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100-430: Regasification is a process of converting liquefied natural gas (LNG) at −162 °C (−260 °F) temperature back to natural gas at atmospheric temperature. LNG gasification plants can be located on land as well as on floating barges, i.e. a Floating Storage and Regasification Unit (FSRU). Floating barge mounted plants have the advantage that they can be towed to new offshore locations for better usage in response to changes in

200-417: A compressed natural gas (CNG) engine, the mixing of the fuel and the air is more effective since gases typically mix well in a short period of time, but at typical CNG pressures the fuel itself is less energy-dense than gasoline or diesel, so the result is a less energy-dense air–fuel mixture. For an engine of a given cylinder displacement, a normally-aspirated CNG-powered engine is typically less powerful than

300-488: A characteristic appearance of a swelled pillow formed out of metal. A waste heat recovery unit (WHRU) is a heat exchanger that recovers heat from a hot gas stream while transferring it to a working medium, typically water or oils. The hot gas stream can be the exhaust gas from a gas turbine or a diesel engine or a waste gas from industry or refinery. Large systems with high volume and temperature gas streams, typical in industry, can benefit from steam Rankine cycle (SRC) in

400-450: A constant temperature but still allows for the heat exchanger to accept additional heat. One example where this has been investigated is for use in high power aircraft electronics. Heat exchangers functioning in multiphase flow regimes may be subject to the Ledinegg instability . Direct contact heat exchangers involve heat transfer between hot and cold streams of two phases in the absence of

500-458: A gaseous state, freezing and asphyxia . The liquefaction process involves removal of certain components, such as dust, acid gases , helium , water, and heavy hydrocarbons , which could cause difficulty downstream. The natural gas is then condensed into a liquid at close to atmospheric pressure by cooling it to approximately −162 °C (−260 °F); maximum transport pressure is set at around 25 kPa (4 psi) ( gauge pressure ), which

600-455: A gasoline or diesel engine of similar displacement. For that reason turbochargers are popular in European CNG cars. Despite that limitation, the 12-litre Cummins Westport ISX12G engine is an example of a CNG-capable engine designed to pull tractor–trailer loads up to 80,000 pounds (36,000 kg) showing CNG can be used in many on-road truck applications. The original ISX G engine incorporated

700-438: A greater transfer of heat and a decrease in pressure. 4. Condensers and Boilers Heat exchangers using a two-phase heat transfer system are condensers, boilers and evaporators. Condensers are instruments that take and cool hot gas or vapor to the point of condensation and transform the gas into a liquid form. The point at which liquid transforms to gas is called vaporization and vice versa is called condensation. Surface condenser

800-550: A large natural gas field was discovered in Algeria. International trade in LNG quickly followed as LNG was shipped to France and Great Britain from the Algerian fields. One more important attribute of LNG had now been exploited. Once natural gas was liquefied it could not only be stored more easily, but it could be transported. Thus energy could now be shipped over the oceans via LNG the same way it

900-851: A local gas source or access to pipelines. China has been a leader in the use of LNG vehicles with over 100,000 LNG-powered vehicles on the road as of Sept 2014. In the United States the beginnings of a public LNG fueling capability are being put in place. An alternative fuelling centre tracking site shows 84 public truck LNG fuel centres as of Dec 2016. It is possible for large trucks to make cross country trips such as Los Angeles to Boston and refuel at public refuelling stations every 500 miles. The 2013 National Trucker's Directory lists approximately 7,000 truckstops, thus approximately 1% of US truckstops have LNG available. While as of December 2014 LNG fuel and NGV's were not taken to very quickly within Europe and it

1000-436: A moment's notice through regasification processes, and today are the main means for networks to handle local peak shaving requirements. The heating value depends on the source of gas that is used and the process that is used to liquefy the gas. The range of heating value can span ±10 to 15 percent. A typical value of the higher heating value of LNG is approximately 50 MJ/kg or 21,500 BTU/lb. A typical value of

1100-527: A process for large-scale liquefaction of natural gas. The intention was to store natural gas as a liquid so it could be used for shaving peak energy loads during cold snaps. Because of large volumes it is not practical to store natural gas, as a gas, near atmospheric pressure. However, when liquefied, it can be stored in a volume 1/600th as large. This is a practical way to store it but the gas must be kept at −260 °F (−162 °C). There are two processes for liquefying natural gas in large quantities. The first

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1200-434: A proven contractor is extremely important for both investors and buyers. Gas reserves required: 1 tcf of gas required per Mtpa of LNG over 20 years. LNG is most cost efficiently produced in relatively large facilities due to economies of scale , at sites with marine access allowing regular large bulk shipments direct to market. This requires a secure gas supply of sufficient capacity. Ideally, facilities are located close to

1300-503: A receiving terminal costs $ 1 billion per 1 bcf/day throughput capacity and LNG vessels cost $ 200 million–$ 300 million. In the early 2000s, prices for constructing LNG plants, receiving terminals and vessels fell as new technologies emerged and more players invested in liquefaction and regasification. This tended to make LNG more competitive as a means of energy distribution, but increasing material costs and demand for construction contractors have put upward pressure on prices in

1400-553: A recent boom in U.S. natural gas production (2010–2014), enabled by hydraulic fracturing ("fracking"), has many of these import facilities being considered as export facilities. The first U.S. LNG export was completed in early 2016. By 2023, the U.S. had become the biggest exporter in the world, and projects already under construction or permitted would double its export capacities by 2027. The largest exporters were Cheniere Energy Inc., Freeport LNG , and Venture Global LNG Inc. The U.S. Energy Information Administration reported that

1500-418: A second flowpath ( the 'Shell side'). Plate and shell technology offers high heat transfer, high pressure, high operating temperature , compact size, low fouling and close approach temperature. In particular, it does completely without gaskets, which provides security against leakage at high pressures and temperatures. A fourth type of heat exchanger uses an intermediate fluid or solid store to hold heat, which

1600-435: A shortage of skilled labor, professional engineers, designers, managers and other white-collar professionals. Due to natural gas shortage concerns in the northeastern U.S. and surplus natural gas in the rest of the country, many new LNG import and export terminals are being contemplated in the United States. Concerns about the safety of such facilities create controversy in some regions where they are proposed. One such location

1700-627: A single phase , heat exchangers can be used either to heat a liquid to evaporate (or boil) it or used as condensers to cool a vapor and condense it to a liquid. In chemical plants and refineries , reboilers used to heat incoming feed for distillation towers are often heat exchangers. Distillation set-ups typically use condensers to condense distillate vapors back into liquid. Power plants that use steam -driven turbines commonly use heat exchangers to boil water into steam . Heat exchangers or similar units for producing steam from water are often called boilers or steam generators. In

1800-414: A stream that must be cooled to another stream that must be heated, such as distillate cooling and reboiler feed pre-heating. This term can also refer to heat exchangers that contain a material within their structure that has a change of phase. This is usually a solid to liquid phase due to the small volume difference between these states. This change of phase effectively acts as a buffer because it occurs at

1900-405: A thin sheet of metal welded to the thicker surface of a tank or vessel, or two thin sheets welded together. The surface of the plate is welded with a regular pattern of dots or a serpentine pattern of weld lines. After welding the enclosed space is pressurised with sufficient force to cause the thin metal to bulge out around the welds, providing a space for heat exchanger liquids to flow, and creating

2000-494: A tube-based heat exchanger is common when one of the working fluids is a low-pressure gas, and is typical for heat exchangers that operate using ambient air, such as automotive radiators and HVAC air condensers . Fins dramatically increase the surface area with which heat can be exchanged, which improves the efficiency of conducting heat to a fluid with very low thermal conductivity , such as air. The fins are typically made from aluminium or copper since they must conduct heat from

2100-404: A tubes & fins configuration. 3. Plate Heat Exchanger A plate heat exchanger contains an amount of thin shaped heat transfer plates bundled together. The gasket arrangement of each pair of plates provides two separate channel system. Each pair of plates form a channel where the fluid can flow through. The pairs are attached by welding and bolting methods. The following shows the components in

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2200-434: A turbocharger to enhance the air–fuel energy density. Heat exchanger There are three primary classifications of heat exchangers according to their flow arrangement. In parallel-flow heat exchangers, the two fluids enter the exchanger at the same end, and travel in parallel to one another to the other side. In counter-flow heat exchangers the fluids enter the exchanger from opposite ends. The counter current design

2300-430: A turbocharger), then it can produce more power than a larger one burning a less energy-dense air–fuel mixture. For high-power, high-torque engines, a fuel that creates a more energy-dense air–fuel mixture is preferred, because a smaller and simpler engine can produce the same power. With conventional gasoline and diesel engines the energy density of the air–fuel mixture is limited because the liquid fuels do not mix well in

2400-417: A vacuum system in between to reduce the amount of heat transfer. Once on site, the LNG must be stored in vacuum insulated or flat bottom storage tanks . When ready for distribution, the LNG enters a regasification facility where it is pumped into a vaporizer and heated back into gaseous form. The gas then enters the gas pipeline distribution system and is delivered to the end-user. The natural gas fed into

2500-468: A waste heat recovery unit, but these cycles are too expensive for small systems. The recovery of heat from low temperature systems requires different working fluids than steam. An organic Rankine cycle (ORC) waste heat recovery unit can be more efficient at low temperature range using refrigerants that boil at lower temperatures than water. Typical organic refrigerants are ammonia , pentafluoropropane (R-245fa and R-245ca), and toluene . The refrigerant

2600-446: Is natural gas (predominantly methane , CH 4 , with some mixture of ethane , C 2 H 6 ) that has been cooled down to liquid form for ease and safety of non-pressurized storage or transport. It takes up about 1/600th the volume of natural gas in the gaseous state at standard conditions for temperature and pressure . LNG is odorless , colorless , non-toxic and non-corrosive . Hazards include flammability after vaporization into

2700-415: Is a plate and shell heat exchanger, which combines plate heat exchanger with shell and tube heat exchanger technologies. The heart of the heat exchanger contains a fully welded circular plate pack made by pressing and cutting round plates and welding them together. Nozzles carry flow in and out of the platepack (the 'Plate side' flowpath). The fully welded platepack is assembled into an outer shell that creates

2800-663: Is about 1.25 times atmospheric pressure at sea level. The gas extracted from underground hydrocarbon deposits contains a varying mix of hydrocarbon components, which usually includes mostly methane (CH 4 ), along with ethane (C 2 H 6 ), propane (C 3 H 8 ) and butane (C 4 H 10 ). Other gases also occur in natural gas, notably CO 2 . These gases have wide-ranging boiling points and also different heating values, allowing different routes to commercialization and also different uses. The "acidic" elements such as hydrogen sulphide (H 2 S) and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), together with oil, mud, water, and mercury, are removed from

2900-492: Is achieved for the LNG/natural gas consumed by the gas turbine as its exhaust heat is fully used/absorbed for the gasification of LNG. However, the abundant availability of natural gas, and the mature technology and its acceptability in using the LNG directly (without regasification) in road and rail vehicles would lead to lesser demand for LNG regasification plants. Liquefied natural gas Liquefied natural gas ( LNG )

3000-421: Is also more viable economically. The natural gas processed with cold energy of LNG and the imported LNG can be readily injected into a conventional natural gas distribution system to reach the ultimate consumers. The cold energy of LNG can be used for cooling the exhaust fluid of the gas turbine which is working in closed joule cycle with Argon gas as fluid. Thus near 100% conversion efficiency to electricity

3100-505: Is at significant risk of becoming stranded, as global gas risks becoming oversupplied, particularly if the United States and Canada play a larger role. The current surge in unconventional oil and gas in the U.S. has resulted in lower gas prices in the U.S. This has led to discussions in Asia' oil linked gas markets to import gas based on Henry Hub index. Recent high level conference in Vancouver,

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3200-446: Is boiled by the heat source in the evaporator to produce super-heated vapor. This fluid is expanded in the turbine to convert thermal energy to kinetic energy, that is converted to electricity in the electrical generator. This energy transfer process decreases the temperature of the refrigerant that, in turn, condenses. The cycle is closed and completed using a pump to send the fluid back to the evaporator. Another type of heat exchanger

3300-433: Is called " (dynamic) scraped surface heat exchanger ". This is mainly used for heating or cooling with high- viscosity products, crystallization processes, evaporation and high- fouling applications. Long running times are achieved due to the continuous scraping of the surface, thus avoiding fouling and achieving a sustainable heat transfer rate during the process. In addition to heating up or cooling down fluids in just

3400-512: Is commonly used in the dairy industry for cooling milk in large direct-expansion stainless steel bulk tanks . Nearly the entire surface area of a tank can be integrated with this heat exchanger, without gaps that would occur between pipes welded to the exterior of the tank. Pillow plates can also be constructed as flat plates that are stacked inside a tank. The relatively flat surface of the plates allows easy cleaning, especially in sterile applications. The pillow plate can be constructed using either

3500-525: Is confirmed, the buyer is obliged to take and pay for the product, or pay for it even if not taken, in what is referred to as the obligation of take-or-pay contract (TOP). In the mid-1990s, LNG was a buyer's market. At the request of buyers, the SPAs began to adopt some flexibilities on volume and price. The buyers had more upward and downward flexibilities in TOP, and short-term SPAs less than 16 years came into effect. At

3600-525: Is cooled to temperatures at which it liquefies. This process was developed by James Joule and William Thomson and is known as the Joule–Thomson effect . Lee Twomey used the cascade process for his patents. The East Ohio Gas Company built a full-scale commercial LNG plant in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1940 just after a successful pilot plant built by its sister company, Hope Natural Gas Company of West Virginia. This

3700-479: Is in Qatar, with a total production capacity of 7.8 million tonnes per annum (MTPA). LNG is loaded onto ships and delivered to a regasification terminal, where the LNG is allowed to expand and reconvert into gas. Regasification terminals are usually connected to a storage and pipeline distribution network to distribute natural gas to local distribution companies (LDCs) or independent power plants (IPPs). Information for

3800-630: Is in the Long Island Sound between Connecticut and Long Island. Broadwater Energy , an effort of TransCanada Corp. and Shell, wishes to build an LNG import terminal in the sound on the New York side. Local politicians including the Suffolk County Executive raised questions about the terminal. In 2005, New York Senators Chuck Schumer and Hillary Clinton also announced their opposition to the project. Several import terminal proposals along

3900-415: Is only 60 percent that of diesel and 70 percent that of gasoline . Experiments on the properties of gases started early in the 17th century. By the middle of the seventeenth century Robert Boyle had derived the inverse relationship between the pressure and the volume of gases. About the same time, Guillaume Amontons started looking into temperature effects on gas. Various gas experiments continued for

4000-443: Is produced. Plates are produced in different depths, sizes and corrugated shapes. There are different types of plates available including plate and frame, plate and shell and spiral plate heat exchangers. The distribution area guarantees the flow of fluid to the whole heat transfer surface. This helps to prevent stagnant area that can cause accumulation of unwanted material on solid surfaces. High flow turbulence between plates results in

4100-430: Is shipped around the world in specially constructed seagoing vessels . The trade of LNG is completed by signing an SPA (sale and purchase agreement) between a supplier and receiving terminal, and by signing a GSA (gas sale agreement) between a receiving terminal and end-users. Most of the contract terms used to be DES or ex ship , holding the seller responsible for the transport of the gas. With low shipbuilding costs, and

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4200-447: Is the plate heat exchanger . These exchangers are composed of many thin, slightly separated plates that have very large surface areas and small fluid flow passages for heat transfer. Advances in gasket and brazing technology have made the plate-type heat exchanger increasingly practical. In HVAC applications, large heat exchangers of this type are called plate-and-frame ; when used in open loops, these heat exchangers are normally of

4300-742: Is the " log mean temperature difference " (LMTD). Sometimes direct knowledge of the LMTD is not available and the NTU method is used. Double pipe heat exchangers are the simplest exchangers used in industries. On one hand, these heat exchangers are cheap for both design and maintenance, making them a good choice for small industries. On the other hand, their low efficiency coupled with the high space occupied in large scales, has led modern industries to use more efficient heat exchangers like shell and tube or plate. However, since double pipe heat exchangers are simple, they are used to teach heat exchanger design basics to students as

4400-625: Is the cascade process, in which the natural gas is cooled by another gas which in turn has been cooled by still another gas, hence named the "cascade" process. There are usually two cascade cycles before the liquid natural gas cycle. The other method is the Linde process , with a variation of the Linde process, called the Claude process, being sometimes used. In this process, the gas is cooled regeneratively by continually passing and expanding it through an orifice until it

4500-402: Is the most common type of condenser where it includes a water supply device. Figure 5 below displays a two-pass surface condenser. The pressure of steam at the turbine outlet is low where the steam density is very low where the flow rate is very high. To prevent a decrease in pressure in the movement of steam from the turbine to condenser, the condenser unit is placed underneath and connected to

4600-399: Is the most efficient, in that it can transfer the most heat from the heat (transfer) medium per unit mass due to the fact that the average temperature difference along any unit length is higher . See countercurrent exchange . In a cross-flow heat exchanger, the fluids travel roughly perpendicular to one another through the exchanger. For efficiency, heat exchangers are designed to maximize

4700-617: Is then moved to the other side of the heat exchanger to be released. Two examples of this are adiabatic wheels, which consist of a large wheel with fine threads rotating through the hot and cold fluids, and fluid heat exchangers. This type of heat exchanger uses "sandwiched" passages containing fins to increase the effectiveness of the unit. The designs include crossflow and counterflow coupled with various fin configurations such as straight fins, offset fins and wavy fins. Plate and fin heat exchangers are usually made of aluminum alloys, which provide high heat transfer efficiency. The material enables

4800-446: Is to simplify transport of natural gas from the source to a destination. On the large scale, this is done when the source and the destination are across an ocean from each other. It can also be used when adequate pipeline capacity is not available. For large-scale transport uses, the LNG is typically regassified at the receiving end and pushed into the local natural gas pipeline infrastructure. LNG can also be used to meet peak demand when

4900-474: The lower heating value of LNG is 45 MJ/kg or 19,350 BTU/lb. For the purpose of comparison of different fuels, the heating value may be expressed in terms of energy per volume, which is known as the energy density expressed in MJ/litre. The density of LNG is roughly 0.41 kg/litre to 0.5 kg/litre, depending on temperature, pressure, and composition, compared to water at 1.0 kg/litre. Using

5000-489: The Japanese yen and Korean won. Since 2004, the large number of orders increased demand for shipyard slots, raising their price and increasing ship costs. The per-ton construction cost of an LNG liquefaction plant fell steadily from the 1970s through the 1990s. The cost reduced by approximately 35 percent. However, recently the cost of building liquefaction and regasification terminals doubled due to increased cost of materials and

5100-468: The LNG plant will be treated to remove water, hydrogen sulfide , carbon dioxide , benzene and other components that will freeze under the low temperatures needed for storage or be destructive to the liquefaction facility. LNG typically contains more than 90%  methane . It also contains small amounts of ethane , propane , butane , some heavier alkanes , and nitrogen. The purification process can be designed to give almost 100%  methane . One of

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5200-870: The Pacific Energy Summit 2013 Pacific Energy Summit 2013 convened policy makers and experts from Asia and the U.S. to discuss LNG trade relations between these regions. Receiving terminals exist in about 40 countries, including Belgium, Chile, China, the Dominican Republic, France, Greece, India, Italy, Japan, Korea, Poland, Spain, Taiwan, the UK, the US, among others. Plans exist for Bahrain, Germany, Ghana, Morocco, Philippines, Vietnam and others to also construct new receiving ( regasification ) terminals. Base load (large-scale, >1 MTPA) LNG projects require natural gas reserves, buyers and financing. Using proven technology and

5300-454: The U.S. had exported 4.3 trillion cubic feet in 2023. The process begins with the pre-treatment of a feedstock of natural gas entering the system to remove impurities such as H 2 S , CO 2 , H 2 O, mercury and higher-chained hydrocarbons . Feedstock gas then enters the liquefaction unit where it is cooled to between -145 °C and -163 °C. Although the type or number of heating cycles and/or refrigerants used may vary based on

5400-592: The business environment. In a conventional regasification plant , LNG is heated by sea water to convert it to natural gas / methane gas. In addition to regasification, many valuable industrial byproducts can be produced using cold energy of LNG. Cold energy of LNG utilisation, for extracting liquid oxygen and nitrogen gas from air, makes LNG-regasification plants more viable when they are located near integrated steel plants and/or urea plants . Cold energy of LNG usage in lieu of massive and energy intensive cryogenic refrigeration units in natural-gas processing plants

5500-406: The buyers preferring to ensure reliable and stable supply, however, contracts with FOB terms increased. Under such terms the buyer, who often owns a vessel or signs a long-term charter agreement with independent carriers, is responsible for the transport. LNG purchasing agreements used to be for a long term with relatively little flexibility both in price and volume. If the annual contract quantity

5600-518: The coast of Maine were also met with high levels of resistance and questions. On September 13, 2013, the U.S. Department of Energy approved Dominion Cove Point 's application to export up to 770 million cubic feet per day of LNG to countries that do not have a free trade agreement with the U.S. In May 2014, the FERC concluded its environmental assessment of the Cove Point LNG project, which found that

5700-411: The cylinder. Further, gasoline and diesel fuel have autoignition temperatures and pressures relevant to engine design. An important part of engine design is the interactions of cylinders, compression ratios, and fuel injectors such that pre-ignition is prevented but at the same time as much fuel as possible can be injected, become well mixed, and still have time to complete the combustion process during

5800-405: The dimensions and configurations the boilers are manufactured. Several boilers are only able to produce hot fluid while on the other hand the others are manufactured for steam production. Shell and tube heat exchangers consist of a series of tubes which contain fluid that must be either heated or cooled. A second fluid runs over the tubes that are being heated or cooled so that it can either provide

5900-646: The downstream buyers and then sign long-term contracts (typically 20–25 years) with strict terms and structures for gas pricing. Only when the customers are confirmed and the development of a greenfield project deemed economically feasible, could the sponsors of an LNG project invest in their development and operation. Thus, the LNG liquefaction business has been limited to players with strong financial and political resources. Major international oil companies (IOCs) such as ExxonMobil , Royal Dutch Shell , BP , Chevron , TotalEnergies and national oil companies (NOCs) such as Pertamina and Petronas are active players. LNG

6000-420: The economic screening/ justification to develop new, and especially greenfield, LNG facilities challenging, even if these could be more environmentally friendly than existing facilities with all stakeholder concerns satisfied. Due to high financial risk, it is usual to contractually secure gas supply/ concessions and gas sales for extended periods before proceeding to an investment decision. The primary use of LNG

6100-405: The flow-induced vibrations. There are several variations of shell-and-tube exchangers available; the differences lie in the arrangement of flow configurations and details of construction. In application to cool air with shell-and-tube technology (such as intercooler / charge air cooler for combustion engines ), fins can be added on the tubes to increase heat transfer area on air side and create

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6200-400: The fluids, as it creates a larger temperature differential when used under otherwise similar conditions. The figure above illustrates the parallel and counter-flow flow directions of the fluid exchanger. 2. Shell-and-tube heat exchanger In a shell-and-tube heat exchanger, two fluids at different temperatures flow through the heat exchanger. One of the fluids flows through the tube side and

6300-443: The following table is derived in part from publication by the U.S. Energy Information Administration. See also List of LNG terminals The LNG industry developed slowly during the second half of the last century because most LNG plants are located in remote areas not served by pipelines, and because of the high costs of treating and transporting LNG. Constructing an LNG plant costs at least $ 1.5 billion per 1 MTPA capacity,

6400-478: The four metros due to LNG prices decreasing. Japan, the world's largest importer of LNG, is set to begin use of LNG as a road transport fuel. Engine displacement is an important factor in the power of an internal combustion engine . Thus a 2.0 L engine would typically be more powerful than an 1.8 L engine, but that assumes a similar air–fuel mixture is used. However, if a smaller engine uses an air–fuel mixture with higher energy density (such as via

6500-474: The fuel tanks and delivery of gas to the engine, but despite these concerns the move to LNG as a transportation fuel has begun. LNG competes directly with compressed natural gas as a fuel for natural gas vehicles since the engine is identical. There may be applications where LNG trucks, buses, trains and boats could be cost-effective in order to regularly distribute LNG energy together with general freight and/or passengers to smaller, isolated communities without

6600-418: The fundamental rules for all heat exchangers are the same. 1. Double-pipe heat exchanger When one fluid flows through the smaller pipe, the other flows through the annular gap between the two pipes. These flows may be parallel or counter-flows in a double pipe heat exchanger. (a) Parallel flow, where both hot and cold liquids enter the heat exchanger from the same side, flow in the same direction and exit at

6700-476: The gas source, to minimize the cost of intermediate transport infrastructure and gas shrinkage (fuel loss in transport). The high cost of building large LNG facilities makes the progressive development of gas sources to maximize facility utilization essential, and the life extension of existing, financially depreciated LNG facilities cost effective. Particularly when combined with lower sale prices due to large installed capacity and rising construction costs, this makes

6800-480: The gas to deliver a clean sweetened stream of gas. Failure to remove much or all of such acidic molecules, mercury, and other impurities could result in damage to the equipment. Corrosion of steel pipes and amalgamization of mercury to aluminum within cryogenic heat exchangers could cause expensive damage. The gas stream is typically separated into the liquefied petroleum fractions (butane and propane), which can be stored in liquid form at relatively low pressure, and

6900-568: The gasket type to allow periodic disassembly, cleaning, and inspection. There are many types of permanently bonded plate heat exchangers, such as dip-brazed, vacuum-brazed, and welded plate varieties, and they are often specified for closed-loop applications such as refrigeration . Plate heat exchangers also differ in the types of plates that are used, and in the configurations of those plates. Some plates may be stamped with "chevron", dimpled, or other patterns, where others may have machined fins and/or grooves. When compared to shell and tube exchangers,

7000-446: The heat exchanger. In single channels the configuration of the gaskets enables flow through. Thus, this allows the main and secondary media in counter-current flow. A gasket plate heat exchanger has a heat region from corrugated plates. The gasket function as seal between plates and they are located between frame and pressure plates. Fluid flows in a counter current direction throughout the heat exchanger. An efficient thermal performance

7100-471: The heat or absorb the heat required. A set of tubes is called the tube bundle and can be made up of several types of tubes: plain, longitudinally finned, etc. Shell and tube heat exchangers are typically used for high-pressure applications (with pressures greater than 30 bar and temperatures greater than 260 °C). This is because the shell and tube heat exchangers are robust due to their shape. Several thermal design features must be considered when designing

7200-463: The last few years. The standard price for a 125,000 cubic meter LNG vessel built in European and Japanese shipyards used to be US$ 250 million. When Korean and Chinese shipyards entered the race, increased competition reduced profit margins and improved efficiency—reducing costs by 60 percent. Costs in US dollars also declined due to the devaluation of the currencies of the world's largest shipbuilders:

7300-430: The lighter ethane and methane fractions. These lighter fractions of methane and ethane are then liquefied to make up the bulk of LNG that is shipped. Natural gas was considered during the 20th century to be economically unimportant wherever gas-producing oil or gas fields were distant from gas pipelines or located in offshore locations where pipelines were not viable. In the past this usually meant that natural gas produced

7400-428: The median value of 0.45 kg/litre, the typical energy density values are 22.5 MJ/litre (based on higher heating value) or 20.3 MJ/litre (based on lower heating value). The volumetric energy density of LNG is approximately 2.4 times that of compressed natural gas (CNG), which makes it economical to transport natural gas by ship in the form of LNG. The energy density of LNG is comparable to propane and ethanol but

7500-557: The next 15 years new research on low-temperature alloys, and better insulation materials, set the stage for a revival of the industry. It restarted in 1959 when a U.S. World War II Liberty ship , the Methane Pioneer , converted to carry LNG, made a delivery of LNG from the U.S. Gulf Coast to energy-starved Great Britain. In June 1964, the world's first purpose-built LNG carrier, the Methane Princess , entered service. Soon after that

7600-532: The next 200 years. During that time there were efforts to liquefy gases. Many new facts about the nature of gases were discovered. For example, early in the nineteenth century Cagniard de la Tour showed there was a temperature above which a gas could not be liquefied. There was a major push in the mid to late nineteenth century to liquefy all gases. A number of scientists including Michael Faraday , James Joule , and William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) did experiments in this area. In 1886 Karol Olszewski liquefied methane,

7700-530: The normal pipeline infrastructure can meet most demand needs, but not the peak demand needs. These plants are typically called LNG Peak Shaving Plants as the purpose is to shave off part of the peak demand from what is required out of the supply pipeline. LNG can be used to fuel internal combustion engines. LNG is in the early stages of becoming a mainstream fuel for transportation needs. It is being evaluated and tested for over-the-road trucking, off-road, marine, and train applications. There are known problems with

7800-570: The nuclear power plants called pressurized water reactors , special large heat exchangers pass heat from the primary (reactor plant) system to the secondary (steam plant) system, producing steam from water in the process. These are called steam generators . All fossil-fueled and nuclear power plants using steam-driven turbines have surface condensers to convert the exhaust steam from the turbines into condensate (water) for re-use. To conserve energy and cooling capacity in chemical and other plants, regenerative heat exchangers can transfer heat from

7900-428: The other fluid flows outside the tubes, but inside the shell (shell side). Baffles are used to support the tubes, direct the fluid flow to the tubes in an approximately natural manner, and maximize the turbulence of the shell fluid. There are many various kinds of baffles, and the choice of baffle form, spacing, and geometry depends on the allowable flow rate of the drop in shell-side force, the need for tube support, and

8000-425: The power stroke. Natural gas does not auto-ignite at pressures and temperatures relevant to conventional gasoline and diesel engine design, so it allows more flexibility in design. Methane, the main component of natural gas, has an autoignition temperature of 580 °C (1,076 °F), whereas gasoline and diesel autoignite at approximately 250 °C (482 °F) and 210 °C (410 °F) respectively. With

8100-472: The primary constituent of natural gas. By 1900 all gases had been liquefied except helium , which was liquefied in 1908. The first large-scale liquefaction of natural gas in the U.S. was in 1918 when the U.S. government liquefied natural gas as a way to extract helium, which is a small component of some natural gas. This helium was intended for use in British dirigibles for World War I. The liquid natural gas (LNG)

8200-452: The proposed natural gas export project could be built and operated safely. Another LNG terminal is currently proposed for Elba Island , Georgia, US. Plans for three LNG export terminals in the U.S. Gulf Coast region have also received conditional Federal approval. In Canada, an LNG export terminal is under construction near Guysborough , Nova Scotia. In the commercial development of an LNG value chain, LNG suppliers first confirm sales to

8300-480: The risks of LNG is a rapid phase transition explosion (RPT), which occurs when cold LNG comes into contact with water . The most important infrastructure needed for LNG production and transportation is an LNG plant consisting of one or more LNG trains, each of which is an independent unit for gas liquefaction and purification. A typical train consists of a compression area, propane condenser area, and methane and ethane areas. The largest LNG train in operation

8400-433: The same end. This configuration is preferable when the two fluids are intended to reach exactly the same temperature, as it reduces thermal stress and produces a more uniform rate of heat transfer. (b) Counter-flow, where hot and cold fluids enter opposite sides of the heat exchanger, flow in opposite directions, and exit at opposite ends. This configuration is preferable when the objective is to maximize heat transfer between

8500-458: The same time, alternative destinations for cargo and arbitrage were also allowed. By the turn of the 21st century, the market was again in favor of sellers. However, sellers have become more sophisticated and are now proposing sharing of arbitrage opportunities and moving away from S-curve pricing. Research from Global Energy Monitor in 2019 warned that up to US$ 1.3 trillion in new LNG export and import infrastructure currently under development

8600-493: The stacked-plate arrangement typically has lower volume and cost. Another difference between the two is that plate exchangers typically serve low to medium pressure fluids, compared to medium and high pressures of shell and tube. A third and important difference is that plate exchangers employ more countercurrent flow rather than cross current flow, which allows lower approach temperature differences, high temperature changes, and increased efficiencies. A third type of heat exchanger

8700-471: The surface area of the wall between the two fluids, while minimizing resistance to fluid flow through the exchanger. The exchanger's performance can also be affected by the addition of fins or corrugations in one or both directions, which increase surface area and may channel fluid flow or induce turbulence. The driving temperature across the heat transfer surface varies with position, but an appropriate mean temperature can be defined. In most simple systems this

8800-439: The system to operate at a lower temperature difference and reduce the weight of the equipment. Plate and fin heat exchangers are mostly used for low temperature services such as natural gas, helium and oxygen liquefaction plants, air separation plants and transport industries such as motor and aircraft engines . Advantages of plate and fin heat exchangers: Disadvantages of plate and fin heat exchangers: The usage of fins in

8900-654: The technology, the basic process involves circulating the gas through aluminum tube coils and exposure to a compressed refrigerant. As the refrigerant is vaporized, the heat transfer causes the gas in the coils to cool. The LNG is then stored in a specialized double-walled insulated tank at atmospheric pressure ready to be transported to its final destination. Most domestic LNG is transported by land via truck/trailer designed for cryogenic temperatures. Intercontinental LNG transport travels by special tanker ships. LNG transport tanks comprise an internal steel or aluminum compartment and an external carbon or steel compartment with

9000-533: The tools required to commercialize natural gas into a global market which now competes with other fuels. Furthermore, the development of LNG storage also introduced a reliability in networks which was previously thought impossible. Given that storage of other fuels is relatively easily secured using simple tanks, a supply for several months could be kept in storage. With the advent of large-scale cryogenic storage, it became possible to create long term gas storage reserves. These reserves of liquefied gas could be deployed at

9100-444: The tube along the length of the fins, which are usually very thin. The main construction types of finned tube exchangers are: Stacked-fin or spiral-wound construction can be used for the tubes inside shell-and-tube heat exchangers when high efficiency thermal transfer to a gas is required. In electronics cooling, heat sinks , particularly those using heat pipes , can have a stacked-fin construction. A pillow plate heat exchanger

9200-568: The tubes in the shell and tube heat exchangers: There can be many variations on the shell and tube design. Typically, the ends of each tube are connected to plenums (sometimes called water boxes) through holes in tubesheets. The tubes may be straight or bent in the shape of a U, called U-tubes. Fixed tube liquid-cooled heat exchangers especially suitable for marine and harsh applications can be assembled with brass shells, copper tubes, brass baffles, and forged brass integral end hubs. (See: Copper in heat exchangers ). Another type of heat exchanger

9300-432: The turbine. Inside the tubes the cooling water runs in a parallel way, while steam moves in a vertical downward position from the wide opening at the top and travel through the tube. Furthermore, boilers are categorized as initial application of heat exchangers. The word steam generator was regularly used to describe a boiler unit where a hot liquid stream is the source of heat rather than the combustion products. Depending on

9400-531: The year 2015, India also began transporting LNG using LNG-powered road tankers in Kerala state. In 2017, Petronet LNG began setting up 20 LNG stations on highways along the Indian west coast that connect Delhi with Thiruvananthapuram covering a total distance of 4,500 km via Mumbai and Bengaluru. In 2020, India planned to install 24 LNG fuelling stations along the 6,000 km Golden Quadrilateral highways connecting

9500-442: Was not stored, but regasified and immediately put into the gas mains. The key patents having to do with natural gas liquefaction date from 1915 and the mid-1930s. In 1915 Godfrey Cabot patented a method for storing liquid gases at very low temperatures. It consisted of a Thermos bottle -type design which included a cold inner tank within an outer tank; the tanks being separated by insulation. In 1937 Lee Twomey received patents for

9600-537: Was questionable whether LNG will ever become the fuel of choice among fleet operators, recent trends from 2018 onwards show different prospect. During the year 2015, the Netherlands introduced LNG-powered trucks in transport sector. Additionally, the Australian government is planning to develop an LNG highway to utilise the locally produced LNG and replace the imported diesel fuel used by interstate haulage vehicles. In

9700-481: Was regasified and put into the mains when cold snaps hit and extra capacity was needed. This precluded the denial of gas to some customers during a cold snap. The Cleveland plant failed on October 20, 1944, when the cylindrical tank ruptured, spilling thousands of gallons of LNG over the plant and nearby neighborhood. The gas evaporated and caught fire, which caused 130 fatalities. The fire delayed further implementation of LNG facilities for several years. However, over

9800-485: Was shipped in the form of oil. The LNG industry in the U.S. restarted in 1965 with the building of a number of new plants, which continued through the 1970s. These plants were not only used for peak-shaving, as in Cleveland, but also for base-load supplies for places that never had natural gas before this. A number of import facilities were built on the East Coast in anticipation of the need to import energy via LNG. However,

9900-400: Was the first such plant in the world. Originally it had three spheres, approximately 63 feet in diameter containing LNG at −260 °F. Each sphere held the equivalent of about 50 million cubic feet of natural gas. A fourth tank, a cylinder, was added in 1942. It had an equivalent capacity of 100 million cubic feet of gas. The plant operated successfully for three years. The stored gas

10000-424: Was typically flared , especially since unlike oil, no viable method for natural gas storage or transport existed other than compressed gas pipelines to end users of the same gas. This meant that natural gas markets were historically entirely local, and any production had to be consumed within the local or regional network. Developments of production processes, cryogenic storage, and transportation effectively created

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