113-568: The National Radical Camp ( Polish : Obóz Narodowo-Radykalny, ONR ) was an ultranationalist and antisemitic political movement which existed in the pre- World War II Second Polish Republic , and an illegal Polish anti-communist , and nationalist political party formed on 14 April 1934 mostly by the youth radicals who left the National Party of the National Democracy movement. Shortly after its creation ONR split into two branches:
226-927: A "national state," based on the principles of hierarchy, one-person leadership, and elimination of national minorities from public life. The second faction of the ONR - known as the Rossmanists or "ABC" group - was an avatar of the closely clandestine four-tier Polish Organization (OP). Its leadership included Henryk Rossman , Antoni Goerne, Mieczysław Harusewicz, Aleksander Heinrich, Jan Jodzewicz, Jan Korolec, Witold Kozłowski, Jerzy Kurcyusz, Wiktor Martini, Wincenty Mianowski, Witold Rościszewski, Tadeusz Salski, Włodzimierz Sylwestrowicz and Tadeusz Todtleben. The underground ONR operated through cells ("fives") aggregated according to territorial (district, provincial groups) and environmental criteria (Youth Territory, Medical, Legal, Workers, Merchants and Craftsmen, and others). The group's legal front
339-499: A / (spelled a ), / ɔ / (spelled o ) and / u / (spelled u and ó as separate letters). The nasal vowels are / ɛ w̃ / (spelled ę ) and / ɔ w̃ / (spelled ą ). Unlike Czech or Slovak, Polish does not retain phonemic vowel length — the letter ó , which formerly represented lengthened /ɔː/ in older forms of the language, is now vestigial and instead corresponds to /u/. The Polish consonant system shows more complexity: its characteristic features include
452-759: A dialect of Polish. Many Silesians consider themselves a separate ethnicity and have been advocating for the recognition of Silesian as a regional language in Poland . The law recognizing it as such was passed by the Sejm and Senate in April 2024, but has been vetoed by President Andrzej Duda in late May of 2024. According to the last official census in Poland in 2011, over half a million people declared Silesian as their native language. Many sociolinguists (e.g. Tomasz Kamusella , Agnieszka Pianka, Alfred F. Majewicz, Tomasz Wicherkiewicz ) assume that extralinguistic criteria decide whether
565-409: A different social status. […] We, often twenty years younger, did not want compromises. We wanted […] to move forward unfettered by anything” . Wilhelm Szewczyk expressed this difference even more emphatically: “ The ABC was more stable in its beliefs and methods, small and quiet. More mature people united here […]. The “Falanga” had a younger, explosive, often anarchist element. […] each of its members
678-656: A few culturally and linguistically related tribes from the basins of the Vistula and Oder before eventually accepting baptism in 966. With Western Christianity , Poland also adopted the Latin alphabet , which made it possible to write down Polish, which until then had existed only as a spoken language . The closest relatives of Polish are the Elbe and Baltic Sea Lechitic dialects ( Polabian and Pomeranian varieties). All of them, except Kashubian , are extinct. The precursor to modern Polish
791-480: A kind of national equivalent of the left. The ONR did not, however, seek models in the socialist movement, or even less so in the communist movement – on the contrary, it was characterised by uncompromising hostility towards Marxists . The point of reference, however, was Piłsudski’s legacy. National radicals were fascinated by the legend of the Legions’ deeds, which they camouflaged under the slogans of cooperation with
904-511: A large number of branches in all of these areas) offers services available in Polish at all of their cash machines in addition to English and Spanish . According to the 2011 census there are now over 500,000 people in England and Wales who consider Polish to be their "main" language. In Canada , there is a significant Polish Canadian population : There are 242,885 speakers of Polish according to
1017-533: A lect is an independent language or a dialect: speakers of the speech variety or/and political decisions, and this is dynamic (i.e. it changes over time). Also, research organizations such as SIL International and resources for the academic field of linguistics such as Ethnologue , Linguist List and others, for example the Ministry of Administration and Digitization recognized the Silesian language. In July 2007,
1130-454: A nasal consonant, rather than a nasal vowel. For example, ą in dąb ("oak") is pronounced [ɔm] , and ę in tęcza ("rainbow") is pronounced [ɛn] (the nasal assimilates to the following consonant). When followed by l or ł (for example przyjęli , przyjęły ), ę is pronounced as just e . When ę is at the end of the word it is often pronounced as just [ɛ] . Depending on
1243-402: A reversed diacritic hook called an ogonek . Polish is a synthetic and fusional language which has seven grammatical cases . It has fixed penultimate stress and an abundance of palatal consonants . Contemporary Polish developed in the 1700s as the successor to the medieval Old Polish (10th–16th centuries) and Middle Polish (16th–18th centuries). Among the major languages, it
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#17330852687781356-535: A series of gestures, such as the conciliatory leaflet "In view of the Wilno events!" or government support during the Lithuanian and Czechoslovak crises. In 1938, the leaders of the group (Alexander Heinrich, Jan Jodzewicz and Jerzy Kurcyusz) went on a visit to Marshal Śmigły-Rydz. In June of the following year, J. Jodzewicz made an offer to cooperate with the government without any preconditions. ONR "ABC" did not boycott
1469-491: A single word. This applies in particular to many combinations of preposition plus a personal pronoun, such as do niej ('to her'), na nas ('on us'), prze ze mnie ('because of me'), all stressed on the bolded syllable. The Polish alphabet derives from the Latin script but includes certain additional letters formed using diacritics . The Polish alphabet was one of three major forms of Latin-based orthography developed for Western and some South Slavic languages,
1582-405: A verse by Jan Brzechwa ) is W Szczebrzeszynie chrząszcz brzmi w trzcinie [fʂt͡ʂɛbʐɛˈʂɨɲɛ ˈxʂɔw̃ʂt͡ʂ ˈbʐmi fˈtʂt͡ɕiɲɛ] ('In Szczebrzeszyn a beetle buzzes in the reed'). Unlike languages such as Czech, Polish does not have syllabic consonants – the nucleus of a syllable is always a vowel. The consonant /j/ is restricted to positions adjacent to a vowel. It also cannot precede
1695-478: A vowel when it precedes another vowel (it represents /j/ , palatalization of the preceding consonant, or both depending on analysis). Also the letters u and i sometimes represent only semivowels when they follow another vowel, as in autor /ˈawtɔr/ ('author'), mostly in loanwords (so not in native nauka /naˈu.ka/ 'science, the act of learning', for example, nor in nativized Mateusz /maˈte.uʂ/ 'Matthew'). Some loanwords , particularly from
1808-684: Is a West Slavic language of the Lechitic group within the Indo-European language family written in the Latin script . It is primarily spoken in Poland and serves as the official language of the country, as well as the language of the Polish diaspora around the world. In 2024, there were over 39.7 million Polish native speakers. It ranks as the sixth most-spoken among languages of the European Union . Polish
1921-409: Is almost non-existent". It is easy to find examples of both criticism and enthusiasm for fascism in national-radical journalism. National radicals were clearly fascinated by Italian fascism and German Nazism and other related movements, looking at them with jealous admiration. The fascination was visible in adopting external forms: uniforms, greetings, stylized symbolism. Kajetan H. Stolarski wrote in
2034-419: Is also spoken as a second language in eastern Germany , northern Czech Republic and Slovakia , western parts of Belarus and Ukraine as well as in southeast Lithuania and Latvia . Because of the emigration from Poland during different time periods, most notably after World War II , millions of Polish speakers can also be found in countries such as Canada , Argentina , Brazil , Israel , Australia ,
2147-427: Is most closely related to Slovak and Czech but differs in terms of pronunciation and general grammar. Additionally, Polish was profoundly influenced by Latin and other Romance languages like Italian and French as well as Germanic languages (most notably German ), which contributed to a large number of loanwords and similar grammatical structures. Extensive usage of nonstandard dialects has also shaped
2260-447: Is possible to say ko goście zoba czy li? – here kogo retains its usual stress (first syllable) in spite of the attachment of the clitic. Reanalysis of the endings as inflections when attached to verbs causes the different colloquial stress patterns. These stress patterns are considered part of a "usable" norm of standard Polish - in contrast to the "model" ("high") norm. Some common word combinations are stressed as if they were
2373-595: Is subdivided into regional dialects and maintains strict T–V distinction pronouns, honorifics , and various forms of formalities when addressing individuals. The traditional 32-letter Polish alphabet has nine additions ( ą , ć , ę , ł , ń , ó , ś , ź , ż ) to the letters of the basic 26-letter Latin alphabet , while removing three (x, q, v). Those three letters are at times included in an extended 35-letter alphabet. The traditional set comprises 23 consonants and 9 written vowels , including two nasal vowels ( ę , ą ) defined by
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#17330852687782486-512: Is the Old Polish language . Ultimately, Polish descends from the unattested Proto-Slavic language. The Book of Henryków (Polish: Księga henrykowska , Latin : Liber fundationis claustri Sanctae Mariae Virginis in Heinrichau ), contains the earliest known sentence written in the Polish language: Day, ut ia pobrusa, a ti poziwai (in modern orthography: Daj, uć ja pobrusza, a ti pocziwaj ;
2599-518: Is the most widely-used minority language in Lithuania's Vilnius County , by 26% of the population, according to the 2001 census results, as Vilnius was part of Poland from 1922 until 1939. Polish is found elsewhere in southeastern Lithuania. In Ukraine, it is most common in the western parts of Lviv and Volyn Oblasts , while in West Belarus it is used by the significant Polish minority, especially in
2712-430: The kropka (superior dot) over the letter ż , and the ogonek ("little tail") under the letters ą, ę . The letters q, v, x are used only in foreign words and names. Polish orthography is largely phonemic —there is a consistent correspondence between letters (or digraphs and trigraphs ) and phonemes (for exceptions see below). The letters of the alphabet and their normal phonemic values are listed in
2825-401: The ś in święty ("holy") all represent the sound / ɕ / . The exceptions to the above rule are certain loanwords from Latin, Italian, French, Russian or English—where s before i is pronounced as s , e.g. sinus , sinologia , do re mi fa sol la si do , Saint-Simon i saint-simoniści , Sierioża , Siergiej , Singapur , singiel . In other loanwords
2938-568: The Auschwitz concentration camp . Mosdorf was born in Warsaw . He associated himself with the National Democratic movement (founded by Roman Dmowski ) some time in 1926. Two years later, he completed his philosophy studies, earning an M.A. degree (later, he also earned a PhD in philosophy, writing about works of Auguste Comte , under supervision of Prof. Władysław Tatarkiewicz ). As a student, he
3051-579: The Brest and Grodno regions and in areas along the Lithuanian border. There are significant numbers of Polish speakers among Polish emigrants and their descendants in many other countries. In the United States , Polish Americans number more than 11 million but most of them cannot speak Polish fluently. According to the 2000 United States Census , 667,414 Americans of age five years and over reported Polish as
3164-499: The National Radical Movement "Falanga" ( Polish : Ruch Narodowo Radykalny-Falanga ; RNR "Falanga" or ONR "Falanga" ), and National Radical Camp "ABC" ( Polish : Obóz Narodowo-Radykalny ABC ; ONR "ABC" ). "Falanga" is Polish for " phalanx ", a reference to Falangism , and "ABC" refers to a newspaper printed by the organisation at the time. Since 1993, a organization has existed in Poland, which has adopted
3277-559: The Polish September Campaign , he returned to the underground National Party . He was one of leaders of the party, and he helped with the creation of the anti-Nazi paramilitary units known as Narodowa Organizacja Wojskowa . In July 1940, Mosdorf was arrested and placed in Gestapo 's infamous Pawiak prison. On 6 January 1941, he was sent to Auschwitz. While there, Mosdorf met his friend from ONR, Bolesław Świderski , whose support
3390-647: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 's influence gave Polish the status of lingua franca in Central and Eastern Europe . The process of standardization began in the 14th century and solidified in the 16th century during the Middle Polish era. Standard Polish was based on various dialectal features, with the Greater Poland dialect group serving as the base. After World War II , Standard Polish became
3503-569: The Rossmanists , the theoretical organ remained the "Nowy Ład" monthly. Periodicals were also published: "Alma Mater," "Goniec Warszawski," "Jutro" and the Łowicz "Polska Narodowa" (formerly associated with the SN). Conspiratorial publications included "Sztafeta", "Sztafeta Podlaska", "Bojowiec", "Miecz Wielkopolski" and "O.N.R.-owiec." Krzysztof Kawęcki notes that ONR "ABC" developed mainly in Warsaw and Poznań. Marek Windyga went so far as to say that "the history of
National Radical Camp - Misplaced Pages Continue
3616-449: The SN made agreement with this ideologically closest camp impossible. Although the considered itself the heir to the national-democratic heritage, it did not intend to be its slave. Merciless criticism was levied against the "managers of the old political parties," hindering the unification of the nation, the unprogrammability of National Democracy and its tactics of sterile opposition, and finally
3729-511: The United Kingdom and the United States . Polish began to emerge as a distinct language around the 10th century, the process largely triggered by the establishment and development of the Polish state. At the time, it was a collection of dialect groups with some mutual features, but much regional variation was present. Mieszko I , ruler of the Polans tribe from the Greater Poland region, united
3842-672: The Związek Jaszczurczy ( Lizard Union ), while the RNR "Falanga" created the Confederation of the Nation . They were not supportive of the mainstream Polish Underground State related to the Polish government in exile . During the German occupation of Poland , many of the former ONR activists belonged to National Armed Forces resistance groups. After World War II, the forced exile of many ONR members
3955-680: The and the Sanation, however, diverged. While at the beginning of November 1937 the publicists of "O.N.R.-owiec" believed that the Koc faction was gravitating toward nationalism, just two weeks later they condemned Koc (as a "party man"), the ZMP ("a symbol of perfidious gamesmanship") and the OZN ("attempts to save Sanation"). After OZN's break with the Falanga, the again revived the idea of compromise with sanation, as documented by
4068-474: The classical languages , have the stress on the antepenultimate (third-from-last) syllable. For example, fizyka ( /ˈfizɨka/ ) ('physics') is stressed on the first syllable. This may lead to a rare phenomenon of minimal pairs differing only in stress placement, for example muzyka /ˈmuzɨka/ 'music' vs. muzyka /muˈzɨka/ – genitive singular of muzyk 'musician'. When additional syllables are added to such words through inflection or suffixation ,
4181-569: The flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50) , as well as the expulsion of Ukrainians and Operation Vistula , the 1947 migration of Ukrainian minorities in the Recovered Territories in the west of the country, contributed to the country's linguistic homogeneity. The inhabitants of different regions of Poland still speak Polish somewhat differently, although the differences between modern-day vernacular varieties and standard Polish ( język ogólnopolski ) appear relatively slight. Most of
4294-404: The standard language ; considerable colloquialisms and expressions were directly borrowed from German or Yiddish and subsequently adopted into the vernacular of Polish which is in everyday use. Historically, Polish was a lingua franca , important both diplomatically and academically in Central and part of Eastern Europe . In addition to being the official language of Poland, Polish
4407-607: The "Eight" proposed to Roman Dmowski that "while maintaining a common confidential organization, we should establish a second party with a radical program". In July 1933 during the training camp of the "young" in Błota Karwieńskie, a split occurred: while Tadeusz Bielecki was in favor of moving to the SN Youth Section (Sekcja Młodych SN), Jan Mosdorf wanted to maintain independence and conduct underground activities. Mosdorf did not manage to push through his project. However,
4520-615: The "chad of youthful megalomania" of the Falangists were subjected to symmetrical criticism; the National-State faction (ZMN) was equally negative. As a result, the political line of the Rossmanists oscillated between the opposition of the Front Morges and Sanation . Thus, on the one hand, contacts were sought with the People's Party in order to create a "broad national consensus," while on
4633-416: The 16th century, which is also regarded as the " Golden Age of Polish literature". The orthography was modified in the 19th century and in 1936. Tomasz Kamusella notes that "Polish is the oldest, non-ecclesiastical, written Slavic language with a continuous tradition of literacy and official use, which has lasted unbroken from the 16th century to this day." Polish evolved into the main sociolect of
National Radical Camp - Misplaced Pages Continue
4746-518: The 1920s the term "radicalism" was used to describe the non-Marxist left. Jan Jodzewicz said at the All-Polish Youth congress in 1929 that the enemy were "radicals of all shades and camps". Five years later, "Szczerbiec" publicists fully annexed this concept, writing that "radicalism without anti-Semitism is no radicalism". National radicalism was therefore supposed to be a response to the enemy's challenge by partially adopting its slogans and methods -
4859-481: The 2006 census, with a particular concentration in Toronto (91,810 speakers) and Montreal . The geographical distribution of the Polish language was greatly affected by the territorial changes of Poland immediately after World War II and Polish population transfers (1944–46) . Poles settled in the " Recovered Territories " in the west and north, which had previously been mostly German -speaking. Some Poles remained in
4972-551: The Confederation was dissolved by the authorities due to de facto abandonment of its activities), as did the attempt made the following year to legalize the National-Radical Party. Representatives of the (editors of the magazines "Nowy Ład," "ABC," "Jutro") participated only in a loose agreement of young-national, national- Pilsudskiites and imperialist groups - the so-called Youth Press Committee. The fresh conflict with
5085-598: The Executive Committee of OP, as representatives of ONR, were members of the Presidium of the Provisional National Political Council; 1945-47 OP broken up by arrests, ceased activities. Polish language Polish ( endonym : język polski , [ˈjɛ̃zɘk ˈpɔlskʲi] , polszczyzna [pɔlˈʂt͡ʂɘzna] or simply polski , [ˈpɔlskʲi] )
5198-608: The Executive Committee: S. Nowicki, T. Salski; chairmen of the Political Committee: W. Brodowski, Stanisław Kasznica , K. Romer, B. Sobocinski; OP was subordinate to outside organizations, including Military Organization Lizard Union and National Armed Forces (NSZ) environmental organizations: "Crew" (workers'), Union of People's Activists. ("Zydel"), Union of Polish Advocates, Union of Reconstruction of Law, Youth of Great Poland, Wiara i Wola (women's); 1942-44 members of
5311-578: The Henryków monastery, noted that "Hoc est in polonico" ("This is in Polish"). The earliest treatise on Polish orthography was written by Jakub Parkosz [ pl ] around 1470. The first printed book in Polish appeared in either 1508 or 1513, while the oldest Polish newspaper was established in 1661. Starting in the 1520s, large numbers of books in the Polish language were published, contributing to increased homogeneity of grammar and orthography. The writing system achieved its overall form in
5424-738: The National Radical Publishing Committee of the Young was established (Witold Staniszkis, Jan Rembieliński, Jan Mosdorf). The Committee published brochures popularizing the program of the "young". Its propaganda platform was also "Sztafeta" - published since October 1933. In the autumn of 1933, representatives of the "young" from Warsaw and Lwów met at Henryk Rossman's to work out a common position - mainly making personal accusations (incompetence, passivity), they decided to demand that Dmowski remove Tadeusz Bielecki and Aleksander Dębski. Only when their conversation with Dmowski ended in failure
5537-476: The ONR "ABC" noted a decline in activity. The Polish Organization (OP) was a secret internal organization of the National-Radical Camp, established April 1934; it consisted of several levels of initiation arranged hierarchically, starting with the lowest, were as follows: The lowest level "S" (section), then "C" (Czarniecki), "Z" (Zakon Narodowy) were led by the Executive Committee (chairman W. Martini);
5650-519: The ONR in Warsaw, is to a large extent the history of the entire ONR." However, the activities of the Rossmanists were also noted in Pomerania, Silesia, Podlasie (Lomza, Siedlce), Kraków, Wilno, Łódz, Czestochowa, Lowicz, Plock, Lublin, Łuck and Równe - these centers were represented at the ONR "ABC" congress in Lwów in late January 1937. The ONR "ABC"'s numbers were not large In Warsaw, the number of Rossmanists
5763-693: The Polish version of fascism. This was not only the opinion of their left-wing opponents. Jan Rembieliński wrote that “the ONR began in a completely fascist manner: young people in light shirts, raising hands in greeting.” According to Zygmunt Wojciechowski, the ONR program was “formulated […] with the undoubted influence of Hitlerist economic doctrines.” Jerzy Drobnik recalled that in May 1934 Mosdorf and Rossmann asked him to provide Nazi political literature. While Krystyna Rogaczewska sees in national radicalism "obvious connections with national socialism", Jan Józef Lipski had to admit that "Unconditional apology for Hitlerism
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#17330852687785876-739: The Sanation - the fight against the Endecja. In this fight, both of these groups find the meaning of their existence". Meanwhile, "the concept of the right and the left is outdated, not corresponding to the actual forces that are fighting for the face of Poland: nationalism and the folk front". This sometimes led activists to conclusions that were downright shocking - Wojciech Zaleski is supposed to have said privately about Dmowski and Piłsudski: "it would be better for Poland if both old gentlemen died". When looking for sources of inspiration for national radicalism, foreign fascist movements cannot be ignored. At that time, national radicals were generally perceived as
5989-671: The Silesian language was recognized by ISO , and was attributed an ISO code of szl. Some additional characteristic but less widespread regional dialects include: Polish linguistics has been characterized by a strong strive towards promoting prescriptive ideas of language intervention and usage uniformity, along with normatively-oriented notions of language "correctness" (unusual by Western standards). Polish has six oral vowels (seven oral vowels in written form), which are all monophthongs , and two nasal vowels . The oral vowels are / i / (spelled i ), / ɨ / (spelled y and also transcribed as /ɘ/ or /ɪ/), / ɛ / (spelled e ), /
6102-578: The Warsaw and Poznań academic corporations and the Union for the Advancement of Polish Property (the so-called Polish Union), bringing together merchant and craft circles to fight Jewish competition. What failed, however, was an attempt to win over the workers' community, conducted through the Workers National-Radical Union. While the daily ABC was, from the fall of 1936, the main propaganda tube of
6215-559: The Warsaw voivodeship, 13 in the Łódź voivodeship, one each in the Lublin and Nowogródek voivodeships), and the activity of national radicals was also noted in the Poznań voivodeship (the absorption of the Great Poland Party) and Wilno voivodeships. During the month of its existence, the ONR held over 20 public meetings and also achieved success in the local elections in Żychlin. The collapse of
6328-522: The army. This was clearly done in the RNR. Włodzimierz Sznarbachowski recalled that Bolesław Piasecki was greatly influenced by his acquaintance with Piłsudski’s political thought during his stay in Bereza. Evidence of this can already be found in the brochure "The Spirit of New Times and the Young Movement" – Piasecki noticed nationalist elements in the writings of Adam Skwarczyński at that time. Over time,
6441-500: The battlefields of Józef Piłsudski's Legions" . Jan Mosdorf also expressed a positive opinion about Piłsudski and the independence movement. Even the most reserved ONR "ABC" in this respect emphasized that "crossed [...] the barriers between Poles-soldiers and Poles-civilians" ("soldiers" is a euphemism for the Sanation ). The need to revise the approach to their own tradition was pointed out. The national radicals stressed that they were
6554-547: The camp in Bereza Kartuska . The split finally took place at the beginning of 1935, it was revealed on 25 April, and on 29 June of that year in Kąty the founding congress of the faction, called Falanga or - from the initials of the leader - Bepists took place. During World War II , both organizations created underground resistance organizations: ONR "ABC" was transformed into Grupa Szańca ( Rampart Group ), whose military arm became
6667-469: The canteen of the Warsaw University of Technology . Its ideological declaration, drafted mainly by Mosdorf, was published the next day in the weekly "Sztafeta". The ONR was to be a social movement, led by a multi-stage conspiratorial Polish Organization, interacting through loyal and proven activists with various associations and organizations, and there were plenty of them at the time, as almost everyone
6780-485: The cases mentioned above, the letter i if followed by another vowel in the same word usually represents / j / , yet a palatalization of the previous consonant is always assumed. The reverse case, where the consonant remains unpalatalized but is followed by a palatalized consonant, is written by using j instead of i : for example, zjeść , "to eat up". The letters ą and ę , when followed by plosives and affricates, represent an oral vowel followed by
6893-420: The concession to organize the ZMP was obtained by the Falanga. Still in the autumn of 1937, Tadeusz Gluziński handed Adam Koc a letter in which he wrote: "we declare that in the crackdown on the factors of the so-called folxfront, you can count on our full cooperation within the limits of our technical and propaganda capabilities, and regardless of the tactical attitude of other national groupings." The paths of
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#17330852687787006-687: The corresponding sentence in modern Polish: Daj, niech ja pomielę, a ty odpoczywaj or Pozwól, że ja będę mełł, a ty odpocznij ; and in English: Come, let me grind, and you take a rest ), written around 1280. The book is exhibited in the Archdiocesal Museum in Wrocław, and as of 2015 has been added to UNESCO 's " Memory of the World " list. The medieval recorder of this phrase, the Cistercian monk Peter of
7119-412: The departure of Wojciech Zaleski and Jerzy Kurcyusz in the course of the struggle for leadership. Within the organization, there were ongoing discussions on tactics between supporters of the long-term "march through institutions" (i.e., infiltration of the state apparatus and major political forces) and enthusiasts of the "national revolution" (Wiktor Martini, Otmar Wawrzkowicz). In an attempt to resolve
7232-479: The disappearance of yers . Polish can have word-initial and word-medial clusters of up to four consonants, whereas word-final clusters can have up to five consonants. Examples of such clusters can be found in words such as bezwzględny [bɛzˈvzɡlɛndnɨ] ('absolute' or 'heartless', 'ruthless'), źdźbło [ˈʑd͡ʑbwɔ] ('blade of grass'), wstrząs [ˈfstʂɔw̃s] ('shock'), and krnąbrność [ˈkrnɔmbrnɔɕt͡ɕ] ('disobedience'). A popular Polish tongue-twister (from
7345-430: The distinction between regular penultimate and exceptional antepenultimate stress. Another class of exceptions is verbs with the conditional endings -by, -bym, -byśmy , etc. These endings are not counted in determining the position of the stress; for example, zro biłbym ('I would do') is stressed on the first syllable, and zro bi libyśmy ('we would do') on the second. According to prescriptive authorities ,
7458-520: The eastern parts of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth wrote Polish in the Arabic alphabet. The Cyrillic script is used to a certain extent today by Polish speakers in Western Belarus , especially for religious texts. The diacritics used in the Polish alphabet are the kreska (graphically similar to the acute accent ) over the letters ć, ń, ó, ś, ź and through the letter in ł ;
7571-420: The end of words (where devoicing occurs) and in certain consonant clusters (where assimilation occurs). For details, see Voicing and devoicing in the article on Polish phonology. Most Polish words are paroxytones (that is, the stress falls on the second-to-last syllable of a polysyllabic word), although there are exceptions. Polish permits complex consonant clusters, which historically often arose from
7684-469: The entire country. Polish has traditionally been described as consisting of three to five main regional dialects: Silesian and Kashubian , spoken in Upper Silesia and Pomerania respectively, are thought of as either Polish dialects or distinct languages , depending on the criteria used. Kashubian contains a number of features not found elsewhere in Poland, e.g. nine distinct oral vowels (vs.
7797-462: The following table. The following digraphs and trigraphs are used: Voiced consonant letters frequently come to represent voiceless sounds (as shown in the tables); this occurs at the end of words and in certain clusters, due to the neutralization mentioned in the Phonology section above. Occasionally also voiceless consonant letters can represent voiced sounds in clusters. The spelling rule for
7910-536: The highest authority of the OP was the three-person level "A" (Political Committee) with undisclosed composition. The dualistic structure - a strictly conspiratorial, hierarchical Polish Organization and overt activities (editorials of magazines, such as "ABC", participation in legal associations) - proved useful after the September defeat . The leadership of the OP quite quickly worked out a plan for political and military work in
8023-411: The identification of the nation with the National Party. It was believed that the Party's pursuit of a "monopoly on nationalism" was leading to divisions in the national camp, a situation in which "the nationalist [...] cries out that the O.N.R. will fight on an equal footing with communism." An ABC editorial in November 1936 reproached the National Democratic Party's leadership that "While the leaders of
8136-692: The impasse in 1937, the ONR "ABC" initiated the formation of the Polish Confederation - a movement with a vague program and a loose structure (the only body was to be the Citizens' Court). The program of the Confederation, open to all national-Catholic elements, testified to the impoverishment of national-radical ideology - it was limited to vague slogans of "the good of the Polish Nation," "Christian ethics" and "social justice." The project failed (in October 1938,
8249-469: The initiative of B. Piasecki - which developed the ideas of the Political Organization of the Nation and a national planned economy. Ideological differences were already evident before the establishment of the ONR, at the beginning of 1934, then they intensified (extremists wanted armed struggle and radicalization of the social program), to explode with full force after B. Piasecki was released from
8362-538: The language spoken at home, which is about 1.4% of people who speak languages other than English , 0.25% of the US population, and 6% of the Polish-American population. The largest concentrations of Polish speakers reported in the census (over 50%) were found in three states: Illinois (185,749), New York (111,740), and New Jersey (74,663). Enough people in these areas speak Polish that PNC Financial Services (which has
8475-457: The leadership of the Youth Section and banned the publication of "Sztafeta". The "young" responded by establishing the ONR on 14 April 1934. The National-Radical Camp was formed by a group of Warsaw academic youth led by Jerzy Czerwiński, Władysław Dowbor, Tadeusz Gluziński, Jan Jodzewicz, Jan Korlec, Jan Mosdorf , Mieczysław Prószyński, Henryk Rossman , Tadeusz Todtleben, Wojciech Zaleski in
8588-439: The letter y . The predominant stress pattern in Polish is penultimate stress – in a word of more than one syllable, the next-to-last syllable is stressed. Alternating preceding syllables carry secondary stress, e.g. in a four-syllable word, where the primary stress is on the third syllable, there will be secondary stress on the first. Each vowel represents one syllable, although the letter i normally does not represent
8701-784: The local elections in 1938-1939. In Warsaw, the group started as the National Radical Committee for the De-Jewishization of Warsaw, winning 8.5% of the votes and 5 seats (against 8 seats for the SN ). In Poznań, the National Radical Electoral Committee put forward a candidate in only one district ( Stanisław Kasznica ), who received 457 votes; in Wielkopolska, ONR won 2 seats. In total, the ONR lists won 1.2% votes. also gained unofficial parliamentary representation – MP Franciszek Stoch. However, from March 1939
8814-431: The middle aged and young speak vernaculars close to standard Polish, while the traditional dialects are preserved among older people in rural areas. First-language speakers of Polish have no trouble understanding each other, and non-native speakers may have difficulty recognizing the regional and social differences. The modern standard dialect , often termed as "correct Polish", is spoken or at least understood throughout
8927-460: The most widely spoken variant of Polish across the country, and most dialects stopped being the form of Polish spoken in villages. Poland is one of the most linguistically homogeneous European countries; nearly 97% of Poland's citizens declare Polish as their first language . Elsewhere, Poles constitute large minorities in areas which were once administered or occupied by Poland, notably in neighboring Lithuania , Belarus , and Ukraine . Polish
9040-409: The name Tarzan . Jan Mosdorf Jan Mosdorf (30 May 1904 – 11 October 1943), was a Polish right-wing politician, director of the nationalist organization All-Polish Youth ( Młodzież Wszechpolska , MW) and member of the far-right political party National Radical Camp (ONR). He also worked as a publicist, using the pseudonym Andrzej Witkowski . In 1943, Mosdorf was killed in
9153-543: The name ONR, following its ideology and traditions. Dominated by youth, National Radical Camp was an outgrowth of the Endecja movement , an ultra-nationalist movement that had arisen in the 1920s. The emergence of the National Radical Camp was part of broader movement of the Polish right toward radicalization in the 1930s. Its basis was the generational difference of the "young" within the nationalist camp. The writings of
9266-626: The national-radical movement, he became closer to Catholic-social groups. Some of the ONR-ists began to conspire as the Camp of National Revolution, but many joined the Union of Young Nationalists (ZMN) or the Youth Section of the SN (SM SN). The secret leadership of the movement was not to be established until early 1935. The delegalization revealed a conflict between two generations of “youngs”. Włodzimierz Sznarbachowski explained: “the years of age difference also meant
9379-410: The national-radicalism cultivated the cult of youth, writing for example: "In the fight against the young, the old cannot keep up." As Włodzimierz Sznarbachowski recalled: The National Radical Camp was founded as a rebellion against the "fools". Young people [...] yearned for a strong, charismatic leader [...]. Dmowski certainly did not have such charisma." This was confirmed by Wojciech Wasiutyński: "It
9492-631: The nobles in Poland–Lithuania in the 15th century. The history of Polish as a language of state governance begins in the 16th century in the Kingdom of Poland . Over the later centuries, Polish served as the official language in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , Congress Poland , the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria , and as the administrative language in the Russian Empire 's Western Krai . The growth of
9605-425: The organization came suddenly: the assassination of Bronisław Pieracki by Ukrainian nationalists on June 15, 1934 gave the Sanation authorities a pretext to deal with national radicals – after a wave of arrests, the camp was officially banned on July 10, 1934. Repressions led to a crisis of the organization. The previous leader Jan Mosdorf was discredited by his passive attitude (hiding during arrests). Isolated in
9718-438: The other hand, negotiations were held with the authorities. Rossman was said to have already sought contact with the Sanation during his stay in Bereza; talks with representatives of the ruling camp began in the fall of 1936 and continued in the spring of 1937. The was the main initiator of Marshal Śmigły-Rydz's meeting with national youth at the "Arkonia" commerce on May 18, 1937, but did not achieve any success. At that time -
9831-659: The others being Czech orthography and Croatian orthography , the last of these being a 19th-century invention trying to make a compromise between the first two. Kashubian uses a Polish-based system, Slovak uses a Czech-based system, and Slovene follows the Croatian one; the Sorbian languages blend the Polish and the Czech ones. Historically, Poland's once diverse and multi-ethnic population utilized many forms of scripture to write Polish. For instance, Lipka Tatars and Muslims inhabiting
9944-467: The outdatedness of the old divisions. "All the old divisions [...] are irrelevant and harmful" - proclaimed the Falangists, and "Sztafeta" echoed them: "It is time [...] to end the old [...] party disputes and outdated scores" . The national radicals wrote with distaste about the lack of a program of both camps: "The strongest memory for the National Democrats is the fight against the Sanation, for
10057-401: The palatal sounds / ɕ / , / ʑ / , / tɕ / , / dʑ / and / ɲ / is as follows: before the vowel i the plain letters s, z, c, dz, n are used; before other vowels the combinations si, zi, ci, dzi, ni are used; when not followed by a vowel the diacritic forms ś, ź, ć, dź, ń are used. For example, the s in siwy ("grey-haired"), the si in siarka ("sulfur") and
10170-562: The poem March of the Young: "we will raise our right hand, saluting the Sword of the Chrobry– our victorious sign!" . Positive opinions about fascism and Nazism were formulated in both branches of the national radical movement. In the pages of "Jutro" it was written: "Hitler with his bold and consistent work tore them [Germany] out of chaos [...] and pushed them towards a better future. No other [...] person of
10283-452: The positive opinion of the Legions began to transform into a postulate of a synthesis of “Polish political thought” (national-democratic) and “soldierly” (Piłsudski’s). In 1939, a journalist from "Przełom" wrote that RNR "Enriched and deepened the content of Polish nationalism, associating the political thought of the author of "Polish Policy" with the values of the soldier's psyche, developed on
10396-410: The present era has aroused so much faith, devotion and enthusiasm in his nation". The journalists from "Jutro" were echoed by the journalists from "Falanga": "It is beyond doubt that National Socialism reborn Germany, that it healed its social, economic and political life." The party was influenced by the ideas of Italian Fascism . It rejected parliamentary democracy and called for the construction of
10509-511: The previously Polish-ruled territories in the east that were annexed by the USSR , resulting in the present-day Polish-speaking communities in Lithuania, Belarus, and Ukraine, although many Poles were expelled from those areas to areas within Poland's new borders. To the east of Poland, the most significant Polish minority lives in a long strip along either side of the Lithuania - Belarus border. Meanwhile,
10622-609: The rightful successors of the national camp, because "Roman Dmowski is not 'property' of the National Party". Even the Falangists admitted to this heritage: "The National Radical Movement departed from the Party, which was led by Roman Dmowski. [...] But the National Radical Movement based its ideology on the foundations of thought that Roman Dmowski gave to the new generation" . At the same time, however, they drew attention to
10735-540: The same applies to the first and second person plural past tense endings -śmy, -ście , although this rule is often ignored in colloquial speech (so zro bi liśmy 'we did' should be prescriptively stressed on the second syllable, although in practice it is commonly stressed on the third as zrobi li śmy ). These irregular stress patterns are explained by the fact that these endings are detachable clitics rather than true verbal inflections: for example, instead of ko go zoba czy liście? ('whom did you see?') it
10848-410: The series of affricate and palatal consonants that resulted from four Proto-Slavic palatalizations and two further palatalizations that took place in Polish. The full set of consonants, together with their most common spellings, can be presented as follows (although other phonological analyses exist): Neutralization occurs between voiced – voiceless consonant pairs in certain environments, at
10961-500: The six of standard Polish) and (in the northern dialects) phonemic word stress, an archaic feature preserved from Common Slavic times and not found anywhere else among the West Slavic languages . However, it was described by some linguists as lacking most of the linguistic and social determinants of language-hood. Many linguistic sources categorize Silesian as a regional language separate from Polish, while some consider Silesian to be
11074-494: The stress normally becomes regular. For example, uniwersytet ( /uɲiˈvɛrsɨtɛt/ , 'university') has irregular stress on the third (or antepenultimate) syllable, but the genitive uniwersytetu ( /uɲivɛrsɨˈtɛtu/ ) and derived adjective uniwersytecki ( /uɲivɛrsɨˈtɛt͡skʲi/ ) have regular stress on the penultimate syllables. Loanwords generally become nativized to have penultimate stress. In psycholinguistic experiments, speakers of Polish have been demonstrated to be sensitive to
11187-612: The underground. The most important was the decision made on October 14, 1939 to form the Military Organization Lizard Union , headed by Władysław Marcinkowski "Jaxa". Efforts were made to recruit officers who had been reluctant to join the Sanation before 1939. Political and command authority over the ZJ was carried out by the Szaniec Group . During conspiration the composition of the OP was reconstructed; successive chairmen of
11300-563: The vowel i is changed to y , e.g. Syria , Sybir , synchronizacja , Syrakuzy . The following table shows the correspondence between the sounds and spelling: Digraphs and trigraphs are used: Similar principles apply to / kʲ / , / ɡʲ / , / xʲ / and /lʲ/ , except that these can only occur before vowels, so the spellings are k, g, (c)h, l before i , and ki, gi, (c)hi, li otherwise. Most Polish speakers, however, do not consider palatalization of k, g, (c)h or l as creating new sounds. Except in
11413-443: The word, the phoneme / x / can be spelt h or ch , the phoneme / ʐ / can be spelt ż or rz , and / u / can be spelt u or ó . In several cases it determines the meaning, for example: może ("maybe") and morze ("sea"). In occasional words, letters that normally form a digraph are pronounced separately. For example, rz represents /rz/ , not / ʐ / , in words like zamarzać ("freeze") and in
11526-466: The young-nationalist movement were in Bereza, it was the older men who were enjoying blissful peace in their retreats at home," and announced: "we have no intention whatsoever of stepping on the toes of the young people who have been stupefied by the older men." Back in the spring of 1939, an attempt to reach an agreement with the All-Polish Youth failed. Both the "venom of senile hatred" of the SN and
11639-608: Was a member of several right-wing youth organizations. He wrote articles for nationalist magazines, always claiming that Germany was Poland's main enemy and that Poland should gain control over the Western part of Upper Silesia and Masuria . In 1928, during the IV Congress of the MW, which took place in Lwów , he was elected director of the organization. Later on, he had to hide for some time because he
11752-557: Was a member of the ONR, and the government had incarcerated several activists of the organization in the Bereza Kartuska Prison . We [Polish nationalists] are not fascists, nor Hitlerites, for we are a native Polish movement, independent of foreign views. Additionally, we do not see ourselves as fascists or Nazis due to the many weaknesses, and even sins, these movements carry. These are not examples we would want to follow. - Jan Mosdorf "Wczoraj i Jutro", 1938 In late 1939, after
11865-415: Was armed with brass knuckles and two […] revolvers”. The difference in temperament gave rise to tactical differences – while the elders, led by Rossman , wanted the movement to be led by a secret hierarchical organization of the lodge type, Piasecki’s supporters believed in the principle of leadership. Already in 1933, at the "Akademik Polski" (Polish Academic) an Ideological Committee was established - on
11978-574: Was crucial. Until then, Mosdorf had regarded Jews as enemies of Poland and the Polish nation. After surviving typhus , however, he changed his attitudes. Professor Irina Livezeanu from University of Pittsburgh wrote: "Mosdorf did everything in his power to help the Jews in the Auschwitz camp, and he died together with the Jews." On 25 September 1943, Mosdorf was placed in the Pavilion XI, and on 11 October he
12091-513: Was estimated at 150-500 people, nationwide at 2,000. Disorganized by repression and split, ONR "ABC" initially conducted its activities with less momentum than "Falanga". In addition, the position of the Rossmanists was weakened by their vacillating attitude during the blockade of the university in November 1936. Another blow to the movement was the death of Henryk Rossmann in February 1937, followed by
12204-507: Was involved in something - from student corporations, Brotherly Aid to scouting. After the establishment of the ONR, a period of intensive organizational development followed. Within two months, several thousand members were recruited. In Warsaw alone, the ONR had 2,200 members and 3,000 supporters in 17 sections. National radicals operated almost exclusively in the capital city of Warsaw. Attempts were made to remedy this by expanding local structures. In May 1934, 33 new sections were created (18 in
12317-404: Was made permanent by the newly created Polish People's Republic , which branded them enemies of the state . The secessionists developed their own, clearly distinct ideology called "national radicalism". "National radicalism" is not the same as radical nationalism. This term was constructed on the model of " national socialism " and " national syndicalism ", because it should be remembered that in
12430-420: Was not Dmowski who pushed the youth towards fascism, he rather resisted their fascist tendencies. The split in the nationalist movement in 1934 occurred precisely because Dmowski did not agree to the fascist program of the young." The criticism coming from the "young" initially concerned tactical and psychological issues – the "old" were accused of "complete indolence, inability to act". The mechanism of secession
12543-563: Was primarily academic associations, registered from 1936 at individual universities: The National Union of Polish Radical Youth in Warsaw, the National-Radical Youth in Poznań, the Union of Independent National Youth in Wilno, as well as the Senior Scout Circle of St. George, and the J.L. Poplawski Political Discussion Club and the H. Rossman Discussion Club, which were created in 1939 in Warsaw. The ONR gained great influence in
12656-505: Was set in motion only by the frustration caused by the lack of reaction of the movement's leadership to the dissolution of the Camp of Great Poland (OWP) . The "young" tried to maintain organizational independence, avoiding subordination to the National Party , dominated by the "old". Their stronghold was the "Eight" - the secret leadership of the National Democrat youth structures. Initially,
12769-405: Was the decision to secede made. According to Jerzy Drobnik, who emphasised the personal ambitions of the secessionists, "the tool got tired of being a tool" . The conflict intensified in the winter of 1933/1934. In the first quarter of 1934, police sources had already noted the existence of a "national-radical movement of the "Young" within the Party". In March, the SN authorities deprived Mosdorf of
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