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58-522: The FIA ecoRally Cup is an international motorsport competition for electric vehicles organized by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile . The cup consists of several regularity rallies , usually located in Europe and ran during one calendar year. Vehicles must be unmodified production road vehicles, although prototypes may be permitted subject to FIA approval if they are road legal within

116-611: A steam turbine , which drives a generator, which is then fed to the propulsion. See Nuclear marine propulsion . A few experimental vehicles, such as some cars and a handful of aircraft use solar panels for electricity. These systems are powered from an external generator plant (nearly always when stationary), and then disconnected before motion occurs, and the electricity is stored in the vehicle until needed. Batteries, electric double-layer capacitors and flywheel energy storage are forms of rechargeable on-board electricity storage systems. By avoiding an intermediate mechanical step,

174-461: A 100 kW internal combustion engine, which can only deliver its maximum torque within a limited range of engine speed. Efficiency of charging varies considerably depending on the type of charger, and energy is lost during the process of converting the electrical energy to mechanical energy. Usually, direct current (DC) electricity is fed into a DC/AC inverter where it is converted to alternating current (AC) electricity and this AC electricity

232-408: A battery is about 50 times greater than the energy it contains. Due to their high pollutant content compared to their small energy content, the primary battery is considered a wasteful, environmentally unfriendly technology. Due mainly to increasing sales of wireless devices and cordless tools which cannot be economically powered by primary batteries and come with integral rechargeable batteries,

290-467: A heavy internal combustion engine or large batteries, they can have very good power-to-weight ratios . This allows high speed trains such as France's double-deck TGVs to operate at speeds of 320 km/h (200 mph) or higher, and electric locomotives to have a much higher power output than diesel locomotives . In addition, they have higher short-term surge power for fast acceleration, and using regenerative brakes can put braking power back into

348-554: A hybrid electric vehicle can combine the power from an electric motor and the internal combustion engine. The most common type is a parallel hybrid that connects the engine and the electric motor to the wheels through mechanical coupling. In this scenario, the electric motor and the engine can drive the wheels directly. Series hybrids only use the electric motor to drive the wheels and can often be referred to as extended-range electric vehicles (EREVs) or range-extended electric vehicles (REEVs). There are also series-parallel hybrids where

406-597: A number of Mini EVs when their Canadian testing ended. The production of the Citroën Berlingo Electrique stopped in September 2005. Zenn started production in 2006 but ended by 2009. During the late 20th and early 21st century, the environmental impact of the petroleum-based transportation infrastructure, along with the fear of peak oil , led to renewed interest in electric transportation infrastructure. EVs differ from fossil fuel -powered vehicles in that

464-402: A patent for this type of battery was held by Chevron, which created a problem for their widespread development. These factors, coupled with their high cost, has led to lithium-ion batteries leading as the predominant battery for EVs. The prices of lithium-ion batteries have declined dramatically over the past decade, contributing to a reduction in price for electric vehicles, but an increase in

522-433: A rail line makes it relatively easy to power EVs through permanent overhead lines or electrified third rails , eliminating the need for heavy onboard batteries. Electric locomotives , electric multiple units , electric trams (also called streetcars or trolleys), electric light rail systems , and electric rapid transit are all in common use today, especially in Europe and Asia. Since electric trains do not need to carry

580-543: A speed of four miles per hour (6 km/h). In England, a patent was granted in 1840 for the use of rails as conductors of electric current, and similar American patents were issued to Lilley and Colten in 1847. The first mass-produced electric vehicles appeared in America in the early 1900s. In 1902, the Studebaker Automobile Company entered the automotive business with electric vehicles, though it also entered

638-502: A supplementary propulsion to internal combustion engines, became more widespread in the late 1990s. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles , where electric motors can be used as the predominant propulsion rather than a supplement, did not see any mass production until the late 2000s, and battery electric cars did not become practical options for the consumer market until the 2010s. Progress in batteries , electric motors and power electronics have made electric cars more feasible than during

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696-528: A women's luxury car, which may have been a stigma among male consumers. Also, internal combustion powered cars became ever-easier to operate thanks to the invention of the electric starter by Charles Kettering in 1912, which eliminated the need of a hand crank for starting a gasoline engine, and the noise emitted by ICE cars became more bearable thanks to the use of the muffler , which Hiram Percy Maxim had invented in 1897. As roads were improved outside urban areas, electric vehicle range could not compete with

754-643: Is connected to a 3-phase AC motor. For electric trains, forklift trucks , and some electric cars, DC motors are often used. In some cases, universal motors are used, and then AC or DC may be employed. In recent production vehicles, various motor types have been implemented; for instance, induction motors within Tesla Motor vehicles and permanent magnet machines in the Nissan Leaf and Chevrolet Bolt . Most large electric transport systems are powered by stationary sources of electricity that are directly connected to

812-427: Is only viable if the system is large enough to use the power generated by descending vehicles. In the systems above, motion is provided by a rotary electric motor. However, it is possible to "unroll" the motor to drive directly against a special matched track. These linear motors are used in maglev trains which float above the rails supported by magnetic levitation . This allows for almost no rolling resistance of

870-404: Is powered exclusively through electric motors. The electricity may come from a battery ( battery electric vehicle ), solar panel ( solar vehicle ) or fuel cell ( fuel cell vehicle ). A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is a type of hybrid vehicle that combines a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) system with an electric propulsion system ( hybrid vehicle drivetrain ). The presence of

928-494: Is used only to supplement battery charging and not as the primary source of power. On-road electric vehicles include electric cars, electric trolleybuses, electric buses , battery electric buses , electric trucks , electric bicycles , electric motorcycles and scooters , personal transporters , neighborhood electric vehicles , golf carts , milk floats , and forklifts . Off-road vehicles include electrified all-terrain vehicles and electric tractors . The fixed nature of

986-569: The University of Groningen , in the Netherlands , built a small-scale electric car, and sometime between 1832 and 1839, Robert Anderson of Scotland invented the first crude electric carriage, powered by non-rechargeable primary cells . American blacksmith and inventor Thomas Davenport built a toy electric locomotive, powered by a primitive electric motor, in 1835. In 1838, a Scotsman named Robert Davidson built an electric locomotive that attained

1044-653: The arcjet rocket , the electrostatic ion thruster , the Hall-effect thruster , and Field Emission Electric Propulsion . Primary cell Primary batteries make up about 90% of the $ 50 billion battery market, but secondary batteries have been gaining market share. About 15 billion primary batteries are thrown away worldwide every year, virtually all ending up in landfills. Due to the toxic heavy metals and strong acids and alkalis they contain, batteries are hazardous waste . Most municipalities classify them as such and require separate disposal. The energy needed to manufacture

1102-413: The electrical grid rather than wasting it. Maglev trains are also nearly always EVs. There are also battery electric passenger trains operating on non-electrified rail lines. Electric boats were popular around the turn of the 20th century. Interest in quiet and potentially renewable marine transportation has steadily increased since the late 20th century, as solar cells have given motorboats

1160-681: The energy conversion efficiency can be improved compared to hybrids by avoiding unnecessary energy conversions. Furthermore, electro-chemical batteries conversions are reversible, allowing electrical energy to be stored in chemical form. Most electric vehicles use lithium-ion batteries (Li-Ions or LIBs). Lithium-ion batteries have a higher energy density , longer life span , and higher power density than most other practical batteries. Complicating factors include safety, durability, thermal breakdown, environmental impact , and cost . Li-ion batteries should be used within safe temperature and voltage ranges to operate safely and efficiently. Increasing

1218-528: The 20th century, electric rail transport became commonplace due to advances in the development of electric locomotives . Over time their general-purpose commercial use reduced to specialist roles as platform trucks , forklift trucks , ambulances, tow tractors, and urban delivery vehicles, such as the iconic British milk float . For most of the 20th century, the UK was the world's largest user of electric road vehicles. Electrified trains were used for coal transport, as

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1276-459: The 20th century. As a means of reducing tailpipe emissions of carbon dioxide and other pollutants, and to reduce use of fossil fuels, government incentives are available in many areas to promote the adoption of electric cars and trucks. Electric motive power started in 1827 when Hungarian priest Ányos Jedlik built the first crude but viable electric motor; the next year he used it to power a small model car. In 1835, Professor Sibrandus Stratingh of

1334-537: The European Union. The cup replaced a series of FIA competitions based around vehicles developed with alternative energy propulsion and included various energy sources and propulsion methods. It was originally known as Alternative Energies Cup (AEC) until 2016. From 2017 to 2021 it was known as E-Rally Regularity Cup (ERRC), and was part of the FIA Electric and New Energy Championship (ENEC) until 2020 along with

1392-484: The ICE. Finally, the initiation of mass production of gasoline-powered vehicles by Henry Ford in 1913 reduced significantly the cost of gasoline cars as compared to electric cars. In the 1930s, National City Lines , which was a partnership of General Motors , Firestone , and Standard Oil of California purchased many electric tram networks across the country to dismantle them and replace them with GM buses. The partnership

1450-581: The Solar Cup and E-Karting. Electric vehicle An electric vehicle ( EV ) is a vehicle whose propulsion is powered fully or mostly by electricity. EVs include road and rail vehicles , electric boats and underwater vessels , electric aircraft and electric spacecraft . Early electric vehicles first came into existence in the late 19th century, when the Second Industrial Revolution brought forth electrification . Using electricity

1508-407: The anode donates positive charge to the electrolyte (thus remaining with an excess of electrons that it will donate to the circuit), it becomes negatively charged and is therefore connected to the terminal marked "−" on the outside of the cell. The cathode, meanwhile, donates negative charge to the electrolyte, so it becomes positively charged (which allows it to accept electrons from the circuit) and

1566-405: The battery's lifespan decreases effective costs and environmental impact. One technique is to operate a subset of the battery cells at a time and switching these subsets. In the past, nickel–metal hydride batteries were used in some electric cars, such as those made by General Motors. These battery types are considered outdated due to their tendencies to self-discharge in the heat. Furthermore,

1624-401: The beginnings of aviation, electric power for aircraft has received a great deal of experimentation. Currently, flying electric aircraft include piloted and unpiloted aerial vehicles. Electric power has a long history of use in spacecraft . The power sources used for spacecraft are batteries, solar panels and nuclear power. Current methods of propelling a spacecraft with electricity include

1682-576: The cathode and reduces the effectiveness of the cell. To reduce the effects of polarization in commercial cells and to extend their lives, chemical depolarization is used; that is, an oxidizing agent is added to the cell, to oxidize the hydrogen to water. Manganese dioxide is used in the Leclanché cell and zinc–carbon cell , and nitric acid is used in the Bunsen cell and Grove cell . Attempts have been made to make simple cells self-depolarizing by roughening

1740-480: The deployment and adoption of this technology. Ford released a number of their Ford Ecostar delivery vans into the market. Honda, Nissan and Toyota also repossessed and crushed most of their EVs, which, like the GM EV1s, had been available only by closed-end lease. After public protests, Toyota sold 200 of its RAV4 EVs ; they later sold at over their original forty-thousand-dollar price. Later, BMW of Canada sold off

1798-501: The development of rechargeable secondary cells with very low self-discharge rates like low self-discharge NiMH cells that hold enough charge for long enough to be sold as pre-charged. Common types of secondary cells (namely NiMH and Li-ion) due to their much lower internal resistance do not suffer the large loss of capacity that alkaline, zinc–carbon and zinc chloride ("heavy duty" or "super heavy duty") do with high current draw. Reserve batteries achieve very long storage time (on

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1856-457: The dominant propulsion mechanisms for cars and trucks for about 100 years, but electricity-powered locomotion remained commonplace in other vehicle types, such as overhead line -powered mass transit vehicles like electric trains , trams , monorails and trolley buses , as well as various small, low-speed, short-range battery-powered personal vehicles such as mobility scooters . Hybrid electric vehicles , where electric motors are used as

1914-547: The early 1900s. They were produced by Baker Electric , Columbia Electric , Detroit Electric , and others, and at one point in history outsold gasoline-powered vehicles. In 1900, 28 percent of the cars on the road in the US were electric. EVs were so popular that even President Woodrow Wilson and his secret service agents toured Washington, D.C., in their Milburn Electrics, which covered 60–70 miles (100–110 km) per charge. Most producers of passenger cars opted for gasoline cars in

1972-437: The electric powertrain is intended to achieve either better fuel economy than a conventional vehicle or better performance. There is a variety of HEV types and the degree to which each functions as an electric vehicle (EV) also varies. The most common form of HEV is the hybrid electric car, although hybrid electric trucks (pickups and tractors), buses, boats, tow trucks, and aircraft also exist. There are different ways that

2030-495: The electricity they consume can be generated from a wide range of sources, including fossil fuels , nuclear power , and renewables such as solar power and wind power , or any combination of those. Recent advancements in battery technology and charging infrastructure have addressed many of the earlier barriers to EV adoption, making electric vehicles a more viable option for a wider range of consumers. The carbon footprint and other emissions of electric vehicles vary depending on

2088-411: The electrode with a negative polarity ( zinc in a dry cell) is called the anode . This is the reverse of the terminology used in an electrolytic cell or thermionic vacuum tube . The reason is that the terms anode and cathode are defined by the direction of electric current, not by their voltage. The anode is the terminal through which conventional current (positive charge) enters the cell from

2146-507: The expiration of GM's EV1 leases, GM discontinued them. The discontinuation has variously been attributed to: A movie made on the subject in 2005–2006 was titled Who Killed the Electric Car? and released theatrically by Sony Pictures Classics in 2006. The film explores the roles of automobile manufacturers , oil industry , the U.S. government , batteries , hydrogen vehicles , and the general public, and each of their roles in limiting

2204-401: The external circuit, while the cathode is the terminal through which conventional current leaves the cell and flows into the external circuit. Since a battery is a power source which provides the voltage which forces the current through the external circuit, the voltage on the cathode must be higher than the voltage on the anode, creating an electric field directed from cathode to anode, to force

2262-602: The first decade of the 20th century, but electric trucks were an established niche well into the 1920s. A number of developments contributed to a decline in the popularity of electric cars. Improved road infrastructure required a greater range than that offered by electric cars, and the discovery of large reserves of petroleum in Texas, Oklahoma, and California led to the wide availability of affordable gasoline/petrol, making internal combustion powered cars cheaper to operate over long distances. Electric vehicles were seldom marketed as

2320-474: The fuel and technology used for electricity generation . The electricity may be stored in the vehicle using a battery, flywheel, or supercapacitors . Vehicles using internal combustion engines usually only derive their energy from a single or a few sources, usually non-renewable fossil fuels. A key advantage of electric vehicles is regenerative braking , which recovers kinetic energy , typically lost during friction braking as heat, as electricity restored to

2378-409: The gasoline vehicles market in 1904. However, with the advent of cheap assembly line cars by Ford Motor Company , the popularity of electric cars declined significantly. Due to lack of electricity grids and the limitations of storage batteries at that time, electric cars did not gain much popularity; however, electric trains gained immense popularity due to their economies and achievable speeds. By

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2436-557: The infinite range of sailboats . Electric motors can and have also been used in sailboats instead of traditional diesel engines. Electric ferries operate routinely. Submarines use batteries (charged by diesel or gasoline engines at the surface), nuclear power, fuel cells or Stirling engines to run electric motor-driven propellers. Fully electric tugboats are being used in Auckland, New Zealand (June 2022), Vancouver, British Columbia (October 2023), and San Diego, California. Since

2494-519: The motors did not use the valuable oxygen in the mines. Switzerland's lack of natural fossil resources forced the rapid electrification of their rail network . One of the earliest rechargeable batteries  – the nickel-iron battery  – was favored by Edison for use in electric cars. EVs were among the earliest automobiles, and before the preeminence of light, powerful internal combustion engines (ICEs), electric automobiles held many vehicle land speed and distance records in

2552-412: The on-board battery. There are many ways to generate electricity, of varying costs, efficiency and ecological desirability. It is also possible to have hybrid EVs that derive electricity from multiple sources, such as: For especially large EVs, such as submarines , the chemical energy of the diesel–electric can be replaced by a nuclear reactor . The nuclear reactor usually provides heat, which drives

2610-422: The order of 10 years or more) without loss of capacity, by physically separating the components of the battery and only assembling them at the time of use. Such constructions are expensive but are found in applications like munitions , which may be stored for years before use. A major factor reducing the lifetime of primary cells is that they become polarized during use. This means that hydrogen accumulates at

2668-399: The positive charge out of the cathode through the resistance of the external circuit. Inside the cell the anode is the electrode where chemical oxidation occurs, as it donates electrons which flow out of it into the external circuit. The cathode is the electrode where chemical reduction occurs, as it accepts electrons from the circuit. Outside the cell, different terminology is used. As

2726-413: The price of critical minerals such as lithium from 2021 to the end of 2022 has put pressure on historical battery price decreases. The power of a vehicle's electric motor , as in other machines, is measured in kilowatts (kW). Electric motors can deliver their maximum torque over a wide RPM range. This means that the performance of a vehicle with a 100 kW electric motor exceeds that of a vehicle with

2784-476: The purchase cost of a charging system can be spread out over many use cycles (between 100 and 1000 cycles); for example, in hand-held power tools, it would be very costly to replace a high-capacity primary battery pack every few hours of use. Primary cells are not designed for recharging between manufacturing and use, thus have battery chemistry that has to have a much lower self-discharge rate than older types of secondary cells; but they have lost that advantage with

2842-478: The secondary battery industry has high growth and has slowly been replacing the primary battery in high end products. In the early twenty-first century, primary cells began losing market share to secondary cells, as relative costs declined for the latter. Flashlight power demands were reduced by the switch from incandescent bulbs to light-emitting diodes . The remaining market experienced increased competition from private- or no-label versions. The market share of

2900-405: The surface of the copper plate to facilitate the detachment of hydrogen bubbles with little success. Electrochemical depolarization exchanges the hydrogen for a metal, such as copper (e.g. Daniell cell ), or silver (e.g. silver-oxide cell ), so called. The battery terminal ( electrode ) that develops a positive voltage polarity (the carbon electrode in a dry cell) is called the cathode and

2958-822: The two leading US manufacturers, Energizer and Duracell, declined to 37% in 2012. Along with Rayovac, these three are trying to move consumers from zinc–carbon to more expensive, longer-lasting alkaline batteries . Western battery manufacturers shifted production offshore and no longer make zinc-carbon batteries in the United States. China became the largest battery market, with demand projected to climb faster than anywhere else, and has also shifted to alkaline cells. In other developing countries disposable batteries must compete with cheap wind-up, wind-powered and rechargeable devices that have proliferated. Secondary cells ( rechargeable batteries ) are in general more economical to use than primary cells. Their initially higher cost and

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3016-654: The use of gasoline. In January 1990, General Motors President introduced its EV concept two-seater, the "Impact", at the Los Angeles Auto Show. That September, the California Air Resources Board mandated major-automaker sales of EVs, in phases starting in 1998. From 1996 to 1998 GM produced 1117 EV1s , 800 of which were made available through three-year leases. Chrysler , Ford, GM, Honda , and Toyota also produced limited numbers of EVs for California drivers during this time period. In 2003, upon

3074-423: The vehicle and no mechanical wear and tear of the train or track. In addition to the high-performance control systems needed, switching and curving of the tracks becomes difficult with linear motors, which to date has restricted their operations to high-speed point to point services. It is generally possible to equip any kind of vehicle with an electric power-train. A pure-electric vehicle or all-electric vehicle

3132-496: The vehicle can be powered by the engine working alone, the electric motor on its own, or by both working together; this is designed so that the engine can run at its optimum range as often as possible. A plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) is any motor vehicle that can be recharged from any external source of electricity, such as wall sockets , and the electricity stored in the Rechargeable battery packs drives or contributes to drive

3190-442: The vehicles through wires. Electric traction allows the use of regenerative braking , in which the motors are used as brakes and become generators that transform the motion of, usually, a train into electrical power that is then fed back into the lines. This system is particularly advantageous in mountainous operations, as descending vehicles can produce a large portion of the power required for those ascending. This regenerative system

3248-400: The wheels. PEV is a subcategory of electric vehicles that includes battery electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrid vehicles, (PHEVs), and electric vehicle conversions of hybrid electric vehicles and conventional internal combustion engine vehicles. A range-extended electric vehicle (REEV) is a vehicle powered by an electric motor and a plug-in battery. An auxiliary combustion engine

3306-459: Was among the preferred methods for motor vehicle propulsion as it provides a level of quietness, comfort and ease of operation that could not be achieved by the gasoline engine cars of the time, but range anxiety due to the limited energy storage offered by contemporary battery technologies hindered any mass adoption of private electric vehicles throughout the 20th century. Internal combustion engines (both gasoline and diesel engines ) were

3364-507: Was convicted of conspiring to monopolize the sale of equipment and supplies to their subsidiary companies, but was acquitted of conspiring to monopolize the provision of transportation services. The Copenhagen Summit , which was conducted in the midst of a severe observable climate change brought on by human-made greenhouse gas emissions, was held in 2009. During the summit, more than 70 countries developed plans to eventually reach net zero. For many countries, adopting more EVs will help reduce

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