletarian newspapers organized an International Commission Against
44506-448: The retired general Isidoro Dias Lopes led a revolt in São Paulo , in a movement that had the support of the state public force, commanded by Major Miguel Costa [ pt ] . On July 8, the rebels forced the governor Carlos de Campos and the loyalist troops to flee the capital. Isidoro supplied weapons and incorporated a large number of foreign workers into his forces, especially those most experienced in European theater during
44744-400: The service sector. Anarchist proposals codified their revolutionary syndicalism into the labor movement, as unions participating in the congress signed common resolutions on union neutrality, federalism, decentralization, direct action, and the general strike . This revolutionary syndicalism program let various political and religious positions coexist, unified in the economic struggle common to
44982-478: The short term; however, coffee demand plunged even more precipitously during the Great Depression , creating a decline too steep for valorization to reverse. Paradoxically, economic crisis spurred industrialization and a resultant boost to the urban middle and working classes. The depressed coffee sector freed up the capital and labor needed for manufacturing finished goods. A chronically adverse balance of trade and declining rate of exchange against foreign currencies
45220-462: The social, economic, and political power held by the Brazilian elite. This course of conduct would extend throughout the 20th century, an isolationist foreign policy interspersed with sporadic automatic alignments against "disturbing elements of peace and international trade". Ruy Barbosa was the main opposition leader, campaigning for internal political changes. He also stated that, due to the natural conflict between Brazilian commercial interests and
45458-532: The start of the 20th century, the vast majority of the population lived in communities that were essentially semi-feudal in structure, though accumulating capitalist surpluses for overseas export. Because of the legacy of Ibero-American slavery , abolished as late as 1888 in Brazil, there was an extreme concentration of such landownership reminiscent of feudal aristocracies: 464 great landowners held more than 270,000 km of land ( latifúndios ), while 464,000 small and medium-sized farms occupied only 157,000 km . After
45696-400: The state is represented by Mimosa , the beta star in the Southern Cross (β Cru). The original demonym for the State of Rio de Janeiro is fluminense , from Latin flumen, fluminis , meaning "river". While carioca (from Old Tupi ) is an older term, first attested in 1502, fluminense was sanctioned in 1783, twenty years after the city had become the capital of the Brazilian colonies, as
45934-422: The state's leading universities are public. The most prestigious university is the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro , regarded as the best Federal university in Brazil , and fifth best in Latin America according to the QS World University Rankings . Some other well-known colleges, and universities in the state: Much of the economy of the state of Rio de Janeiro is based on the provision of services, with
46172-441: The state's mountainous interior and connects Rio de Janeiro to the northeastern region of Brazil. The BR-040 connects Rio to Minas Gerais and its capital Belo Horizonte . Also of note is the Metropolitan Arc , which surrounds the capital with the aim of removing unnecessary traffic from this area, and which is in the process of being fully completed, with only 23 km of duplication of an old existing section missing. Recently,
46410-402: The state. Combined with the incitement to favelas, where Brizola said for example that "the favela is not a problem, the favela is a solution", the capital has deteriorated in a few decades, dragging down the State. The state still maintains itself as the largest oil producer in Brazil (80% of the total), where royalties and special participations brought the state 4.2 billion reais in 2014, when
46648-400: The state. The Brazilian census of 1920 showed that 39,74% of the Portuguese who lived in Brazil lived in Rio de Janeiro. Including all of the Rio de Janeiro, the proportion raised to 46,30% of the Portuguese who lived in Brazil. The numerical presence of the Portuguese was extremely high, accounting for 72% of the foreigners who lived in the capital. Portuguese born people accounted for 20,36% of
46886-414: The station and refused to evacuate it; in the shooting that took place, four strikers died and several were injured. The strike ended on April 5 with the arrest and deportation of workers involved in the conflicts. At the same time, a general strike initiated by FOSP in conjunction with the strike in Mogiana also ended in failure, ending on April 6 and with its leaders acknowledging "the unrest has not reached
47124-417: The strike caused a confrontation between the strikers, supported by popular people, and the police. The fact ended up sensitizing sectors of the army in favor of the strikers, and the 58th Battalion of Hunters became involved in the struggle with the workers. On August 9, Cantareira rail workers proposed to end the strike, provided seafarers from the same company were granted a wage increase. The company declined
47362-462: The strike, and to "improve the moral, material and economic conditions of the São Paulo workforce". The delegates of the Proletarian Defense Committee decided to accept the concessions of the industrialists, provided that the government "backed" them with certain measures considered indispensable, such as the release of the workers arrested during the strike and the recognition of the right of assembly. The general strike in São Paulo had repercussions on
47600-415: The students of the Faculty of Law of Recife, entered the scene. The result of these negotiations was the end of the strike, with no gains for the workers, on September 15. In the same period, strikes also occurred in Paraná, Bahia and Pará. In Paraná, the anarchists of Curitiba used explosives during the strikes, even preventing the supply of the city, knocking down telephone poles and controlling access to
47838-421: The subsequent decades. The middle class was not yet active in political life. The patron-client political machines of the countryside enabled the coffee oligarchs to dominate state structures to their advantage, particularly the weak central state structures that effectively devolved power to local agrarian oligarchies. Known as coronelismo , this was a classic boss system under which the control of patronage
48076-540: The subsequent years. With the rise of the labor movement, the First Brazilian Workers' Congress was held in April 1906 in Rio de Janeiro's Centro Galego. At first, only socialists could participate, with "revolutionary elements ... prohibited". The anarchists, however, were present among the 43 delegates, including Edgard Leuenroth , Joaquim Mota Assunção, Luiz Magrassi, and Alfredo Vasques. They represented 28 associations—mainly industrial branches but also other industry: railroads, warehouses, coffee shops, stevedores , and
48314-452: The technologically and economically superior North Atlantic diminished its domestic industrial base. Farm equipment was primitive and largely non-mechanized; peasants tilled the land with hoes and cleared the soil through the inefficient slash-and-burn method. Meanwhile, living standards were generally squalid. Malnutrition, parasitic diseases, and a lack of medical facilities limited the average life span in 1920 to twenty-eight years. Because of
48552-447: The trade unions. With the 1964 coup d'état , anarchist activity became even more limited due to repression. Despite this, there was a certain anarchist performance in the student movement of the period. In 1977, during the process of redemocratization , libertarians resumed their periodic press, starting a process of rearticulating anarchism in Brazil. Beginning in the 1990s, the process of reorganizing anarchism in Brazil culminated in
48790-414: The traditional alternation between Minas Gerais and São Paulo. Vargas campaigned carefully, needing to please a large range of supporters. He used populist rhetoric and promoted bourgeois concerns. He opposed the primacy of São Paulo, but did not challenge the planters' legitimacy and kept his calls for social reform moderate. The election itself was plagued by corruption and denounced by both sides: when
49028-531: The traffic of its vehicles, at the same time that the great number of depredations forced the closing of the trade. On July 13, Tirso Martins distributed two newsletters, the first prohibiting meetings in the squares and on the streets; the second advising the people not to leave their homes at night, making it known that "the police are acting with all their energy against the rioters and the anarchists who have been attacking public order for days". The Secretary of Justice Elói Chaves [ pt ] , presiding on
49266-408: The treatment given to the strikes of the Leopoldina Railway in Rio de Janeiro and the Companhia de Estradas de Mogiana in São Paulo. The strike by Leopoldina, which started on March 15, 1920, after the refusal of company leaders to negotiate the workers' claims, counted on the solidarity of workers organized in the Federation of Workers of Rio de Janeiro (FTRJ - successor to the UGT and heir to FORJ) and
49504-626: The union could have a number of no less than 25 members. Where there was not a sufficient number of members by industry or profession, it was recommended to form various trade unions, covering manual and intellectual workers. The Santos Local Workers Federation (FOLS) that was leading the adoption of anarchist propaganda within the unions associated with the COB took up a good part of the congress, being contested by several militants. Joaquim Santos Barboza, from FORJ, pointed out that anarchism should be accepted and never imposed, otherwise it would not be anarchism. Most of those present then decided to endorse
49742-399: The upper class. Thanks to their success in this area, the Army's prestige managed to eclipse even other military institutions, like the Navy and the National Guard. The Navy's attempts to prevent such hegemony were defeated militarily during the early 1890s. Although it had more units and men in Rio de Janeiro and Rio Grande do Sul than elsewhere, the Army's presence was felt throughout
49980-412: The urban center. Although the movement was partially successful, many workers involved in the strike were arrested or deported. The second half of 1917 was marked by a repressive wave, especially in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, where several workers' associations were closed. Brazil's entry into the war in October further restricted the scope for action by the workers' movement. With the FORJ ban, closed by
50218-408: The urban proletariat alike had earlier enjoyed the respite of world trade associated with World War I . However, the coffee oligarchs, relying on the decentralized power structure to delegate power to their own patrimonial ruling oligarchies, were uninterested in regularizing Brazil's personalistic politics or centralizing power. Getúlio Vargas , leader from 1930 to 1945 and later for a brief period in
50456-401: The urban worker classes. Therefore, Brazil remained neutral in World War I until 1917. However, as denunciations of corruption exacerbated internal problems in the state, President Venceslau Brás began feeling the need to divert public attention from his government; this goal could be accomplished by focusing on an external enemy and thus stoking a sense of unity and patriotism. During 1917,
50694-446: The victory of Prestes with 57,7% of votes was declared, Vargas and the Liberal Alliance refused to concede defeat, sparking tensions in the country. On July 26, 1930, vice-presidential candidate João Pessoa of the Liberal Alliance was assassinated in Recife , sparking the beginning of the Brazilian Revolution . The 1930 revolution began in Rio Grande do Sul on October 3 at 5:25pm. Osvaldo Aranha telegraphed Juarez Távora to communicate
50932-418: The war in Europe helped to bring about, in 1916, a recovery of industrial production. As imported products stopped reaching Brazilian ports, national industries returned to employing workers to meet growing demand. However, there was a considerable increase in the cost of living, given that several products were exported to countries in conflict. In 1915, the prices of rice, sugar and corn increased significantly;
51170-404: The war, and the number of enterprises (which stood at about 3,000 in 1908) grew by 5,940 between 1915 and 1918. The war was also a stimulus for the diversification of agriculture. Growing wartime demand of the Allies for staple products— for instance, sugar , beans , and raw materials — sparked a new boom for products other than sugar or coffee . Foreign interests, however, continued to control
51408-694: The workers they represented. The Congress also created the Brazilian Workers' Confederation ( Portuguese : Confederação Operária Brasileira , COB), founded in 1908, and its official press organ, A Voz do Trabalhador . For the 1906 May Day, workers attended public rallies for the eight-hour work day and speakers paid tribute to the thousands of Russian revolutionaries victimized by the tsarist government. Anarchist speakers included Oreste Ristori [ pt ] in Santos, Everardo Dias in Campinas , and Leuenroth in Jundiaí . Workers continued to strike and win working hours reductions across Brazil. Strikes led to federal decrees for unions to legally represent
51646-461: The workers' right to organize and express themselves and lower prices for staple goods. As the days went by, most of the industry workers joined the movement, with an estimated 20,000 walled workers on May 4. In its May 10 issue, the newspaper A Plebe pointed out the strike was a spontaneous movement that should not be attributed to the speeches of May 1. Even with strong repression, the movement continued until favorable agreements were reached, with
51884-431: The working class, acquire property, and establish assistance funds for their members. The 1907 Adolfo Gordo Law authorized state expulsion of foreigners who posed a risk to "national security or public tranquility", including anarchist militants, and was widely used in its first year. In March 1908, in Rio de Janeiro, two years after the First Brazilian Workers' Congress was held, the Brazilian Workers' Confederation (COB)
52122-443: Was a decline in strike activity, in the context of increasing repression and the deterioration of the economy with the end of the growth cycle. As a result, the first phase of the COB only lasted until December 1909, when the twenty-first issue of A Voz do Trabalhador came out, which then closed its doors. However, the COB promoted, during this period, a series of rallies against a possible war between Brazil and Argentina and against
52360-404: Was a spy, and he reported all the details of the conspiracy to the authorities. The goal was to bring a large contingent of workers to the Campo de São Cristovão [ pt ] and to wait for the arrival of the soldiers who would show solidarity with the workers; when this happened, the workers could take over the War Arsenal, dynamite the energy towers of the Federal Capital and proceed to
52598-481: Was adopted, and all powers not granted in the Constitution to the Federal Government belonged to the States. It recognized that the central government did not rule at the local level. The Empire of Brazil had not absorbed fully the regional provinces, and now they reasserted themselves. Into the 1920s, the federal government in Rio de Janeiro was dominated and managed by a combination of the more powerful states of São Paulo , Minas Gerais , Rio Grande do Sul , and to
52836-438: Was also helpful; Brazilian goods were simply cheaper in the Brazilian market. The state of São Paulo , with its relatively large capital base, large immigrant population from Southern and Eastern Europe, and wealth of natural resources, led the trend, eclipsing Rio de Janeiro as the center of Brazilian industry. Industrial production, though concentrated in light industry (food processing, small shops, and textiles) doubled during
53074-453: Was also preparing for war. The formation of the operary class takes it's place at the end of 19th century, and it was related with the ongoing changes caused by the expansion of the coffee economy. Because of that expansion, the "progress" of the capitalist economy sufficed the conditions for the establishment of a nucleus of service and fabril workers at São Paulo . Beyond that, many immigrants from Europe had arrived, and between them were
53312-401: Was called the "politics of the governors". Under it, the local oligarchies chose the state governors, who in turn selected the president. This informal but real distribution of power emerged, the so-called politics of the governors, to take shape as the result of armed struggles and bargaining. The populous and prosperous states of Minas Gerais and São Paulo dominated the system and swapped
53550-504: Was centralized in the hands of a locally dominant oligarch known as a coronel, who would dispense favors in return for loyalty. Thus, high illiteracy rates went hand in hand with the absence of universal suffrage by secret ballot and the demand for a free press, independent from the then dominant economic influence. In regions where there was not even the telegraph , far from major centers, the news could take 4 to 6 weeks longer to arrive. In those circumstances, for lack of alternatives, along
53788-418: Was convened in 1934, following the failed Constitutionalist Revolution of 1932 : the Assembly enacted a new Constitution and elected Vargas as new President of Brazil, starting the Second Brazilian Republic . Rio de Janeiro (state) The state of Rio de Janeiro is located within the Brazilian geopolitical region classified as the Southeast (assigned by IBGE ). Rio de Janeiro shares borders with all
54026-424: Was created, with the objective of guiding the strike, formed by the militants Gigi Damiani [ pt ] , of the libertarian periodical Guerra Sociale , Teodoro Monicelli, of the socialist paper Avanti! , and Edgard Leuenroth, secretary of the Committee and who had started on June 8 the publication of the weekly A Plebe , which would become one of the most important Brazilian anarchist periodicals. With
54264-422: Was founded, which proposed to represent around 50 workers' associations. In accordance with its constitution, the COB began to publish the periodical A Voz do Trabalhador in Rio de Janeiro, whose first issue appeared at the beginning of the year. From the beginning, the COB campaigned against the Sortition Law , approved in January of that year, which instituted compulsory military service. From 1908 onwards, there
54502-409: Was held in Rio de Janeiro, from June 21 to 23, at the Cosmopolitan Center. Hundreds of people followed the development of the work conducted by 22 delegates, representing groups from the Federal District and the states of Alagoas , Minas Gerais , Paraíba , Pernambuco, Rio Grande do Sul and São Paulo. Of these 22 delegates, three were women. The program of the Libertarian Communist Party, defined during
54740-429: Was joined by bakers, carters and workers from the telephone company. On the 6th, a bomb was thrown at the Company, which operated through an engineer and three navy stokers. The police banned a rally planned by the strikers for the next day, in Montevideo Square [ pt ] . However, the FORGS lawyer consulted the Federal Constitution and deemed the rally legal. When the number of those present rose to about 500,
54978-449: Was necessary to establish a popular government, as had been done in Russia. The insurrectional plans were thwarted when Ricardo Correia Perpétuo, a member of the board in charge of distributing seditious newsletters among the soldiers stationed in Vila Militar, invited Army lieutenant Jorge Elias Ajus to participate in the movement, since he was in favor of the implantation of an "entirely popular" form of government in Brazil. However, Ajus
55216-414: Was nominal. In reality, the elections were rigged, voters in rural areas were pressured or induced to vote for the chosen candidates of their bosses (see coronelismo ) and, if all those methods did not work, the election results could still be changed by one sided decisions of Congress' verification of powers commission (election authorities in the República Velha were not independent from the executive and
55454-399: Was one reason the Empire's legitimacy foundered, but the Republic did not move to correct the situation. By 1910 there were only 627,000 voters in a population of 22 million. Throughout the 1920s, only between 2.3% and 3.4% of the total population could vote. The instability and violence of the 1890s were related to the absence of consensus among the elites regarding a governmental model, as
55692-467: Was possible and desirable. This controversy had been preceded by a debate held in the pages of A Voz do Trabalhador between Neno Vasco and João Crispim shortly before the realization of the congress. While the first advocated union neutrality as a means of bringing together the greatest possible number of workers, the second argued that, for the union to assume a truly combative character, it should declare itself openly anarchist. The period that preceded
55930-405: Was significant in the textile and clothing sectors, reaching a majority in some places. The weight of women's work was always underrepresented in workers' organizations. In this sense, Brazilian anarchists took some initiatives to create "female nuclei", such as the Group for Female Emancipation in Rio de Janeiro. The seamstress unions, which emerged in 1919 in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, were among
56168-439: Was the first duplicate highway in the country, in 1967. The section of the BR-101 is the one that connects the capital to the border with Espírito Santo , passing through important towns such as Niterói , bordering Cabo Frio and Búzios , then Macaé and finally Campos dos Goytacazes . The section between Rio Bonito and Campos, bidding to have its 176 km duplicated, already has 126 km doubled. BR-116 passes through
56406-447: Was the third largest private iron ore terminal in Brazil, where it is responsible for 30% of the country's oil exports. In addition, in 2023, it was building the largest thermoelectric park in Latin America, and it houses the largest offshore support base in the world. The sport that stands out the most in the state is football . The three main football clubs in Rio de Janeiro are Botafogo , Fluminense and Vasco da Gama . The state
56644-403: Was the turning point for the dynamic urban sectors. Wartime conditions prevented Britain from exporting goods to Brazil, thus creating space for Brazil's domestic manufacturing sector to grow. These structural shifts in the Brazilian economy helped to increase the ranks of the new urban middle classes. Meanwhile, Brazil's manufacturers and those employed by them enjoyed these gains at the expense of
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