Misplaced Pages

#822177

125-509: The American Samoa archipelago is located in the mid-south Pacific Ocean, halfway between Hawaii and New Zealand. It is the only American Territory south of the equator. The Park has one visitor center in Tutuila, known as Tauese P.F. Sunia Ocean Center. There are exhibits for all ages, and it is open year-round. The National Marine Sanctuary of American Samoa comprises six protected areas: Fagatele Bay and Fagalua/Fogama`a (the bay east of Fagatele) on

250-549: A Bjerrum plot ). These different forms of dissolved inorganic carbon are transferred from an ocean's surface to its interior by the ocean's solubility pump . The resistance of an area of ocean to absorbing atmospheric CO 2 is known as the Revelle factor . The ocean's chemistry is changing due to the uptake of anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO 2 ). Ocean pH, carbonate ion concentrations ([CO 3 ]), and calcium carbonate mineral saturation states (Ω) have been declining as

375-408: A calcareous species that consolidates and cements reefs together. A reduction in coral calcification impairs coral growth and density, increasing vulnerability to erosion and damage. The increase in acidification also makes it difficult for clams in all stages of life to grow their shells, and for the larvae of corral reef fish to grow, survive, and make it back to the reef. It is projected that by 2060,

500-636: A cooperative agreement between the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and American Samoa's Economic and Development Planning Office, as well as the National Marine Sanctuary Association (NMSA). The volunteers typically work for 3 months and then take the rest of the time off, but a volunteer can work enough to become a paid worker for the NMSA or even take a Manager position at another Marine Sanctuary. Tutuila Tutuila

625-406: A coral-eating animal, ate their way through Tutuila's reefs. More than 90 percent of all the living corals were destroyed. At the time, Fagatele Bay was not a National Marine Sanctuary, but this disaster propelled the decision for the site's designation. The National Marine Sanctuary Program protects and preserves nature and local culture. The program is found in areas of special significance such as

750-682: A cross fire. Concrete bunkers used during WWII are also seen at Pago Pago. Notable buildings in Fagatogo are the Governor's Mansion (1903), Sadie's Restaurant where Somerset Maugham stayed in 1916 and wrote the short story "Rain" about former prostitute Sadie Thompson (that takes place in American Samoa), the Fono Building which is the state legislative building, the Jean P. Haydon Museum built in 1917, which

875-539: A decline in the coccolithophores may have secondary effects on climate: it could contribute to global warming by decreasing the Earth's albedo via their effects on oceanic cloud cover. A study in 2008 examined a sediment core from the North Atlantic and found that the species composition of coccolithophorids remained unchanged over the past 224 years (1780 to 2004). But the average coccolith mass had increased by 40% during

1000-458: A faster pH decline of minus 0.022 to minus 0.026 pH unit per decade." This is thought to be "due to increased upwelling of CO 2 -rich sub-surface waters in addition to anthropogenic CO 2 uptake." Some regions exhibited a slower acidification rate: a pH decline of minus 0.010 to minus 0.013 pH unit per decade has been observed in warm pools in the western tropical Pacific. The rate at which ocean acidification will occur may be influenced by

1125-493: A length of 6.5 km (4.0 mi), goes through a very steep slope behind the rest fale (hurricane shelter), which is also negotiated through a stairway and further leads down to the serene Vatia village on the coral bay. Hurricanes or tropical cyclones have been frequently striking the Samoan Island for centuries. To monitor and give advance warning of the cyclones, several Observation stations have been established under

1250-428: A marine extinction coincided precisely in the stratigraphic record, and (b) there was pronounced selectivity of the extinction against organisms with thick aragonitic skeletons, which is predicted from experimental studies. Ocean acidification has also been suggested as a one cause of the end-Permian mass extinction and the end-Cretaceous crisis. Overall, multiple climatic stressors, including ocean acidification,

1375-465: A number of factors interplay to affect air-ocean CO 2 exchange and resulting pH change. These include biological processes, such as photosynthesis and respiration, as well as water upwelling. Also, ecosystem metabolism in freshwater sources reaching coastal waters can lead to large, but local, pH changes. Freshwater bodies also appear to be acidifying, although this is a more complex and less obvious phenomenon. The absorption of CO 2 from

SECTION 10

#1733084571823

1500-470: A possible kill mechanism during the marine mass extinction at the end of the Triassic . The end-Triassic biotic crisis is still the most well-established example of a marine mass extinction due to ocean acidification, because (a) carbon isotope records suggest enhanced volcanic activity that decreased the carbonate sedimentation which reduced the carbonate compensation depth and the carbonate saturation state, and

1625-550: A result of the uptake of approximately 30% of the anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions over the past 270 years (since around 1750). This process, commonly referred to as "ocean acidification", is making it harder for marine calcifiers to build a shell or skeletal structure, endangering coral reefs and the broader marine ecosystems. Ocean acidification has been called the "evil twin of global warming " and "the other CO 2 problem". Increased ocean temperatures and oxygen loss act concurrently with ocean acidification and constitute

1750-461: A species of bat, known as the flying fox , which is found in a forested area of Tutuila that is part of the National Park of American Samoa . This legend holds that the flying fox is the protector and guardian of the forest and its human inhabitants. The Polynesians first reached Samoa around 1000 BC. By 600 BC, they had established a settlement on Tutuila at Tula . Over the centuries,

1875-460: A tsunami in 2009. The hurricane of December 4–13, 1991, was the worst disaster faced by entire group of Samoan Islands which was named " Hurricane Val ," which caused immense damages to property in the American Samoa and Western Samoa. The Hurricane Val in comparison to past hurricanes, was very severe and the storm force had a wind velocity of over 100 knots or 166 km (103 mi)/hour. It

2000-610: A very scientifically powerful buoy in Fagatele Bay in May 2019. This buoy records real-time values of water temperature, acidity, and other relevant parameters, that can then be used to assess trends. NOAA also tackles non-climate stressors that can make the reefs more resilient as a whole. The population of crown-of-thorns sea star, a natural predator of corals, is closely monitored and controlled to prevent outbreaks. The sea stars are injected with ox bile that painlessly kills them and does not harm

2125-402: A wholesale shift in seawater acid-base chemistry toward more acidic, lower pH conditions and lower saturation states for carbonate minerals used in many marine organism shells and skeletons. Accumulated since 1850, the ocean sink holds up to 175 ± 35 gigatons of carbon, with more than two-thirds of this amount (120 GtC) being taken up by the global ocean since 1960. Over the historical period,

2250-401: Is 142.3 km (54.9 sq mi) with a shore line of 101.3 km (62.9 mi). The hill range which runs from west to east is rugged and winding with the northern coast line having steep cliffs and unusual coast line. However, the southern part of the island has flatter terrain. Good beaches are located at many places along the coast. It has a wet tropical climate. The highest point in

2375-450: Is a measure of the thermodynamic potential for the mineral to form or to dissolve, and for calcium carbonate is described by the following equation: Here Ω is the product of the concentrations (or activities ) of the reacting ions that form the mineral (Ca and CO 3 ), divided by the apparent solubility product at equilibrium (K sp ), that is, when the rates of precipitation and dissolution are equal. In seawater, dissolution boundary

2500-636: Is also estimated to be unprecedented over that same time scale. These expected changes are considered unprecedented in the geological record. In combination with other ocean biogeochemical changes, this drop in pH value could undermine the functioning of marine ecosystems and disrupt the provision of many goods and services associated with the ocean, beginning as early as 2100. The extent of further ocean chemistry changes, including ocean pH, will depend on climate change mitigation efforts taken by nations and their governments. Different scenarios of projected socioeconomic global changes are modelled by using

2625-681: Is an unincorporated and unorganized territory of the US, under the administration of the US Interior Department's Office of Insular Affairs. American Samoa is primarily divided into two political districts: the Eastern District and the Western District . Tutuila lies in the Pacific Ocean, roughly 4,000 km (2,500 mi) northeast of Brisbane , Australia . The village of Fagatogo

SECTION 20

#1733084571823

2750-399: Is attractive to tourists because of its beaches, coral reefs , and World War II relics, as well as its suitability for sporting activities such as scuba diving , snorkeling , and hiking. It is said that the name Tutuila may have been given to the island by a woman named Salaia. She named the island after a combination of the names of her parents: Tutu and Ila. Another name for the island

2875-473: Is based on the name of Salaia herself: 'o le motu o Salaia ("the island of Salaia") or motu sā (literally, "the sacred island"). In June 1722, the Samoan Islands were first encountered by a European explorer, Jacob Roggeveen , who gave Tutuila the name Thienhoven Island . A popular island legend holds that, when called to in a particular way, a shark and a turtle will appear near the shore. According to

3000-518: Is beginning to impact Earth's most treasured natural spaces, and the Samoan Islands are among the most vulnerable regions. This rise in CO 2 and temperature causes an imbalance in the Samoan reef ecosystem in a myriad of ways, which will be described below. Since 1750, the acidity of the ocean has increased by 30%. An increase in ocean acidification destabilizes Samoan reefs by impacting crustose corraline algae,

3125-521: Is divided into three zones has a network of hiking trails. The National Park Service (NPS) maintains good information system about these trails. One such trail goes up Mount ʻAlava, a high peak within the park rising to a height of 491 meters (1,611 feet). A TV tower exists on this mountain and also the ruins of a cable car station of a 1.8 km (1.1 mi) long cableway which once ran over Pago Pago Harbor to Solo hill in Utulei . (524m ). This cableway, which

3250-412: Is expected that ocean acidification in the future will lead to a significant decrease in the burial of carbonate sediments for several centuries, and even the dissolution of existing carbonate sediments. Between 1950 and 2020, the average pH value of the ocean surface is estimated to have decreased from approximately 8.15 to 8.05. This represents an increase of around 26% in hydrogen ion concentration in

3375-429: Is formed as a result of temperature, pressure, and depth, and is known as the saturation horizon. Above this saturation horizon, Ω has a value greater than 1, and CaCO 3 does not readily dissolve. Most calcifying organisms live in such waters. Below this depth, Ω has a value less than 1, and CaCO 3 will dissolve. The carbonate compensation depth is the ocean depth at which carbonate dissolution balances

3500-417: Is fossil fuels, which are burned for energy. When burned, CO 2 is released into the atmosphere as a byproduct of combustion, which is a significant contributor to the increasing levels of CO 2 in the Earth's atmosphere. The ocean acts as a carbon sink for anthropogenic CO 2 and takes up roughly a quarter of total anthropogenic CO 2 emissions. However, the additional CO 2 in the ocean results in

3625-473: Is getting more shallow). Ocean acidification is progressing in the open ocean as the CO 2 travels to deeper depth as a result of ocean mixing. In the open ocean, this causes carbonate compensation depths to become more shallow, meaning that dissolution of calcium carbonate will occur below those depths. In the North Pacific these carbonate saturations depths are shallowing at a rate of 1–2 m per year. It

3750-419: Is logarithmic, so a change of one in pH units is equivalent to a tenfold change in hydrogen ion concentration). Sea-surface pH and carbonate saturation states vary depending on ocean depth and location. Colder and higher latitude waters are capable of absorbing more CO 2 . This can cause acidity to rise, lowering the pH and carbonate saturation levels in these areas. There are several other factors that influence

3875-404: Is much more soluble than calcite, so the aragonite saturation horizon, and aragonite compensation depth, is always nearer to the surface than the calcite saturation horizon. This also means that those organisms that produce aragonite may be more vulnerable to changes in ocean acidity than those that produce calcite. Ocean acidification and the resulting decrease in carbonate saturation states raise

National Marine Sanctuary of American Samoa - Misplaced Pages Continue

4000-777: Is reported to have damaged gardens. Two different species of flying fox (bats) have also been found on the island (described under National Park). Hard corals recorded are 174 species of 48 genera and sub-genera. The bird species recorded are under endemic category. These are: The Aplonis atrifuscus ( Samoan starling ) group; the Gymnomyza samoensis (black-breasted honeyeater ) group; Halcyon recurvirostris ( flat-billed kingfisher ); Lalage sharpei ( Samoan triller ); Myiagra albiventris (white-vented flycatcher ); Pachycephala flavifrons (yellow-fronted Samoan whistler ); and Rhipidura nebulosa ( Samoan fantail ). Four species of native doves and pigeons are also recorded in all

4125-511: Is situated 1,238 km (769 mi) northeast of Suva, Fiji . The island lies roughly 530 km (330 mi) north of Niue and roughly 580 km (360 mi) south of Tokelau and roughly 100 km (62 mi) southeast of the Samoan island of Upolu . Tutuila is a fairly small and narrow island, measuring roughly 33 km (21 mi) across and little more than 3 mi (4.8 km) from north to south at its widest point. The area of this volcanic island of early Pliocene age

4250-508: Is the canopy of ridge top trees, which roost alone or in small groups and are active during day time with two feeding peaks, the Pteropus tonganus (with black colored face with seal brown body) species roost in large groups (100 or more in numbers in each group) in thick forest habitat, also sometimes seen close to villages. Both species have a wing span of 1 m (3 ft 3 in) at adulthood, and weigh about 500 grams. The park which

4375-556: Is the largest and most populous island of American Samoa and is part of the archipelago of the Samoan Islands . It is the third largest island in the Samoan Islands chain of the Central Pacific . It is located roughly 4,000 kilometers (2,500 mi) northeast of Brisbane , Australia and lies over 1,200 kilometers (750 mi) to the northeast of Fiji . It contains a large, natural harbor, Pago Pago Harbor , where Pago Pago ,

4500-481: The Cretaceous–Palaeogene extinction event . Three of the big five mass extinction events in the geologic past were associated with a rapid increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide, probably due to volcanism and/or thermal dissociation of marine gas hydrates . Elevated CO 2 levels impacted biodiversity. Decreased CaCO 3 saturation due to seawater uptake of volcanogenic CO 2 has been suggested as

4625-481: The Flag of American Samoa was made the country's official flag. In 1961, the US president, John F. Kennedy , appointed H. Rex Lee governor, and approved US expenditure of massive funds to develop Tutuila, which throughout the 1960s was used to finance the building of an international airport, seaport facilities, roads, schools, houses, a hospital, a tuna cannery, a modern hotel, and the installation of electricity throughout

4750-460: The Manu'a islands, located on the eastern end of the Samoan island chain. In 1768, the explorer Louis Antoine de Bougainville visited the islands of Samoa and dubbed them the "Navigator Islands," after the islanders' practice of navigating the nearby waters in canoes to catch tuna. European whalers and Protestant missionaries began to arrive in the Samoan Islands in the early 19th century, particularly in

4875-564: The Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSP) scenarios. Under a very high emission scenario (SSP5-8.5) , model projections estimate that surface ocean pH could decrease by as much as 0.44 units by the end of this century, compared to the end of the 19th century. This would mean a pH as low as about 7.7, and represents a further increase in H+ concentrations of two to four times beyond the increase to date. The full ecological consequences of

5000-463: The aragonite (CaCO 3 ) saturation state that is crucial to coral growth will fall below the optimal threshold of 4.0 to 3.5, and continue deteriorating in the future. The oceans absorb much of the heat caused due to increase in global temperature. Waters in American Samoa have risen 1.8F in the past 30 years, and are projected to increase 4.7F by 2090. Extreme temperature events, also known as heatwaves, have also increased in frequency. Coupled with

5125-440: The "deadly trio" of climate change pressures on the marine environment. The impacts of this will be most severe for coral reefs and other shelled marine organisms, as well as those populations that depend on the ecosystem services they provide. Dissolving CO 2 in seawater increases the hydrogen ion ( H ) concentration in the ocean, and thus decreases ocean pH, as follows: In shallow coastal and shelf regions,

National Marine Sanctuary of American Samoa - Misplaced Pages Continue

5250-581: The 11 French sailors only who were members of the Astrolabe and Boussole ships during the La Parouse expedition who were killed by the local Samoans in a clash on December 11, 1787; 11 Chinese and 39 Samoans also died in this conflict but are not mentioned in the honor list. At the defunct cable car terminal on the Solo Hill in Utulei there is a monument built in honor of the six US Navy personnel who died in

5375-743: The 1830s. Two notable arrivals among them were John Williams of the London Missionary Society , and the French explorer Louis de Freycinet , who arrived in October 1819 and named Tutuila "Rose Island" in honor of his wife (and fellow explorer) Rose de Freycinet . European traders and Samoan islanders chose to develop the Upolu Island village of Apia , rather than the Tutuila Island village of Pago Pago , as their trading station. However, in 1872,

5500-615: The 1860s. In 1879, with the Samoans having declared that they were open to dealing with all three countries, the United States , Great Britain, and Germany together formed a tripartite government over the islands. In 1889, the three foreign governments held a conference in Berlin to discuss the political future of the islands and try to resolve their differences on that topic. The Americans expressed dissatisfaction with not having complete control of

5625-590: The American Samoa Government to the National Marine Sanctuary Program. The National Marine Sanctuary Program supports research in all of its 14 sites. Research plays a role in management by supplying information needed to make resource protection decisions based on hard scientific data. Fagatele Bay's most important research project spans over a decade. In the late 1970s, millions of Acanthaster planci or crown-of-thorns starfish (alamea),

5750-403: The Earth's oceans. When CO 2 dissolves, it reacts with water to form a balance of ionic and non-ionic chemical species: dissolved free carbon dioxide ( CO 2(aq) ), carbonic acid ( H 2 CO 3 ), bicarbonate ( HCO 3 ) and carbonate ( CO 3 ). The ratio of these species depends on factors such as seawater temperature , pressure and salinity (as shown in

5875-691: The National Marine Sanctuary. Also known as Big Mama and Fale Bommie, Big Momma is the biggest known coral on Earth. It is located in the Valley of Giants in the National Marine Sanctuary of American Samoa. It is 21-foot (6.4 m) tall, and its circumference is 134 feet (41 m). It is over 500 years old. Its scientific name is Porites lobata . Americorps volunteers assist the outreach program. Staff members are American Samoa Government employees based in Pago Pago, American Samoa and operate through

6000-478: The Pacific continental shelf area of North America, from Vancouver to Northern California . These continental shelves play an important role in marine ecosystems, since most marine organisms live or are spawned there. Other shelf areas may be experiencing similar effects. At depths of 1000s of meters in the ocean, calcium carbonate shells begin to dissolve as increasing pressure and decreasing temperature shift

6125-537: The Paleocene–Eocene boundary. Extensive observational systems are now in place or being built for monitoring seawater CO 2 chemistry and acidification for both the global open ocean and some coastal systems. Ocean acidification has occurred previously in Earth's history. It happened during the Capitanian mass extinction , at the end-Permian extinction , during the end-Triassic extinction , and during

6250-411: The Samoans on Tutuila kept in contact with the inhabitants of the neighboring islands of Western Polynesia, Tonga , and Fiji . Tutuila served as a place of exile for warriors and chiefs who had been defeated in the wars that ravaged much of Upolu for centuries. It was also used as a place to which Upolu rulers banished political opponents. In 1722, Jacob Roggeveen became the first European to visit

6375-573: The TV tower at Utulei , one of the three TV channels, was completely damaged by Val, resulting in its cannibalization to maintain the two remaining channels. The Fagalele Boys School , which was one of the oldest European style buildings built in the middle of the 19th century on the west coast of the island in Leone village, was also destroyed by Hurricane Val. At Utulei , at Blunts Point there are two guns of World War II vintage dated to 1941, which are seen in

SECTION 50

#1733084571823

6500-505: The Tutuila island is the Matafao Peak which is at an elevation of 653 meters (2,142 ft), which is highest peak in the island. There is trail opposite to the Mount ʻAlava peak (483 km (300 mi)) which dominates the northern part of the island. This 9.7 km (6.0 mi) trail is approached by a metal stairway from the southern end which goes right up to the peak. Trekking along

6625-486: The U.S. Department of Interior. The tuna canning and fishing industries provide the majority of the GDP, although tourism is a promising developing sector. Economic activity is strongly linked to the US with which American Samoa conducts most of its commerce, although American Samoa does not treat the US as an external trade partner. Funding from the US government adds substantially to American Samoa's economic well-being. Attempts by

6750-585: The U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), in American Samoa. After the first recorded hurricane (at least in modern times) hit the Samoan islands on February 10, 1966, which was declared a major disaster, "hurricane homes" called as "fale afa" have been built in the islands for people to take shelter during cyclonic storms. After the hurricane in 1966 the islands have witnessed many disasters due to heavy rains, hurricanes and drought; due to drought in 1974, due to floods, mudslides and landslides in 1979; and due to hurricanes in 1981, 1987, 1990, 1991 and 2004; and

6875-644: The US Navy recognized that Tutuila's Pago Pago Harbor would be the ideal place for a refueling station for the new San Francisco -to- Sydney steamship service, and negotiated a treaty with the inhabitants that would allow the harbor to be used for this purpose. Six years later, in 1878, the US Congress finally ratified this treaty, enabling it to be implemented. However, the US was not the only foreign government with an interest in Tutuila and other Samoan islands. Great Britain and Germany had been showing their interest since

7000-460: The area, and allows any student to come on field-trips, for which they provide educational guides. They also emphasize the cultural aspects of the reefs and the wildlife, so as to combine traditional culture with the scientific knowledge students learn in school. The sanctuary also aids local education by organizing projects for the High Schoolers on the island, to further reinforce the necessity of

7125-420: The atmosphere does not affect the ocean's alkalinity . This is important to know in this context as alkalinity is the capacity of water to resist acidification . Ocean alkalinity enhancement has been proposed as one option to add alkalinity to the ocean and therefore buffer against pH changes. Changes in ocean chemistry can have extensive direct and indirect effects on organisms and their habitats. One of

7250-427: The atmosphere would also help to reverse ocean acidification. In addition, there are some specific ocean-based mitigation methods , for example ocean alkalinity enhancement and enhanced weathering . These strategies are under investigation, but generally have a low technology readiness level and many risks. Ocean acidification has happened before in Earth's geologic history. The resulting ecological collapse in

7375-690: The atmosphere-ocean CO 2 exchange, and thus local ocean acidification. These include ocean currents and upwelling zones, proximity to large continental rivers, sea ice coverage, and atmospheric exchange with nitrogen and sulfur from fossil fuel burning and agriculture . A lower ocean pH has a range of potentially harmful effects for marine organisms . Scientists have observed for example reduced calcification, lowered immune responses , and reduced energy for basic functions such as reproduction. Ocean acidification can impact marine ecosystems that provide food and livelihoods for many people. About one billion people are wholly or partially dependent on

7500-727: The bay resides in the hands of the families who have lived near the bay's slopes for thousands of years. Fortunately, there is little development in the watershed and the one reliable stream that empties near the beach runs clear and clean. The fringing coral reef ecosystem nestled within Fagatele Bay is a vibrant tropical marine ecosystem, filled with all sorts of brightly colored tropical fish, including parrot fish , damselfish and butterfly fish , as well as other sea creatures like lobster , crabs , sharks and octopus . From June to September, southern humpback whales migrate north from Antarctica to calve and court in Samoan waters. Visitors can hear courting males sing whale songs , which

7625-434: The capital of American Samoa, is situated. Pago Pago International Airport is also located on Tutuila. The island's land expanse is about 68% of the total land area of American Samoa. With 56,000 inhabitants, it is also home to 95% of the population of American Samoa. The island has six terrestrial and three marine ecosystems. Tutuila has mountainous regions, the highest point of which is 653 meters (2,142 feet). The island

SECTION 60

#1733084571823

7750-459: The carbonate ions already in the ocean combine with some of the hydrogen ions to make further bicarbonate. Thus the ocean's concentration of carbonate ions is reduced, removing an essential building block for marine organisms to build shells, or calcify: The increase in concentrations of dissolved carbon dioxide and bicarbonate, and reduction in carbonate, are shown in the Bjerrum plot . Disruption of

7875-842: The changes in calcification due to ocean acidification are complex but it appears likely that many calcifying species will be adversely affected by ocean acidification. Increasing ocean acidification makes it more difficult for shell-accreting organisms to access carbonate ions, essential for the production of their hard exoskeletal shell. Oceanic calcifying organism span the food chain from autotrophs to heterotrophs and include organisms such as coccolithophores , corals , foraminifera , echinoderms , crustaceans and molluscs . Overall, all marine ecosystems on Earth will be exposed to changes in acidification and several other ocean biogeochemical changes. Ocean acidification may force some organisms to reallocate resources away from productive endpoints in order to maintain calcification. For example,

8000-445: The chemical equilibria controlling calcium carbonate precipitation. The depth at which this occurs is known as the carbonate compensation depth . Ocean acidification will increase such dissolution and shallow the carbonate compensation depth on timescales of tens to hundreds of years. Zones of downwelling are being affected first. In the North Pacific and North Atlantic, saturation states are also decreasing (the depth of saturation

8125-549: The coral's capacity to build dense exoskeletons, rather than affecting the linear extension of the exoskeleton. The density of some species of corals could be reduced by over 20% by the end of this century. An in situ experiment, conducted on a 400 m2 patch of the Great Barrier Reef , to decrease seawater CO 2 level (raise pH) to near the preindustrial value showed a 7% increase in net calcification. A similar experiment to raise in situ seawater CO 2 level (lower pH) to

8250-508: The country. in 1962, Western Samoa became independent of New Zealand, leading to uncertainty about whether the US would continue to have control of American Samoa. The massive US development efforts during the 1960s served to effectively solidify support for the continuation of Tutuila and the rest of American Samoa as a dependency of the United States. In July 1997, Western Samoa changed that country's legal name to "Samoa." This name change

8375-436: The direction of the response varying between species. Similarly, the sea star, Pisaster ochraceus , shows enhanced growth in waters with increased acidity. Reduced calcification from ocean acidification may affect the ocean's biologically driven sequestration of carbon from the atmosphere to the ocean interior and seafloor sediment , weakening the so-called biological pump . Seawater acidification could also reduce

8500-467: The economic development curtailing events portrayed in many writings. More than 90% of the land is communally owned. Tuna fishing and tuna processing plants are the backbone of the private sector, with canned tuna the primary export. Urban development has taken roots in Pago Pago Harbor where fisheries and its allied industries of canneries have been established. The largest Tuna processing plant in

8625-463: The far northeast. Important towns and villages now developed in the island are as follows: the Tafuna Urban area, the largest urban area in the territory, encompasses a string of villages from 'Ili'ili to Tafuna proper; Fagatago , the largest town with government offices functioning from Utulei (both are urban centers located to the northeast of Pago Pago ); Pago Pago (a deep harbor that divides

8750-408: The fishing, tourism, and coastal management services provided by coral reefs . Ongoing acidification of the oceans may therefore threaten food chains linked with the oceans. The only solution that would address the root cause of ocean acidification is to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. This is one of the main objectives of climate change mitigation measures. The removal of carbon dioxide from

8875-408: The food chain is also a possible effect as many marine organisms rely on calcium carbonate-based organisms at the base of the food chain for food and habitat. This can potentially have detrimental effects throughout the food web and potentially lead to a decline in availability of fish stocks which would have an impact on human livelihoods. The saturation state (known as Ω) of seawater for a mineral

9000-403: The form of two metal tubes projecting from a wall. The guns are seen at two levels, the lower gun is above a green water tank. The second gun is located 200 m (660 ft) above the first gun above the ridge. Both guns are accessible through a staircase made of concrete. In addition, two more guns of identical dimensions are also seen fixed at the harbor mouth at a strategic location to create

9125-461: The future. It is estimated that the reefs of the American Samoa could experience yearly bleaching by the year 2040. By the year 2115, under extreme warming, it is projected that water temperatures in this region may be too high for species currently living in the reefs. Due to the isolation of the Samoan reefs, species may not be able to find another suitable habitat. Warming temperatures may also worsen coral diseases and favor invasive species, such as

9250-416: The government to develop a larger and broader economy are restrained by Samoa's remote location, its limited transportation, and its devastating hurricanes. Hurricanes are relatively infrequent and although they sometimes cause substantial damage, the total number of deaths from hurricanes in the past 50 years is estimated to be fewer than five. Therefore, hurricanes are simply an inconvenience and certainly not

9375-479: The greenhouse event at the Paleocene–Eocene boundary (about 56 million years ago), when surface ocean temperatures rose by 5–6 degrees Celsius . In that event, surface ecosystems experienced a variety of impacts, but bottom-dwelling organisms in the deep ocean actually experienced a major extinction. Currently, the rate of carbon addition to the atmosphere-ocean system is about ten times the rate that occurred at

9500-588: The inner bay. The sanctuary makes a special effort to work with the American Samoan community with outreach programs for all ages. The sanctuary co-sponsors a summer environmental education program for 8- to 12-year-old children. These programs explore the marine life in the bay, including ancient reef-dwellers and solar-powered clams, teaching ways to protect the resources there. Samoan cultural events and general community outreach/education programs are also run year-round. The sanctuary also provides guided tours of

9625-499: The island into two parts ), the harbor town opposite to Fagatago; the Vatia village on the northern coast known for its famous beach and scenic setting, which is also a coral fringed bay; and Leone , a safe anchorage station in the past where the Europeans and Samoans first started their interaction in the early years of the island's history. The southwesternmost settlement is Taputimu ,

9750-467: The island is dominated by lowland and montane rain forests. The lowland rain forest at elevation less than 300 m (980 ft) is dominated by Diospyros , Dysoxylum , Pometia and Syzygium species. The montane forest in the elevation range of 300–700 m (980–2,300 ft) consists of Dysoxylum , montane scrub , streams, bushes, mangroves , mangrove lagoons, reefs and submerged coral banks . There are 19 species of land snails in

9875-429: The island of Tutuila , areas at Aunuʻu , Taʻū , Swains Island , and Rose Atoll , after major additions in protected areas during 2012. It is the only true tropical reef within the National Marine Sanctuary program, and is also the most remote. The Fagatele Bay portion of the sanctuary is completely contained in the 0.25 square miles (0.65 km) of the bay formed by an eroded volcanic crater . The land surrounding

10000-457: The island out of which 11 are endemic and four are in the threatened category. Mt. Matafao, which has many species of snails, has been researched from this angle since 1917; some of the endemic snails reported here are the Diastole matafaoi (endemic and may be extinct) and Samoana abbreviata (short Samoan tree snail, Partulidae ). Achatina fulica (giant African land snail) introduced in 1975

10125-508: The islands of Samoa. The four species are: Pacific imperial pigeon ( Ducula pacifica ), the crimson-crowned fruit dove ( Ptilinopus porphyraceus ), many-colored fruit dove ( Ptiliopus persousii ) and shy ground dove ( Galicolumba stairi ). Butterflies are another category of avifauna in the island. The recorded species are: the Hypolimnas thompsoni and Papilio godeffroyi (butterfly). The National Park of American Samoa in Tutuila

10250-466: The islands. The countries' ongoing differences led to a proposal, in 1899, to apportion their control among different parts of the Samoan islands, with the eastern islands, including Tutuila and Aunu'u, forming American Samoa, and the western islands forming Western Samoa under European control. The Samoans signed off on this proposal in 1900, and the US flag was raised on Tutuila on April 17 of that year. However,

10375-436: The legend, a long time ago, an old blind woman and her granddaughter, both suffering the pangs of starvation , jumped off a cliff in the village of Vaitogi and into the roiling ocean below. But instead of drowning, the old woman was transformed into a shark, and her granddaughter was transformed into a turtle. When the villagers utter a particular chant, the shark and the turtle promptly appear. Another Samoan legend concerns

10500-401: The local government in an effort to find new species within the local waters. Many new species have been found, but as it is a marine sanctuary, fish or other marine animals cannot be removed from the ecosystem. Scientists, headed up by Dr. Charles Birkenland, used the starfish's destruction as a focus of their long-term research: to follow the recovery of a coral reef. Because corals grow slowly,

10625-565: The most important repercussions of increasing ocean acidity relates to the production of shells out of calcium carbonate ( CaCO 3 ). This process is called calcification and is important to the biology and survival of a wide range of marine organisms. Calcification involves the precipitation of dissolved ions into solid CaCO 3 structures, structures for many marine organisms, such as coccolithophores , foraminifera , crustaceans , mollusks , etc. After they are formed, these CaCO 3 structures are vulnerable to dissolution unless

10750-507: The name "American Samoa" was not formally bestowed on the eastern islands until 1911, and the apportionment agreement was not formally ratified until 1929. During World War II , Tutuila was a strategically important island for the US Marines . Led by Colonel Lester A. Dessez , they established a military base there and erected concrete bunkers along the island's coast. Despite the island's strategic importance, it escaped almost unscathed from

10875-560: The observatory. In the Fagatele Bay of the Tutuila Island where the Hurricane Val made a direct pass over Tutuila the coral reef was completely destroyed, a large strip of the coast was also eroded. In response to this disaster, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) dispatched an assessment team to survey the damage to the reefs. Apart from the cable way which was severely damaged and went permanently out of commission,

11000-439: The ocean interior has declined over the last 20–30 years everywhere in the global ocean. The report also found that "pH in open ocean surface water has declined by about 0.017 to 0.027 pH units per decade since the late 1980s". The rate of decline differs by region. This is due to complex interactions between different types of forcing mechanisms: "In the tropical Pacific, its central and eastern upwelling zones exhibited

11125-416: The ocean sink increased in pace with the exponential anthropogenic emissions increase. From 1850 until 2022, the ocean has absorbed 26 % of total anthropogenic emissions. Emissions during the period 1850–2021 amounted to 670 ± 65 gigatons of carbon and were partitioned among the atmosphere (41 %), ocean (26 %), and land (31 %). The carbon cycle describes the fluxes of carbon dioxide ( CO 2 ) between

11250-488: The oceans and Great Lakes of the United States. There are 14 sanctuaries in the program ranging from Stellwagen Bank off Cape Cod to the Channel Islands in southern California. All manage their precious resources through a combination of education, research, long-term monitoring, regulation and enforcement. Many different types of fish call this reef home, and many biologists and marine researchers attempt to cooperate with

11375-527: The oceans had long-lasting effects on the global carbon cycle and climate . Present-day (2021) atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) levels of around 415 ppm are around 50% higher than preindustrial concentrations. The current elevated levels and rapid growth rates are unprecedented in the past 55 million years of the geological record. The sources of this excess CO 2 are clearly established as human driven: they include anthropogenic fossil fuel, industrial, and land-use/land-change emissions. One source of this

11500-441: The oceans, terrestrial biosphere , lithosphere , and atmosphere . The carbon cycle involves both organic compounds such as cellulose and inorganic carbon compounds such as carbon dioxide , carbonate ion , and bicarbonate ion , together referenced as dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC). These inorganic compounds are particularly significant in ocean acidification, as they include many forms of dissolved CO 2 present in

11625-548: The outbreaks of the crown-of-thorns sea star, a predator of the coral. Algal blooms will also become more expansive and longer-lasting. Some of these blooms may also be Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) and become toxic to life around it. In the American Samoa, climate change is estimated to increase rainfall by about 10% by 2100, while extreme precipitation events are also projected to increase in frequency. These extreme events cause large amounts of sediment runoff, which bury corals, suffocating and killing them. This sediment also clouds up

11750-1166: The oyster Magallana gigas is recognized to experience metabolic changes alongside altered calcification rates due to energetic tradeoffs resulting from pH imbalances. Under normal conditions, calcite and aragonite are stable in surface waters since the carbonate ions are supersaturated with respect to seawater. However, as ocean pH falls, the concentration of carbonate ions also decreases. Calcium carbonate thus becomes undersaturated, and structures made of calcium carbonate are vulnerable to calcification stress and dissolution. In particular, studies show that corals, coccolithophores, coralline algae, foraminifera, shellfish and pteropods experience reduced calcification or enhanced dissolution when exposed to elevated CO 2 . Even with active marine conservation practices it may be impossible to bring back many previous shellfish populations. Some studies have found different responses to ocean acidification, with coccolithophore calcification and photosynthesis both increasing under elevated atmospheric pCO 2 , and an equal decline in primary production and calcification in response to elevated CO 2 , or

11875-419: The pH of the ocean, increasing acidity (this does not mean that seawater is acidic yet; it is still alkaline , with a pH higher than 8). Marine calcifying organisms , such as mollusks and corals , are especially vulnerable because they rely on calcium carbonate to build shells and skeletons. A change in pH by 0.1 represents a 26% increase in hydrogen ion concentration in the world's oceans (the pH scale

12000-513: The past indicate the pH dropped 0.3 units across the PETM. One study that solves the marine carbonate system for saturation state shows that it may not change much over the PETM, suggesting the rate of carbon release at our best geological analogy was much slower than human-induced carbon emissions. However, stronger proxy methods to test for saturation state are needed to assess how much this pH change may have affected calcifying organisms. Importantly,

12125-486: The plane crash which occurred as a result of hitting the cableway and crashed into the Rainmaker Hotel ; two tourists staying in the hotel also died in the crash. Ocean acidification Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's ocean . Between 1950 and 2020, the average pH of the ocean surface fell from approximately 8.15 to 8.05. Carbon dioxide emissions from human activities are

12250-399: The primary cause of ocean acidification, with atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) levels exceeding 422 ppm (as of 2024 ). CO 2 from the atmosphere is absorbed by the oceans. This chemical reaction produces carbonic acid ( H 2 CO 3 ) which dissociates into a bicarbonate ion ( HCO − 3 ) and a hydrogen ion ( H ). The presence of free hydrogen ions ( H ) lowers

12375-505: The process of growing the crystals slows down, and this slows down the rate of how much their exoskeleton is growing. Depending on the aragonite saturation state in the surrounding water, the corals may halt growth because pumping aragonite into the internal compartment will not be energetically favorable. Under the current progression of carbon emissions, around 70% of North Atlantic cold-water corals will be living in corrosive waters by 2050–60. Acidified conditions primarily reduce

12500-437: The rate of surface ocean warming , because warm waters will not absorb as much CO 2 . Therefore, greater seawater warming could limit CO 2 absorption and lead to a smaller change in pH for a given increase in CO 2 . The difference in changes in temperature between basins is one of the main reasons for the differences in acidification rates in different localities. Current rates of ocean acidification have been likened to

12625-423: The rate of change in ocean acidification is much higher than in the geological past. This faster change prevents organisms from gradually adapting, and prevents climate cycle feedbacks from kicking in to mitigate ocean acidification. Ocean acidification is now on a path to reach lower pH levels than at any other point in the last 300 million years. The rate of ocean acidification (i.e. the rate of change in pH value)

12750-464: The research team chose a multi-year cycle of data collection. Beginning in 1985, and again in 1988, 1995, 1998, 2001 and 2004, the team amassed information on coral, fishes, invertebrates and marine plants. This database is unique for Samoa and the study is one of the few long-running surveys of its type in the world An increase in greenhouse gas emissions have caused a rise in global temperatures. This phenomenon, known as global warming or climate change,

12875-676: The rest of the ecosystem. A coral nursery project was also piloted in 2020. In the future, corals from the nursery could be used to restore reefs after devastation due to weather or other events. The sanctuary sponsors education programs, such as the EnviroDiscoveries Camp, which is an outdoor activity and learning camp for 8- to 12-year-olds. Scientific programs include a continuing resource assessment survey, begun in 1985, and coral reef monitoring. Sanctuary regulations prohibit taking invertebrates and sea turtles, as well as historical artifacts. Only traditional fishing methods are permitted in

13000-490: The ridge through the rain forests without any additional support system, the scenic beauty of the South Pacific Ocean provides a delightful sight. In the early 19th century, navigators passed through the Tutuila, the westward island among the Samoan group of Islands (one of the four islands called as navigators islands), when it was also known by the names of Bougainville, Manuo or Maouna. Midway between this islet and

13125-444: The rise in ocean temperature, these heatwaves cause coral bleaching events, wherein symbiotic algae are expelled from the coral, causing the corals to appear white. These algae provide food and process waste from the corals, hence are extremely essential to their survival. Six mass bleaching events have occurred from 1994 to 2020, with the 2015 event causing the most damage. These events are projected to become more frequent and intense in

13250-450: The rock the navigators sighted the Pago Pago harbor, which was marked by "a conical hill on its western side and a flat elliptical topped hill to the eastward." Leone village, large and prosperous, was sighted to the west of the island. To the south-east of the island is the Aunu'u islet. The coastal road runs for a length of 50 km (31 mi) from Fagamalo in the northwest to Onenoao in

13375-442: The same period. Warm water corals are clearly in decline, with losses of 50% over the last 30–50 years due to multiple threats from ocean warming, ocean acidification, pollution and physical damage from activities such as fishing, and these pressures are expected to intensify. The fluid in the internal compartments (the coelenteron) where corals grow their exoskeleton is also extremely important for calcification growth. When

13500-462: The saturation horizons of both forms closer to the surface. This decrease in saturation state is one of the main factors leading to decreased calcification in marine organisms because the inorganic precipitation of CaCO 3 is directly proportional to its saturation state and calcifying organisms exhibit stress in waters with lower saturation states. Already now large quantities of water undersaturated in aragonite are upwelling close to

13625-409: The saturation state of aragonite in the external seawater is at ambient levels, the corals will grow their aragonite crystals rapidly in their internal compartments, hence their exoskeleton grows rapidly. If the saturation state of aragonite in the external seawater is lower than the ambient level, the corals have to work harder to maintain the right balance in the internal compartment. When that happens,

13750-484: The size of Antarctic phytoplankton, making them less effective at storing carbon. Such changes are being increasingly studied and synthesized through the use of physiological frameworks, including the Adverse Outcome Pathway (AOP) framework. A coccolithophore is a unicellular , eukaryotic phytoplankton ( alga ). Understanding calcification changes in coccolithophores may be particularly important because

13875-436: The supply of carbonate to sea floor, therefore sediment below this depth will be void of calcium carbonate. Increasing CO 2 levels, and the resulting lower pH of seawater, decreases the concentration of CO 3 and the saturation state of CaCO 3 therefore increasing CaCO 3 dissolution. Calcium carbonate most commonly occurs in two common polymorphs (crystalline forms): aragonite and calcite . Aragonite

14000-439: The surrounding seawater contains saturating concentrations of carbonate ions ( CO 2− 3 ). Very little of the extra carbon dioxide that is added into the ocean remains as dissolved carbon dioxide. The majority dissociates into additional bicarbonate and free hydrogen ions. The increase in hydrogen is larger than the increase in bicarbonate, creating an imbalance in the reaction: To maintain chemical equilibrium, some of

14125-489: The two species of the flying fox ( bats ), which the local Samoans consider as the protective guardian of the forest and also its people. The two species of flying foxes (bats) protected in the park are: Pteropus samoensis (known locally as pe'a voa ) meaning "fruit bat of the forests" and Pteropus tonganus locally called pe'afaunua , which means "fruit bat of settled lands"; The roosting place of Pteropus samoensis (with prominent light colored face with brown body)

14250-624: The war, the only exception being an attack launched from a Japanese submarine on January 11, 1942. Since 1951, administration of Tutuila and the other islands of American Samoa has been the responsibility of the US Department of the Interior. In 1956, Peter Tali Coleman became the first Samoan-born governor of American Samoa. In 1960, during his tenure, protections for the islanders were approved, including protection from confiscation of their lands and from loss of their cultural practices. After 1960,

14375-424: The water, making photosynthesis challenging. Nitrogen from fertilizers increase coral disease and contribute to coral bleaching. Tropical cyclones drive harsh winds and towering waves that cause damage to coral systems, sometimes causing persistent decrease in coral cover. These storms are expected to increase in intensity, but decrease in frequency over the next 70 years. The NOAA Ocean Acidification Program placed

14500-416: The westernmost settlements are Poloa and Amanave , the northernmost settlement is Vatia and the easternmost settlement is Tula . The island has population of 55,876 ( 2000 census ) (These figures include Aunu'u Island, off the southeast coast of Tutuila, which has a land area of 1.517 km (0.586 sq mi) and a population of 476). The economy of American Samoa is dominated by grants from

14625-407: The whales may be using to attract mates. Several species of dolphin and threatened and endangered species of sea turtles , such as the hawksbill and green sea turtle , are frequently seen swimming in the bay. Recreational activities such as diving, snorkeling, and fishing can be enjoyed at the sanctuary. Fagatele Bay National Marine Sanctuary was designated in 1986 in response to a proposal from

14750-528: The world's oceans (the pH scale is logarithmic, so a change of one in pH unit is equivalent to a tenfold change in hydrogen ion concentration). For example, in the 15-year period 1995–2010 alone, acidity has increased 6 percent in the upper 100 meters of the Pacific Ocean from Hawaii to Alaska. The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report in 2021 stated that "present-day surface pH values are unprecedented for at least 26,000 years and current rates of pH change are unprecedented since at least that time. The pH value of

14875-670: The world, known as StarKist, is located in Atu'u , across the bay from Fagatogo . In the harbor there is a workshop of the Marine Railways, which takes care of the maintenance and repair of fishing ships. The island has six terrestrial and three marine ecosystems. There are two protected areas in the island namely, the National Park covering an area of 2,000 hectares (4,900 acres) and the Fagatele Bay National Marine Sanctuary of 66 hectares (160 acres) area. Flora in

15000-489: Was established in 1988 for preserving its terrestrial and marine environment. It covers an area of 2,000 ha (4,900 acres) 14% of the island and is bound on the north coast between Fagasa and Afono villages. The Rainmaker pass is located within this park with its rainforests. The Amalau Valley between the Afono and Vatia villages in the park has many species of birds and animals. The most significant faunal species consists of

15125-474: Was likely the cause of geologic extinction events. The most notable example of ocean acidification is the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM), which occurred approximately 56 million years ago when massive amounts of carbon entered the ocean and atmosphere, and led to the dissolution of carbonate sediments across many ocean basins. Relatively new geochemical methods of testing for pH in

15250-653: Was once the navy headquarters and Catholic Cathedral with painting of a Holy Family scene at the beach. Also seen are the Zion Church (1900) at Leone , the old capital of Tutuila and the monument in front of the church erected in honor of John Williams, the first missionary to visit Tutuila in 1832, the Radio Towers at Mt. Olotele, the Massacre Bay in Aasu village where a monument has been installed in 1883 with stone cross to honor of

15375-520: Was opposed by many Americans, including the inhabitants of American Samoa, who believed that using the unmodified word "Samoa" as the name for the country that comprised only the westernmost Samoan Islands would be confusing, and would undermine recognition of American Samoa as a distinct country with its own identity. Many American Samoans and other Americans who interact with the Samoan Islands still refer to Samoa informally as "Western Samoa," and to its inhabitants as "Western Samoans." Today American Samoa

15500-429: Was reported as the worst in 100 years in its intensity of wind force and the severity of the damage caused in the island. According to the history of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) American Samoa observatory, "Hurricane Val" struck the Tutuila Island from December 7 – 10th. The hurricane's eye passed over the southern end of the island with winds as high as 116 mi (187 km) recorded at

15625-497: Was the only single-way cable in the world at that time built in 1965, was damaged when a Navy plane attempted to fly under it and was caught by one of the cables, on April 17, 1980, and was permanently put out of commission. The cableway was used to transport the TV technicians to the transmission station. The descent from the peak passes through lovely vistas of the lowlands of the park and the rain forests which abound in several bird species. Another ridge trail runs from Fagasa Pass over

#822177