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99-416: Faddey Faddeyevich Bellingshausen or Fabian Gottlieb Benjamin von Bellingshausen (20 September [ O.S. 9 September] 1778 – 25 January [ O.S. 13 January] 1852) was a Russian cartographer , explorer, and naval officer of Baltic German descent, who attained the rank of admiral . He participated in the first Russian circumnavigation of the globe, and subsequently became

198-587: A cadet in the Imperial Russian Navy at the age of ten. After graduating from the Kronstadt naval academy at age eighteen, Bellingshausen rapidly rose to the rank of captain. A great admirer of Cook 's voyages, Bellingshausen served from 1803 in the first Russian circumnavigation of the Earth. He was one of the officers of the vessel Nadezhda ("Hope"), commanded by Adam Johann von Krusenstern . The mission

297-603: A consequence, the 1825 Committee to Organise the Fleet was formed, which outlined an ambitious shipbuilding project which aimed to create the third largest navy in Europe. The growth of the Russian navy in the years after this greatly bolstered Russian naval capability, expanding both the Baltic and Black Sea Fleets. A Russian squadron under the command of Dutch Admiral Lodewijk van Heiden fought at

396-458: A leader of another circumnavigation expedition that discovered the continent of Antarctica . Like Otto von Kotzebue and Adam Johann von Krusenstern , Bellingshausen belonged to the cohort of prominent Baltic German navigators who helped Russia launch its naval expeditions. Bellingshausen was born in the Estonian island of Saaremaa ( Ösel ), in the eponymous family . He started his service in

495-506: A letter dated "12/22 Dec. 1635". In his biography of John Dee , The Queen's Conjurer , Benjamin Woolley surmises that because Dee fought unsuccessfully for England to embrace the 1583/84 date set for the change, "England remained outside the Gregorian system for a further 170 years, communications during that period customarily carrying two dates". In contrast, Thomas Jefferson , who lived while

594-465: A light high-speed galley) and 143 brigantines . The ships were being constructed at 24 shipyards, including the ones in Voronezh , Kazan , Pereyaslavl , Arkhangelsk , Olonets , Petersburg and Astrakhan . The naval officers came from dvoryane (noblemen, aristocrats who belonged to the state Russian Orthodox Church). The regular sailors were conscripts , drafted into military service. The service in

693-576: A prominent cartographer, Bellingshausen was appointed to command the Russian circumnavigation of the globe in 1819–1821, intended to explore the Southern Ocean and to find land in the proximity of the South Pole . Mikhail Lazarev prepared the expedition and was made Bellingshausen's second-in-command and the captain of the sloop Mirny , while Bellingshausen himself commanded the sloop Vostok . During this expedition, Bellingshausen and Lazarev became

792-514: A revival in the latter part of the century during the reign of Emperor Nicholas II ( r.  1894–1917 ), but most of its Pacific Fleet (along with the Baltic Fleet sent to the Far East) was destroyed in the disastrous Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905. Nicholas II, who was a naval enthusiast, had a major role in both the build up of the navy before the war with Japan and the rebuilding of it in

891-878: A start-of-year adjustment works well with little confusion for events before the introduction of the Gregorian calendar. For example, the Battle of Agincourt is well known to have been fought on 25 October 1415, which is Saint Crispin's Day . However, for the period between the first introduction of the Gregorian calendar on 15 October 1582 and its introduction in Britain on 14 September 1752, there can be considerable confusion between events in Continental Western Europe and in British domains. Events in Continental Western Europe are usually reported in English-language histories by using

990-526: Is 9 February 1649, the date by which his contemporaries in some parts of continental Europe would have recorded his execution. The O.S./N.S. designation is particularly relevant for dates which fall between the start of the "historical year" (1 January) and the legal start date, where different. This was 25 March in England, Wales, Ireland and the colonies until 1752, and until 1600 in Scotland. In Britain, 1 January

1089-692: Is a monument to Admiral Bellingshausen in Kronstadt , near Saint Petersburg in Russia. Old Style and New Style dates Old Style ( O.S. ) and New Style ( N.S. ) indicate dating systems before and after a calendar change, respectively. Usually, they refer to the change from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar as enacted in various European countries between 1582 and 1923. In England , Wales , Ireland and Britain's American colonies , there were two calendar changes, both in 1752. The first adjusted

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1188-707: Is remembered in Russia as one of its greatest admirals and explorers . In the Antarctic , multiple geographical features and locations, named in honor of Bellingshausen, remind of his role in exploration of the southern polar region. There is a memorial stone of Bellingshausen on the previous site (on the ruins) of Lahhentagge/Lahetaguse manor in Ösel/Saaremaa. There is a monument to Bellingshausen in Mykolaiv, Ukraine , as well as in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil and in Montevideo, Uruguay. There

1287-662: The Karp class . These vessels, as well as Forelle were transported along the Trans-Siberian Railway en route to the war zone. Germaniawerft, under the supervision of Spanish naval architect Raymondo Lorenzo d'Euevilley-Montjustin, continued his work on the Karp -class submarines, improving and modifying one into Germany's first U-boat , U-1 , which was commissioned into the Imperial German Navy on 14 December 1906. U-1

1386-888: The Aegean Sea by destroying the Turkish fleet in the Battle of Chesma in 1770. In 1771, the Russian army conquered the coasts of the Kerch Strait and fortresses of Kerch and Yenikale . After having advanced to the Danube , the Russians formed the Danube Military Flotilla for the purpose of guarding the Danube estuary. In 1771 they were guests to the Republic of Ragusa . The Beluga caviar from

1485-740: The Battle of Navarino in 1827. The Navy was used to great effect during the subsequent Russo-Turkish War (1828-29) , utilising the Mediterranean squadron and the Black Sea Fleet to gain command of the Sea from the Ottomans, which contributed to Russian victory and the signing of the Treaty of Adrianople in 1829. In 1826 the Russians built their first armed steamboat Izhora (73.6  kW (98.7  hp )), equipped with eight cannons . In 1836, they constructed

1584-526: The Battle of the Yellow Sea . The remnant of the Russian fleet remained in Port Arthur, where the ships were slowly sunk by the artillery of the besieging army. Attempts to relieve the city by land also failed, and after the Battle of Liaoyang in late August, the Russians retreated to Mukden ( Shenyang ). Port Arthur finally fell on 2 January 1905, after a series of brutal, high-casualty assaults. By 25 June,

1683-592: The Russian Empire and the very beginning of Soviet Russia . For example, in the article "The October (November) Revolution", the Encyclopædia Britannica uses the format of "25 October (7 November, New Style)" to describe the date of the start of the revolution. The Latin equivalents, which are used in many languages, are, on the one hand, stili veteris (genitive) or stilo vetere (ablative), abbreviated st.v. , and meaning "(of/in) old style" ; and, on

1782-594: The South Shetland Islands , and discovered and named Peter I , Zavodovski , Leskov and Visokoi Islands, and a peninsula of the Antarctic mainland that he named the Alexander Coast, but that has more recently borne the designation of Alexander Island . Bellingshausen and Lazarev managed to twice circumnavigate the continent and never lost each other from view. Thus, they disproved Cook 's assertion that it

1881-800: The Swedish fortresses of Dünaburg and Kokenhusen on the Western Dvina . They renamed the former as Borisoglebsk and the latter as Tsarevich-Dmitriyev . A boyar named Afanasy Ordin-Nashchokin founded a shipyard at Tsarevich-Dmitriev fortress and began constructing vessels to sail in the Baltic Sea. In 1661, however, Russia lost this and other captured territories by the Peace of Cardis. Russia agreed to surrender to Sweden all captured territories, and it ordered all vessels constructed at Tsarevich-Dmitriev to be destroyed. Boyar Ordin-Nashchokin turned his attention to

1980-622: The Tartar Strait . Keta could not submerge quick enough to obtain a firing position and both adversaries broke contact. The Russians had already been preparing to reinforce their fleet the previous year by sending elements of the Baltic Sea fleet ( The Second Pacific Squadron ) under Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky around the Cape of Good Hope to Asia, a voyage of over 18,000 mi (16,000 nmi; 29,000 km). On 21 October 1904, while passing by

2079-570: The Tsushima Strait between Korea and Japan, in the early morning of 27 May 1905. Although both battleship fleets were on nearly equal footing in regards to the latest in battleship technology, with the British warship designs representing the Imperial Japanese Navy , and predominately the French designs being favored by the Russian fleets; it was the combat experience that Togo had accrued in

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2178-586: The Volga River and Caspian Sea. With the Tsar's approval, the boyar brought Dutch shipbuilding experts to the town of Dedinovo near the confluence of the Oka and Volga rivers. Shipbuilding commenced in the winter of 1667. Within two years, four vessels had been completed: one 22-gun galley, christened Орёл ("Oryol" = "Eagle"), and three smaller ships. Орёл was Russia's first own three-masted, European-designed sailing ship. It

2277-768: The Voronezh River . After the occupation of the Azov fortress, the Boyar Duma looked into Peter's report of this military campaign. It passed a decree on October 20, 1696, to commence construction of a navy. This date is considered the official founding of the Imperial Russian Navy. During the Great Northern War of 1700–1721, the Russians built the Baltic Fleet . The construction of the oared fleet (galley fleet) took place in 1702–1704 at several shipyards ( estuaries of

2376-485: The 1860s, the Russian fleet which had relied upon sails lost its significance and was gradually replaced by steam. After the Crimean War, Russia commenced construction of steam-powered ironclads , monitors , and floating batteries. These vessels had strong artillery and thick armor , but lacked seaworthiness, speed and long-distance abilities. In 1861, they built the first steel-armored gunboat Opyt (Опыт). In 1869,

2475-457: The 1904 naval battles of Port Arthur and the Yellow Sea , that gave him the edge over the un-tested Admiral Rozhestvensky during the Battle of Tsushima on 27 May. By the end of the day on 27 May, nearly all of Rozhestvensky's battleships were sunk, including his flagship, Knyaz Suvorov ; and on the following day, Admiral Nebogatov, who had relieved Rozhestvensky due to his wounds, surrendered

2574-544: The 19th century, a practice that the author Karen Bellenir considered to reveal a deep emotional resistance to calendar reform. Imperial Russian Navy The Imperial Navy drew its officers from the aristocracy of the Empire, who belonged to the state Russian Orthodox Church . Young aristocrats began to be trained for leadership at a national naval boarding school, the Naval Cadet Corps . From 1818 on, only officers of

2673-532: The 4th century , had drifted from reality . The Gregorian calendar reform also dealt with the accumulated difference between these figures, between the years 325 and 1582, by skipping 10 days to set the ecclesiastical date of the equinox to be 21 March, the median date of its occurrence at the time of the First Council of Nicea in 325. Countries that adopted the Gregorian calendar after 1699 needed to skip an additional day for each subsequent new century that

2772-635: The Antarctic coast at a point with coordinates 69º21'28"S 2º14'50"W and seeing ice-fields there. The point in question lies within twenty miles of the Antarctic mainland. Bellingshausen's diary, his report to the Russian Naval Minister on 21 July 1821 and other documents, available in the Russian State Museum of the Arctic and Antarctic in Saint Petersburg , Russia, were carefully compared with

2871-614: The Arctic. Under Tsar Mikhail I ( Mikhail Fyodorovich Romanov) , the first three-masted ships built within Russia were finished in 1636. Danish shipbuilders from Holstein built it in Balakhna according to contemporary European design. The ship was christened Frederick ; during its maiden voyage on the Caspian Sea , the ship sailed into a heavy storm and was lost at sea. During the Russo–Swedish War, 1656–1658 , Russian forces seized

2970-458: The Australian captain of the ship Campbell Macquarie . When Emperor Alexander I authorized an expedition to the south polar region in 1819, the authorities selected Bellingshausen to lead it as an experienced captain and explorer, and a prominent cartographer. The expedition was intended to explore the Southern Ocean and to find land in the proximity of the South Pole . The preparation work on

3069-665: The Baltic Fleet had 23 ships of the line and 130 frigates (1788). In the early 19th century, the Russian Navy consisted of the Baltic and Black Sea Fleets, Caspian Flotilla , White Sea Flotilla and Okhotsk Flotilla . During the Napoleonic Wars , the Russian Navy had limited sea-going capability, with the 1802 Committee to Improve the Condition of the Navy concluding that the dire state of

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3168-567: The Black Sea Fleet. The total Russian naval expenditure from 1906 to 1913 was $ 519 million, in fifth place behind Britain, Germany, the United States and France. The re-armament program included a significant element of foreign participation with several ships (including the cruiser Rurik ) and machinery ordered from foreign firms. After the outbreak of World War I, ships and equipment being built in Germany were confiscated. Equipment from Britain

3267-684: The Black Sea coast and (eventually) at Murmansk . And even substantial naval forces in the Baltic Sea remained confined by the lack of free access to the Atlantic via the Øresund , just as the Black Sea Fleet could not always rely on passage through the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles . As a result, separate naval groupings developed in relative isolation in the Baltic, the Black Sea, the Russian Far East and

3366-579: The Boyne was commemorated with smaller parades on 1 July. However, both events were combined in the late 18th century, and continue to be celebrated as " The Twelfth ". Because of the differences, British writers and their correspondents often employed two dates, a practice called dual dating , more or less automatically. Letters concerning diplomacy and international trade thus sometimes bore both Julian and Gregorian dates to prevent confusion. For example, Sir William Boswell wrote to Sir John Coke from The Hague

3465-504: The British Isles and colonies converted to the Gregorian calendar, instructed that his tombstone bear his date of birth by using the Julian calendar (notated O.S. for Old Style) and his date of death by using the Gregorian calendar. At Jefferson's birth, the difference was eleven days between the Julian and Gregorian calendars and so his birthday of 2 April in the Julian calendar is 13 April in

3564-405: The British and French navies in the case of an outbreak of war, and thus dispatched the Atlantic and Pacific fleets to North America, including San Francisco and from 1863 New York —with sealed orders to attack British naval targets in case war broke out between Russia and Britain. The Imperial Russian Navy continued to expand in the later part of the century becoming the third largest fleet in

3663-410: The British colonies, changed the start of the year from 25 March to 1 January, with effect from "the day after 31 December 1751". (Scotland had already made this aspect of the changes, on 1 January 1600.) The second (in effect ) adopted the Gregorian calendar in place of the Julian calendar. Thus "New Style" can refer to the start-of-year adjustment , to the adoption of the Gregorian calendar , or to

3762-429: The Danube was famous, and merchants from the Republic of Ragusa dominated the import-export business in Serbia with the Habsburg monarchy . In 1773 the vessels of the Azov Flotilla (created anew in 1771) sailed into the Black Sea. Russia defeated Turkey in the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774, gaining control of the Sea of Azov and a part of the Black Sea coastline between the rivers Bug and Dniester . The Crimea

3861-442: The Great , Feodor Apraksin , Alexey Senyavin , Naum Senyavin , Admiral Mikhail Golitsyn and others are generally credited for the development of the Russian art of naval warfare . The main principles of naval warfare were further developed by Grigory Spiridov , Feodor Ushakov , and Dmitry Senyavin . Between 1688 and 1725, a period spanning most of Peter's reign, some 1,260 seagoing vessels were built in Russian shipyards for

3960-411: The Greek Ivan Botsis , or the Scotsman Thomas Gordon . In 1718, the Admiralty Board (Адмиралтейств-коллегия) was established as the highest naval authority in Russia. The organizational principles of the Russian Navy, educational and training methods for preparing future staff, and methods for conducting military action were all summarized in the Naval Charter (1720), written by Peter I himself. Peter

4059-508: The Gregorian calendar. For example, the Battle of Blenheim is always given as 13 August 1704. However, confusion occurs when an event involves both. For example, William III of England arrived at Brixham in England on 5 November (Julian calendar), after he had set sail from the Netherlands on 11 November (Gregorian calendar) 1688. The Battle of the Boyne in Ireland took place a few months later on 1 July 1690 (Julian calendar). That maps to 11 July (Gregorian calendar), conveniently close to

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4158-466: The Gregorian calendar. Similarly, George Washington is now officially reported as having been born on 22 February 1732, rather than on 11 February 1731/32 (Julian calendar). The philosopher Jeremy Bentham , born on 4 February 1747/8 (Julian calendar), in later life celebrated his birthday on 15 February. There is some evidence that the calendar change was not easily accepted. Many British people continued to celebrate their holidays "Old Style" well into

4257-470: The Holland Company by the Neva Shipbuilding Company located in St. Petersburg , Russia. In 1903, the German ship building firm Germaniawerft at Kiel completed Germany's first fully functioning engine powered submarine; Forelle . The submarine was toured inspected by Kaiser Wilhelm II , and Prince Heinrich of Prussia was given a brief cruise in the vessel. In April 1904, the Imperial Russian Navy purchased Forelle , and ordered two more submarines of

4356-413: The Imperial Navy had amassed a fleet of 55 submarines, used to varying degrees of success. In the Baltic Sea , Germany and Russia were the main combatants, with a number of British submarines sailing through the Kattegat to assist the Russians, including E9 commanded by Max Horton . With the German fleet larger and more modern (many High Seas Fleet ships could easily be deployed to the Baltic via

4455-406: The Imperial Russian Navy had secretly purchased its first naval submarine, known as Madam, from Isaac Rice 's Electric Boat Company . This submarine was originally built under the direction of Arthur Leopold Busch as the American torpedo boat Fulton . It was a prototype of the Holland Type 7 Design known as the Adder -class/ Plunger -class submarines. By 10 October, this first Russian submarine

4554-407: The Imperial Russian Navy were appointed to the position of Chief Manager of the Russian-American Company , based in Russian America (present-day Alaska ) for colonization and fur-trade development. Although the early Imperial Navy initially employed paid foreign sailors, the government began to recruit native-born sailors as conscripts, drafted (as were men to serve in the army). Service in the navy

4653-416: The Imperial Russian Navy. Fleets were launched successively on the White Sea , the Sea of Azov (with access to the Black Sea ), the Baltic Sea , and the Caspian Sea ( Russo-Persian War of 1722-1723 ). In 1700, the majority of sailors in the Imperial Russian Navy were foreigners at the start of the Great Northern War . But by 1721, at the end of the same war, the navy had 7,215 native-born sailors. In

4752-430: The Julian and Gregorian dating systems respectively. The need to correct the calendar arose from the realisation that the correct figure for the number of days in a year is not 365.25 (365 days 6 hours) as assumed by the Julian calendar but slightly less (c. 365.242 days). The Julian calendar therefore has too many leap years . The consequence was that the basis for the calculation of the date of Easter , as decided in

4851-408: The Julian calendar had added since then. When the British Empire did so in 1752, the gap had grown to eleven days; when Russia did so (as its civil calendar ) in 1918, thirteen days needed to be skipped. In the Kingdom of Great Britain and its possessions, the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750 introduced two concurrent changes to the calendar. The first, which applied to England, Wales, Ireland and

4950-454: The Julian date of the subsequent (and more decisive) Battle of Aughrim on 12 July 1691 (Julian). The latter battle was commemorated annually throughout the 18th century on 12 July, following the usual historical convention of commemorating events of that period within Great Britain and Ireland by mapping the Julian date directly onto the modern Gregorian calendar date (as happens, for example, with Guy Fawkes Night on 5 November). The Battle of

5049-414: The Red Fleet in 1918 after the Revolution, took over the available surviving ships that did not evacuate from Crimea. Strategically , the Imperial Russian Navy faced two overarching issues: the use of ice-free ports and open access to the high seas. Saint Petersburg and the other Baltic ports, as well as Vladivostok , could not operate in winter, hence the push for Russia to establish naval facilities on

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5148-426: The Russian Baltic Fleet , and after distinguishing himself joined the first Russian circumnavigation of the Earth in 1803–1806, serving on the merchant ship Nadezhda under the captaincy of Adam Johann von Krusenstern . After the journey, he published a collection of maps of the newly explored areas and islands of the Pacific Ocean . Subsequently, he commanded several ships of the Baltic and Black Sea Fleets . As

5247-404: The Russian Navy, formed in the times of Admiral Ushakov. The Battle of Sinop in 1853 the Black Sea Fleet under Nakhimov made a number of tactical innovations. During the Siege of Sevastopol in 1854–1855, the Russian sailors used all means possible to defend their base from land and sea. In accordance with the Treaty of Paris , Russia lost the right to have a military fleet in the Black Sea. In

5346-401: The Russians began the construction of one of the first seafaring ironclads, Petr Veliky (Пётр Великий). On the night of 8 February 1904, the Japanese naval fleet under Admiral Heihachiro Togo opened the war with a surprise attack by torpedo boat destroyers on the Russian ships at Port Arthur, badly damaging two Russian battleships. The attacks developed into the Battle of Port Arthur

5445-523: The Russians soon learned the Japanese tactic of offensive minelaying and decided to play the strategy too. On 15 May, two Japanese battleships – Yashima and Hatsuse , were both lured into a recently laid Russian minefield off Port Arthur, both striking at least two mines. Hatsuse sank within minutes taking 450 sailors with her, while Yashima sank under tow a few hours later. The Russian fleet attempted to break out from Port Arthur and proceed to Vladivostok , but they were intercepted and dispersed at

5544-447: The Russians use of the port. On the night of 13/14 February, the Japanese attempted to block the entrance to Port Arthur by sinking several cement-filled steamers in the deep water channel to the port. But the steamers, driven off course by Russian gunfire were unable to sink them in the designated places, rendering them ineffective. Another attempt to block the harbor entrance on the night of 3/4 May with blockships also failed. In March,

5643-404: The Southern Polar Ocean and the Voyage Around the World . Bellingshausen was born to a Baltic German noble Bellingshausen family in the Lahhetagge Manor  [ et ] , Ösel County in the Governorate of Livonia of the Russian Empire; now Saare County , Estonia . His paternal family had Holsteinish origins; the surname Bellingshausen was first recorded in Lübeck . He enlisted as

5742-419: The United Kingdom (an ally of Japan but neutral in this war), they nearly provoked a war in the Dogger Bank incident by firing on British fishing boats that they mistook for Japanese torpedo boats . The duration of the Baltic Fleet's journey meant that Admiral Togo was well aware of the Baltic Fleet 's progress, and he made plans to meet it before it could reach port at Vladivostok . He intercepted them in

5841-431: The combination of the two. It was through their use in the Calendar Act that the notations "Old Style" and "New Style" came into common usage. When recording British history, it is usual to quote the date as originally recorded at the time of the event, but with the year number adjusted to start on 1 January. The latter adjustment may be needed because the start of the civil calendar year had not always been 1 January and

5940-436: The decade after. The navy had mixed experiences during the First World War , with the Germans generally gaining the upper hand in the Baltic Sea , while the Russians took control of the Black Sea . The Russian Baltic Fleet mostly stayed on the defensive, but the Black Sea Fleet 's attacks on Ottoman merchant shipping nearly cut off the coal supply to Constantinople and threatened the Ottoman Empire 's ability to stay in

6039-434: The eastern seaboard of Siberia . These voyages produced important scientific research materials and discoveries in Pacific, Antarctic and Arctic theatres of operations. During the American Civil War, Anglo-Russian relations were worsened by Russian perceptions that the British were covertly supporting the January Uprising against Russian rule in Poland. The Russian admiralty feared that the Russian navy could be blockaded by

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6138-432: The end of the following December, 1661/62 , a form of dual dating to indicate that in the following twelve weeks or so, the year was 1661 Old Style but 1662 New Style. Some more modern sources, often more academic ones (e.g. the History of Parliament ) also use the 1661/62 style for the period between 1 January and 24 March for years before the introduction of the New Style calendar in England. The Gregorian calendar

6237-512: The energetic Vice Admiral Stepan Makarov (1849–1904) took command of the First Russian Pacific Squadron with the intention of making plans to break out of the Port Arthur blockade. By then, both sides began a policy of tactical offensive mine-laying by laying mines in each other's ports. This was the first time in warfare that mines were used for offensive purposes. In the past, mines were used as purely defensive purposes by keeping harbors safe from invading warships. The Japanese mine-laying policy

6336-508: The first paddle steam frigate of the Russian Navy called Bogatyr (displacement – 1,340  t (1,320 long tons ), power – 177 kW (237 hp), armament – 28 cannons). The Imperial Russian Navy also sent out exploratory expeditions. Between 1803 and 1855, their ships undertook more than 40 circumnavigations and long-distant voyages, most of which were in support of their North Americans colonies in Russian America (Alaska) and Fort Ross in northern California, and their Pacific ports on

6435-428: The first explorers to see the land of Antarctica on 27 January 1820 ( New Style ), disproving James Cook 's contention that it was impossible to find land in the southern ice-fields. They circumnavigated the continent twice and never lost each other from view. The expedition discovered and named Peter I , Zavodovski , Leskov , Alexander , and Visokoi Islands , the Antarctic Peninsula , and made other discoveries in

6534-412: The first half of the 19th century caused her to fall behind other European countries in the field of steamboat construction. By the outbreak of the Crimean War in 1853, Russia had the Baltic and Black Sea Fleets, Arkhangelsk Flotilla, Caspian Flotilla and Okhotsk Flotilla (altogether, 40 battleships, 15 frigates, 24 corvettes and brigs , 16 steam frigates etc.). The combined number of staff of all

6633-448: The fleets equaled 91,000 people. Despite all this, the reactionary serfdom system had an adverse effect on the development of the Russian Navy. It was especially typical of the Baltic Fleet, which was known for its harsh military drill. Thanks to admirals Mikhail Lazarev , Pavel Nakhimov , Vladimir Kornilov , and Vladimir Istomin , the sailors of the Black Sea Fleet were taught the art of warfare and upholding of military traditions of

6732-432: The log-books of other claimants by the British polar historian A. G. E. Jones in his 1982 study Antarctica Observed . Jones concluded that Bellingshausen, rather than the Royal Navy's Edward Bransfield on 30 January 1820 or the American Nathaniel Palmer on 17 November 1820, was indeed the discoverer of the sought-after Terra Australis . During the voyage Bellingshausen also visited Meretoto / Ship Cove in New Zealand,

6831-407: The navy was lifelong. Children of noblemen were educated for naval service at the School for Mathematical and Navigational Sciences, which had been founded in 1701 in Moscow's Sukharev Tower. Students were often sent abroad for training in foreign fleets. The Navy also hired foreign nationals, with significant naval experience, to serve in the Russian Navy, such as the Norwegian-Dutch Cornelius Cruys ,

6930-408: The new submarine fleet sent out its first combat patrol consisting of the vessels Som and Delfin . With patrols varying from 24 hours to a few days, the sub fleets first enemy contact occurred on 29 April 1905 when Imperial Japanese Navy torpedo boats fired upon Som , withdrawing after failing to score a hit. On 1 July the Russian submarine Keta made contact with two Japanese torpedo boats in

7029-413: The next morning. A series of indecisive naval engagements followed, in which the Japanese were unable to attack the Russian fleet successfully under shore batteries ( coastal guns ) of the harbor and the Russians declined to leave the harbor for the open seas, especially after the death of Admiral Stepan Osipovich Makarov on 13 April 1904. After the attack on Port Arthur, the Japanese attempted to deny

7128-452: The other, stili novi or stilo novo , abbreviated st.n. and meaning "(of/in) new style". The Latin abbreviations may be capitalised differently by different users, e.g., St.n. or St.N. for stili novi . There are equivalents for these terms in other languages as well, such as the German a.St. (" alter Stil " for O.S.). Usually, the mapping of New Style dates onto Old Style dates with

7227-570: The president of the Royal Society . Banks had sailed with Captain James Cook fifty years earlier and supplied the Russians with books and charts for their expedition. Leaving Portsmouth on 5 September 1819 the expedition crossed the Antarctic Circle (the first to do so since Cook ) on 26 January 1820 ( New Style ). On 27 January, the expedition discovered the Antarctic mainland approaching

7326-598: The remainder of the fleet to Admiral Togo. At the end of the Russo-Japanese War in 1905, Russia fell from being the third greatest naval power to sixth place. The focus of Russian naval activities shifted back from the Far East to the Baltic. The task of the Baltic Fleet was to defend the Baltic Sea and Saint Petersburg from the German Empire. Tsar Nicholas II created a Naval General Staff in 1906. At first, attention

7425-532: The rivers Syas , Luga and Olonka ). In order to defend the conquered coastline and attack enemy's maritime communications in the Baltic Sea , the Russians created a sailing fleet from ships built in Russia and others imported from abroad. From 1703 to 1723, the main naval base of the Baltic Fleet was located in Saint Petersburg and then in Kronstadt . Bases were also created in Reval ( Tallinn ) and in Vyborg after it

7524-505: The second half of the 18th century, the Russian Navy was built up to support the government's foreign policy. The nation conducted the Russo-Turkish wars for supremacy in the Black Sea . For the first time, Russia sent its squadrons from the Baltic Sea to distant theaters of operations ( see Archipelago expeditions of the Russian Navy ). Admiral Spiridov's squadron gained supremacy in

7623-482: The ships of the Baltic Fleet, suffering as they did from extensive rot and a lack of copper plating, was incapable of defending Kronstadt and St Petersburg . The Committee's chairman, Vorontsov, concluded that "It is impossible for Russia to be considered a major naval power, but there is no predictable need or advantage in this status." Consequently, the Committee recommended nothing more than limited measures to rectify

7722-634: The start of a new year from 25 March ( Lady Day , the Feast of the Annunciation ) to 1 January, a change which Scotland had made in 1600. The second discarded the Julian calendar in favour of the Gregorian calendar, skipping 11 days in the month of September to do so. To accommodate the two calendar changes, writers used dual dating to identify a given day by giving its date according to both styles of dating. For countries such as Russia where no start-of-year adjustment took place, O.S. and N.S. simply indicate

7821-553: The state of the fleets, and the Russians retained limited capability at sea thereafter, relying on their land power to defeat Napoleon . In 1802, the Ministry of Naval Military Forces was established (renamed to Naval Ministry in 1815). This attitude changed with the accession of Nicholas I in 1825, who less than a month into his reign declared that "Russia must become the third naval power after England and France and must be more powerful than any coalition of secondary naval powers." As

7920-541: The tropical waters of the Pacific . Made captain-commodore  [ ru ] on his return, Bellingshausen participated in the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829 . Promoted to vice admiral , he again served in the Baltic Fleet in the 1830s. From 1839, he was a military governor of Kronstadt , and gained the rank of admiral in 1843. In 1831, he published the book on his Antarctic travels, called Double Investigation of

8019-433: The two ships, the 985-ton sloop-of-war Vostok ("East") and the 530-ton support vessel Mirny ("Peaceful") was carried out by Mikhail Lazarev , who had captained his own circumnavigation of the globe before. Bellingshausen became the captain of Vostok , and Lazarev captained Mirny . The journey started from Kronstadt on 4 June 1819. They stopped briefly in England, where Bellingshausen met with Sir Joseph Banks ,

8118-600: The war . The Russian Revolution marked the end of the Imperial Navy; the Russian Provisional Government carried out reforms to the navy and its command structure, including the removal of imperial references from its rank insignia. Its officers had mostly aligned with the emperor , and the sailors split to fight on either side during the Russian Civil War of 1917–1922. The Soviet Navy , established as

8217-563: The world after the UK and France. The expansion accelerated under Emperor Nicholas II who had been influenced by the American naval theoretician Alfred Thayer Mahan . Russian industry, although growing in capacity, was not able to meet the demands and some ships were ordered from the UK, France, Germany, US, and Denmark. French naval architects in particular had a considerable influence on Russian designs. Russia's slow technical and economic development in

8316-780: Was Semyon Dezhnev who, in 1648, sailed along the entire northern expanse of present-day Russia by way of the Arctic Ocean . Rounding the Chukotsk Peninsula , Dezhnev passed through the Bering Sea and sailed into the Pacific Ocean. Peter the Great established the modern Russian Navy. During the Second Azov campaign of 1696 against Turkey, the Russians for the first time used 2 warships, 4 fireships , 23 galleys and 1300 strugs , built on

8415-474: Was altered at different times in different countries. From 1155 to 1752, the civil or legal year in England began on 25 March ( Lady Day ); so for example, the execution of Charles I was recorded at the time in Parliament as happening on 30 January 164 8 (Old Style). In newer English-language texts, this date is usually shown as "30 January 164 9 " (New Style). The corresponding date in the Gregorian calendar

8514-599: Was captured in Astrakhan by rebellious Cossacks led by Stepan Razin . The Cossacks ransacked Орёл and abandoned it, half-submerged, in an estuary of the Volga. During much of the 17th century, independent Russian merchants and Cossacks, using koch boats , sailed across the White Sea , exploring the rivers Lena , Kolyma and Indigirka , and founding settlements in the region of the upper Amur . The most celebrated Russian explorer

8613-708: Was ceded by Sweden after Russo-Swedish War (1741-1743) . Vladimirsky Prikaz was the first organization in charge of shipbuilding. Later on, these functions were transferred to the Admiralteyskiy Prikaz (admiralty in St. Petersburg). In 1745 the Russian Navy had 130 sailing vessels, including 36 ships of the line, 9 frigates , 3 shnyavas ( шнява — a light two-mast ship used for reconnaissance and messenger services), 5 bombardier ships, and 77 auxiliary vessels. The oared fleet consisted of 396 vessels, including 253 galleys and semi-galleys (called скампавеи , or scampavei ;

8712-587: Was celebrated as the New Year festival from as early as the 13th century, despite the recorded (civil) year not incrementing until 25 March, but the "year starting 25th March was called the Civil or Legal Year, although the phrase Old Style was more commonly used". To reduce misunderstandings about the date, it was normal even in semi-official documents such as parish registers to place a statutory new-year heading after 24 March (for example "1661") and another heading from

8811-658: Was completed in 1806. After the journey, Bellingshausen published a collection of maps of the newly explored areas and islands of the Pacific Ocean . Bellingshausen's career continued with the command of various ships in the Baltic and Black Seas . From 1812 to 1816 he commanded the frigate Minerva and from 1817 to 1819 the frigate Flora , both in the Black Sea Fleet . During 1812 he met on Macquarie Island , half-way between New Zealand and Antarctica , Richard Siddins ,

8910-559: Was directed to creation of mine-laying and a submarine fleet. An ambitious expansion program was put before the Duma in 1907–1908 but was voted down. The Bosnian Crisis of 1909 forced a strategic reconsideration, and new Gangut -class battleships, cruisers, and destroyers were ordered for the Baltic Fleet. A worsening of relations with Turkey meant that new ships including the Imperatritsa Mariya -class battleships were also ordered for

9009-408: Was effective at restricting the Russian movement of its ships outside Port Arthur when on 12 April 1904, two Russian battleships; the flagship , Petropavlovsk , and Pobeda ran into a Japanese minefield off Port Arthur with both striking mines. Petropavlovsk sank within an hour, while Pobeda had to be towed back to Port Arthur for extensive repairs. Makarov died on Petropavlovsk . However,

9108-496: Was implemented in Russia on 14 February 1918 by dropping the Julian dates of 1–13 February 1918 , pursuant to a Sovnarkom decree signed 24 January 1918 (Julian) by Vladimir Lenin . The decree required that the Julian date was to be written in parentheses after the Gregorian date, until 1 July 1918. It is common in English-language publications to use the familiar Old Style or New Style terms to discuss events and personalities in other countries, especially with reference to

9207-410: Was impossible to find land in the southern ice fields. The expedition also made discoveries and observations in the tropical waters of the Pacific Ocean. Returning to Kronstadt on 4 August 1821, Bellingshausen was made captain-commodore , and received the rank of counter admiral from tsar Nicholas I in 1826. He fought in the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829, — particularly in the siege of Varna ,

9306-413: Was lifelong before the 1874 decree on conscription limited the service term to six years at most. Many naval commanders and recruits came from Imperial Russia's non-Russian lands with maritime traditions— Finland and (especially) the Baltic governorates . The Russian Navy went into a period of decline due to the Empire's slow technical and economic development in the first half of the 19th century. It had

9405-447: Was officially commissioned into service and shipped to the eastern coast near Vladivostok Russia and was renamed Som ("Catfish"). This first Russian submarine was not ready in time for the Russo-Japanese War. The reason behind this delay was partly due to a late shipment of torpedoes that was originally ordered from Germany in early 1905. Russia soon ordered more submarines of the same basic design, and they were built under contract with

9504-641: Was promoted to vice admiral in 1830, served as a military governor of port Kronstadt at the approaches to St Petersburg , and gained the rank of admiral in 1843. In 1831, he published the book on his Antarctic travel, called Double Investigation of the Southern Polar Ocean and the Voyage Around the World . In 1839 he became a military governor of Kronstadt , the main base of Russian Baltic Fleet , and died there in 1852. Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen

9603-490: Was pronounced independent under Russia's protectorate and was annexed by Russia in 1783 . In 1778, the Russians founded the port of Kherson . The first battleship of the Black Sea Fleet was commissioned here in 1783. A year later, a squadron had been developed. By the second half of the 18th century, the Russian Navy had the fourth-largest fleet in the world after Great Britain, Spain and France. The Black Sea Fleet possessed 35 line-of-battle ships and 19 frigates (1787), and

9702-585: Was retired in 1919, and is currently on display at the Deutsches Museum in Munich. Due to the ongoing blockade of Port Arthur in 1904, the Imperial Russian Navy dispatched their remaining submarines to Vladivostok , and by the end of 1904 the last of seven subs had reached their new base there. Using the seven boats as a foundation, the Imperial Russian Navy created the world's first operational submarine fleet at Vladivostok on 1 January 1905. On 14 February 1905

9801-661: Was slow in reaching Russia or was diverted to the Western Allies' own war effort. By the time that the war broke out the Russian Baltic Fleet and the Siberian Flotilla were not a match for the German High Seas Fleet or the Imperial Japanese Navy , but the Black Sea Fleet had enough capability to threaten the Ottomans. At the outbreak of World War I, the Russian Navy consisted of the following: By 1917

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