108-559: Europs is a genus of beetles in the family Monotomidae , containing the following species: This Monotomidae -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Beetle See subgroups of the order Coleoptera Beetles are insects that form the order Coleoptera ( / k oʊ l iː ˈ ɒ p t ər ə / ), in the superorder Holometabola . Their front pair of wings are hardened into wing-cases, elytra , distinguishing them from most other insects. The Coleoptera, with about 400,000 described species,
216-421: A "surprisingly narrow range" spanning all four estimates from a minimum of 0.9 to a maximum of 2.1 million beetle species. The four estimates made use of host-specificity relationships (1.5 to 1.9 million), ratios with other taxa (0.9 to 1.2 million), plant:beetle ratios (1.2 to 1.3), and extrapolations based on body size by year of description (1.7 to 2.1 million). This immense diversity led
324-753: A beetle is attracted to the host, mating occurs and the female lays her eggs on the plant. The beetles' attraction to kairomone decreases until 72 hours later once oviposition occurs and the probability of re-mating increases. L. decemlineata has a strong association with plants in the family Solanaceae , particularly those of the genus Solanum . It is directly associated with Solanum cornutum (buffalo-bur), Solanum nigrum (black nightshade), Solanum melongena (eggplant or aubergine), Solanum dulcamara (bittersweet nightshade), Solanum luteum (hairy nightshade), Solanum tuberosum (potato), and Solanum elaeagnifolium (silverleaf nightshade). They are also associated with other plants in this family, namely
432-448: A beetle is quite uniform, although specific organs and appendages vary greatly in appearance and function between the many families in the order. Like all insects, beetles' bodies are divided into three sections: the head, the thorax, and the abdomen. Because there are so many species, identification is quite difficult, and relies on attributes including the shape of the antennae, the tarsal formulae and shapes of these small segments on
540-428: A beetle population that had returned from diapause and been exposed to poor food conditions, mean flight frequency was decreased. This is because beetles required better food conditions to regenerate their flight muscles. Prior to diapause, beetles increased their flight frequency to compensate for poor food conditions. Around 1840, L. decemlineata adopted the cultivated potato into its host range and it rapidly became
648-475: A beetle's environment. Beetle families may use antennae in different ways. For example, when moving quickly, tiger beetles may not be able to see very well and instead hold their antennae rigidly in front of them in order to avoid obstacles. Certain Cerambycidae use antennae to balance, and blister beetles may use them for grasping. Some aquatic beetle species may use antennae for gathering air and passing it under
756-744: A few fossils from North America before the middle Permian , although both Asia and North America had been united to Euramerica . The first discoveries from North America made in the Wellington Formation of Oklahoma were published in 2005 and 2008. The earliest members of modern beetle lineages appeared during the Late Permian . In the Permian–Triassic extinction event at the end of the Permian, most "protocoleopteran" lineages became extinct. Beetle diversity did not recover to pre-extinction levels until
864-439: A group of researchers sought to test both structural and functional genetic changes in the species of beetle as compared to other arthropod species. Using community annotation, transcriptomics, and genome sequencing, they uncovered that Colorado Potato beetles have a genome consisting of several transposable elements. Transposons are sequences of genetic material that can shift/move their place within an organism's genome, and 17% of
972-441: A light-emitting organ for mating and communication purposes. Beetles typically have a particularly hard exoskeleton including the elytra , though some such as the rove beetles have very short elytra while blister beetles have softer elytra. The general anatomy of a beetle is quite uniform and typical of insects, although there are several examples of novelty, such as adaptations in water beetles which trap air bubbles under
1080-406: A mass of at least 115 g (4.1 oz) and a length of 11.5 cm (4.5 in). Adult male goliath beetles are the heaviest beetle in its adult stage, weighing 70–100 g (2.5–3.5 oz) and measuring up to 11 cm (4.3 in). Adult elephant beetles , Megasoma elephas and Megasoma actaeon often reach 50 g (1.8 oz) and 10 cm (3.9 in). The longest beetle
1188-456: A mobile tooth on their left mandible. The consistency of beetle morphology , in particular their possession of elytra , has long suggested that Coleoptera is monophyletic , though there have been doubts about the arrangement of the suborders , namely the Adephaga , Archostemata , Myxophaga and Polyphaga within that clade . The twisted-wing parasites, Strepsiptera , are thought to be
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#17330854649511296-424: A most destructive pest of potato crops. It is today considered to be the most important insect defoliator of potatoes. It may also cause considerable damage to tomato and aubergine crops with both adults and larvae feeding on the plant's foliage. Larvae may defoliate potato plants resulting in yield losses up to 100% if the damage occurs prior to tuber formation. Larvae may consume 40 cm of potato leaves during
1404-484: A particularly hard exoskeleton and hard forewings ( elytra ) not usable for flying. Almost all beetles have mandibles that move in a horizontal plane. The mouthparts are rarely suctorial, though they are sometimes reduced; the maxillae always bear palps. The antennae usually have 11 or fewer segments, except in some groups like the Cerambycidae (longhorn beetles) and the Rhipiceridae (cicada parasite beetles). The coxae of
1512-451: A proper elytra. Colorado potato beetles walk in orientations to find food. In the dark, they walk at slow speeds and in circles. Beetles also move in response to olfactory cues. The beetles respond and move faster to familiar odors. Depending on satiation levels, the beetles move differently with the winds. A parallel walk with the wind is found in satiated beetles whereas starved beetles walk against it. Visual cues are also important for
1620-439: A result of ceasing consumption of transgenic plants. The potatoes showed benefits of the gene treatment; potatoes expressing the cryIIIA gene had protection from Colorado potato beetles in the laboratory and the field. Furthermore, these potato plants displayed agronomic and tuber characteristics that aligned with healthy Russet Burbank Potatoes. The large-scale use of insecticides in agricultural crops effectively controlled
1728-589: A single day. In a laboratory experiment, Podisus maculiventris was used as a predatory threat to female L. decemlineata specimens, resulting in the production of unviable trophic eggs alongside viable ones; this response to a predator ensured that additional food was available for newly hatched offspring to increase their survival rate. The same experiment also demonstrated the cannibalism of unhatched eggs by newly hatched L. decemlineata larvae as an antipredator response. Colorado potato beetles exhibit sexual dimorphism . In particular, they exhibit dimorphism in
1836-678: A sister group to the beetles, having split from them in the Early Permian . Molecular phylogenetic analysis confirms that the Coleoptera are monophyletic. Duane McKenna et al. (2015) used eight nuclear genes for 367 species from 172 of 183 Coleopteran families. They split the Adephaga into 2 clades, Hydradephaga and Geadephaga, broke up the Cucujoidea into 3 clades, and placed the Lymexyloidea within
1944-408: A string of beads , comb-like (either on one side or both, bipectinate), or toothed . The physical variation of antennae is important for the identification of many beetle groups. The Curculionidae have elbowed or geniculate antennae. Feather like flabellate antennae are a restricted form found in the Rhipiceridae and a few other families. The Silphidae have a capitate antennae with a spherical head at
2052-562: A variable apical segment of the maxillary palp . The beetle is most likely native to the area between Colorado and northern Mexico , and was discovered in 1824 by Thomas Say in the Rocky Mountains. It is found in North America, and is present in every state and province except Alaska, California, Hawaii, and Nevada. It now has a wide distribution across Europe and Asia, totaling over 16 million km . Its first association with
2160-503: Is $ 138–368. Long-term increased cost to the Michigan potato industry caused by insecticide resistance in Colorado potato beetle was estimated at $ 0.9 to $ 1.4 million each year. Colorado potato beetles pose significant dangers to potatoes, which are a quintessential agricultural crop. In response to the damage they do, some potatoes have been genetically modified to resist attack and damage from
2268-399: Is a pathogenic fungus that infects a wide range of insect species, including the Colorado potato beetle. It has shown to be particularly effective as a biological pesticide for L. decemlineata when used in combination with B. thuringiensis . Crop rotation is, however, the most important cultural control of L. decemlineata . Rotation may delay the infestation of potatoes and can reduce
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#17330854649512376-524: Is also important for flight; at least 6 hours of insolation paired with 25–28 °C temperatures are optimal for takeoff. Wind is another condition that needs to be met. Speeds of 1–3 m/s assist with takeoff for short-distance flights. Gravity can also affect flight speed in the beetles; as the Colorado potato beetle moves out of soil, it does so on slopes of 20° or more. Biotic conditions include availability of energy reserves, insect weight, insect density, overwintered adults, and summer adults. It
2484-484: Is as agricultural, forestry, and horticultural pests . Serious pest species include the boll weevil of cotton, the Colorado potato beetle , the coconut hispine beetle , the mountain pine beetle , and many others. Most beetles, however, do not cause economic damage and some, such as numerous species of lady beetles , are beneficial by helping to control insect pests. The name of the taxonomic order, Coleoptera, comes from
2592-438: Is found, from trees and their bark to flowers, leaves, and underground near roots - even inside plants in galls, in every plant tissue, including dead or decaying ones. Tropical forest canopies have a large and diverse fauna of beetles, including Carabidae , Chrysomelidae , and Scarabaeidae . The heaviest beetle, indeed the heaviest insect stage, is the larva of the goliath beetle , Goliathus goliatus , which can attain
2700-429: Is higher population density. However, this is likely due to destruction of the food source, not the population itself. Overwintered beetles exhibit different behavior than summer beetles. They typically fly less because it is an adaptation to the higher risks of food deprivation in the spring compared to summer. During the summer, the adults that emerge walk until they eat enough to develop proper flight muscles and develop
2808-403: Is not established in any of these member states, but occasional infestations can occur when, for example, wind blows adults from Russia to Finland. Colorado potato beetle females are very prolific and are capable of laying over 500 eggs in a 4- to 5-week period. The eggs are yellow to orange, and are about 1 mm (0.039 in) long. They are usually deposited in batches of about 30 eggs on
2916-510: Is resistant to every chemical. The species as a whole has evolved resistance to 56 different chemical insecticides. The mechanisms used include improved metabolism of the chemicals, reduced sensitivity of target sites, less penetration and greater excretion of the pesticides, and some changes in the behavior of the beetles. CPBs have evolved widespread insecticide resistance . No cases without fitness cost or of negative cost are known. Bacterial insecticides can be effective if application
3024-448: Is speculated that proline is the primary energy substance for Colorado potato beetles in flight. Beetles that gain more than 15% of their weight after emerging fly less and for shorter distances than beetles that remain the same weight. Wing loadings for male and female beetles were 10.83 and 15.60 N/m . Wing loading changes as beetles feed, drink, and develop eggs. Cases of large groups of beetles leaving crops have been observed when there
3132-658: Is targeted towards the vulnerable early-instar larvae. Two strains of the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis produce toxins that kill the larvae. Other forms of pest control, through nonpesticidal management are available. Feeding can be inhibited by applying antifeedants, such as fungicides or products derived from Neem ( Azadirachta indica ), but these may have negative effects on the plants, as well. The steam distillate of fresh leaves and flowers of tansy ( Tanacetum vulgare ) contains high levels of camphor and umbellulone , and these chemicals are strongly repellent to L. decemlineata . Beauveria bassiana (Hyphomycetes)
3240-543: Is the Hercules beetle Dynastes hercules , with a maximum overall length of at least 16.7 cm (6.6 in) including the very long pronotal horn. The smallest recorded beetle and the smallest free-living insect (as of 2015 ), is the featherwing beetle Scydosella musawasensis which may measure as little as 325 μm in length. The oldest known beetle is Coleopsis , from the earliest Permian ( Asselian ) of Germany, around 295 million years ago. Early beetles from
3348-563: Is the false potato beetle . Unlike the Colorado potato beetle, it is not an agricultural pest. L. juncta also has alternating black and white strips on its back, but one of the white strips in the center of each wing cover is missing and replaced by a light brown strip. The orange-pink larvae have a large, 9-segmented abdomen, black head, and prominent spiracles , and may measure up to 15 mm (0.59 in) in length in their final instar stage. The beetle larva has four instar stages. The head remains black throughout these stages, but
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3456-404: Is the largest of all orders, constituting almost 40% of described insects and 25% of all known animal species; new species are discovered frequently, with estimates suggesting that there are between 0.9 and 2.1 million total species. However, the number of beetle species is challenged by the number of species in dipterans (flies) and hymenopterans (wasps). Found in almost every habitat except
3564-437: Is the largest suborder, containing more than 300,000 described species in more than 170 families, including rove beetles (Staphylinidae), scarab beetles ( Scarabaeidae ), blister beetles (Meloidae), stag beetles (Lucanidae) and true weevils ( Curculionidae ). These polyphagan beetle groups can be identified by the presence of cervical sclerites (hardened parts of the head used as points of attachment for muscles) absent in
3672-414: Is thought to be minimizing reproductive risk because female beetles that emerge in the spring are already mated. Dispersal continues after finding a host. Moving helps beetles find better resources, mates, and progeny distribution. When moving, flight is less frequent than walking in cultivated fields than in the wild. Researchers have also evaluated how flight frequency is related to the beetle's diet. In
3780-533: The Colorado beetle , the ten-striped spearman , the ten-lined potato beetle , and the potato bug ) is a beetle known for being a major pest of potato crops. It is about 10 mm ( 3 ⁄ 8 in) long, with a bright yellow/orange body and five bold brown stripes along the length of each of its elytra . Native to the Rocky Mountains , it spread rapidly in potato crops across America and then Europe from 1859 onwards. The Colorado potato beetle
3888-888: The Dytiscidae (diving beetles) , Haliplidae , and many species of Hydrophilidae , the legs, often the last pair, are modified for swimming, typically with rows of long hairs. Male diving beetles have suctorial cups on their forelegs that they use to grasp females. Other beetles have fossorial legs widened and often spined for digging. Species with such adaptations are found among the scarabs, ground beetles, and clown beetles ( Histeridae ). The hind legs of some beetles, such as flea beetles (within Chrysomelidae) and flea weevils (within Curculionidae), have enlarged femurs that help them leap. Colorado potato beetle The Colorado potato beetle ( Leptinotarsa decemlineata ; also known as
3996-521: The Greek koleopteros (κολεόπτερος), given to the group by Aristotle for their elytra , hardened shield-like forewings, from koleos , sheath, and pteron , wing. The English name beetle comes from the Old English word bitela , little biter, related to bītan (to bite), leading to Middle English betylle . Another Old English name for beetle is ċeafor , chafer, used in names such as cockchafer , from
4104-640: The Middle Triassic . During the Jurassic ( 210 to 145 mya ), there was a dramatic increase in the diversity of beetle families, including the development and growth of carnivorous and herbivorous species. The Chrysomeloidea diversified around the same time, feeding on a wide array of plant hosts from cycads and conifers to angiosperms . Close to the Upper Jurassic, the Cupedidae decreased, but
4212-431: The sacred scarabs of ancient Egypt to beetlewing art and use as pets or fighting insects for entertainment and gambling. Many beetle groups are brightly and attractively colored making them objects of collection and decorative displays. Over 300 species are used as food , mostly as larvae ; species widely consumed include mealworms and rhinoceros beetle larvae. However, the major impact of beetles on human life
4320-416: The shield bugs Perillus bioculatus and Podisus maculiventris , various species of the lacewing genus Chrysopa , the wasp genus Polistes , and the damsel bug genus Nabis . The predatory ground beetle L. grandis is a predator of both the eggs and larvae of L. decemlineata , and its larvae are parasitoids of the pupae. An adult L. grandis may consume up to 23 eggs or 3.3 larvae in
4428-415: The telephone-pole beetle . The Archostemata have an exposed plate called the metatrochantin in front of the basal segment or coxa of the hind leg. Myxophaga contains about 65 described species in four families, mostly very small, including Hydroscaphidae and the genus Sphaerius . The myxophagan beetles are small and mostly alga-feeders. Their mouthparts are characteristic in lacking galeae and having
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4536-403: The 49 runs where female smear was used had a response score of 5 in contrast to the 23/42 runs without female smear receiving a score of 5. Colorado potato beetles are also attracted to the volatiles potato plants emit. In the article Sexual contact influences orientation to plant attractant in Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata Say (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) by Joseph Dickens,
4644-529: The Central Sands. On the other hand, genetic diversity decreased with increased crop rotation in the Columbia Basin. This difference could be attributed to larger rotation differences in the Columbia Basin or differences in the landscape itself that affect the spread of the beetles. Genetic diversity is not directly impacted by the land cover type. Instead, other factors such as climate could be responsible for
4752-482: The Colorado Potato beetles’ genome consists of transposable elements. This helps explain their rapid evolution to continually resist insecticides, contributing to their global spread. Colorado potato beetles are highly mobile and are considered pests. Colorado potato beetles disperse to hosts via walking and flight. Flights have three types: short, long, and diapause. Diapause is a long-distance flight that occurs at
4860-482: The Colorado potato beetles, but consistent protection requires higher levels of expression of the cryIIIA gene. Scientists modified cryIIIA by modifying the DNA protein-coding sequence without altering the amino acid sequence. The gene was transferred into the potato through a vector, specifically a Agrobacterium tumefaciens mediated transfer. Following the introduction of the gene, Russet Burbank potato plants with
4968-436: The Columbia Basin beetles ranged from 0.0056-0.0063 and 0.0073-0.0080 in Central Sands. Heterozygosity data showed the Columbia Basin was 19.4% ± 0.4% and 21.6% ± 0.8% in the Central Sands. Additional mitochondrial DNA sequencing showed two haplotypes in the Columbia Basin compared to places like Wisconsin showed seven haplotypes. Reasoning behind the genetic diversity is the landscapes of the regions: shrub-land and grains in
5076-475: The Columbia Basin versus the forest, corn, and beans in the Central Sands. In the same study, potatoes covered 3.5% in the Columbia Basin and 1.8% in the Central Sands. Landscape resistance can be characterized by how the land responds to the spread of beetles. Its overall effect on allele frequency covariance was low, and the Central Sands had a higher rate of decay in allele frequency. Potatoes' relative effect sizes of land cover variables on genetic differentiation
5184-674: The Cretaceous. The first scarab beetles were not coprophagous but presumably fed on rotting wood with the help of fungus; they are an early example of a mutualistic relationship. There are more than 150 important fossil sites from the Jurassic, the majority in Eastern Europe and North Asia. Outstanding sites include Solnhofen in Upper Bavaria , Germany, Karatau in South Kazakhstan ,
5292-559: The Permian, which are collectively grouped into the " Protocoleoptera " are thought to have been xylophagous (wood eating) and wood boring . Fossils from this time have been found in Siberia and Europe, for instance in the red slate fossil beds of Niedermoschel near Mainz, Germany. Further fossils have been found in Obora, Czech Republic and Tshekarda in the Ural mountains, Russia. However, there are only
5400-476: The Proto-Germanic * kebrô ("beetle"; compare German Käfer , Dutch kever , Afrikaans kewer ). Beetles are by far the largest order of insects: the roughly 400,000 species make up about 40% of all insect species so far described, and about 25% of all animal species. A 2015 study provided four independent estimates of the total number of beetle species, giving a mean estimate of some 1.5 million with
5508-656: The Quaternary caused beetles to change their geographic distributions so much that current location gives little clue to the biogeographical history of a species. It is evident that geographic isolation of populations must often have been broken as insects moved under the influence of changing climate, causing mixing of gene pools, rapid evolution, and extinctions, especially in middle latitudes. The very large number of beetle species poses special problems for classification . Some families contain tens of thousands of species, and need to be divided into subfamilies and tribes. Polyphaga
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#17330854649515616-586: The Soviet occupation zone of Germany, almost half of all potato fields were infested by the beetle by 1950. In East Germany , they were known as Amikäfer ('Yankee beetles') following a governmental claim that the beetles were dropped by American planes. In the European Union , it remains a regulated (quarantine) pest for the Republic of Ireland, Balearic Islands, Cyprus, Malta, and southern parts of Sweden and Finland. It
5724-1997: The Tenebrionoidea. The Polyphaga appear to date from the Triassic. Most extant beetle families appear to have arisen in the Cretaceous. The cladogram is based on McKenna (2015). The number of species in each group (mainly superfamilies) is shown in parentheses, and boldface if over 10,000. English common names are given where possible. Dates of origin of major groups are shown in italics in millions of years ago (mya). Archostemata 160 mya (40) [REDACTED] Myxophaga 220 mya (94) [REDACTED] Hydradephaga (5,560) e.g. Dytiscidae (diving beetles) [REDACTED] Geadephaga ( 35,000 ) e.g. Carabidae (ground beetles) [REDACTED] Scirtoidea (800) + Derodontoidea (29) 200 mya [REDACTED] Staphylinidae 195 mya ( 48,000 , rove beetles) [REDACTED] Scarabaeoidea 145 mya ( 35,000 , scarabs, stag beetles, etc.) [REDACTED] Hydrophiloidea (2,800, water scavenger beetles) [REDACTED] Histeroidea (3,800, clown beetles) [REDACTED] Nosodendridae (70) Dascilloidea (180) [REDACTED] Buprestoidea ( 14,000 , jewel beetles) [REDACTED] Byrrhoidea (400, pill and turtle beetles, etc.) [REDACTED] Elateroidea ( 23,000 , click and soldier beetles, fireflies) [REDACTED] Bostrichoidea (3150, deathwatch, powderpost and skin beetles) [REDACTED] Coccinelloidea (6,000, ladybirds or lady beetles) [REDACTED] Tenebrionoidea 180 mya ( 35,000 , leaf/flower beetles, etc.) and Lymexyloidea [REDACTED] Cleroidea (9,900, checkered beetles and allies) [REDACTED] Cucujoidea (8,000) [REDACTED] Chrysomelidae ( 35,000 , leaf beetles) [REDACTED] Cerambycidae ( 25,000 , longhorn beetles) [REDACTED] Curculionoidea ( 97,000 , weevils) [REDACTED] Beetles are generally characterized by
5832-726: The Upper Cretaceous include Kzyl-Dzhar in South Kazakhstan and Arkagala in Russia. Beetle fossils are abundant in the Cenozoic; by the Quaternary (up to 1.6 mya), fossil species are identical to living ones, while from the Late Miocene (5.7 mya) the fossils are still so close to modern forms that they are most likely the ancestors of living species. The large oscillations in climate during
5940-763: The Yixian formation in Liaoning , North China, as well as the Jiulongshan formation and further fossil sites in Mongolia . In North America there are only a few sites with fossil records of insects from the Jurassic, namely the shell limestone deposits in the Hartford basin, the Deerfield basin and the Newark basin. The Cretaceous saw the fragmenting of the southern landmass, with the opening of
6048-502: The adhesive tarsal setae. The paper "Sexual dimorphism in the attachment ability of the Colorado potato beetle Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) to rough substrates" by Voigt demonstrates this dimorphism. The setae , hair-like structures, in males is to help them adhere to the females' elytra when mating. Colorado potato beetles also have adhesive setae that allows them to attach to host plants. Three current setae are known: simple pointed with an asymmetric narrowing at
6156-411: The adults may enter diapause and delay emergence until spring. They then return to their host plants to mate and feed; overwintering adults may begin mating within 24 hours of spring emergence. In some locations, three or more generations may occur each growing season. Visual cues are important for Colorado potato beetles during the mate and host search. In a study done by Szentsi, Weber, and Jermy in
6264-456: The aquatic whirligig beetles ( Gyrinidae ), where they are split to allow a view both above and below the waterline. A few Longhorn beetles ( Cerambycidae ) and weevils as well as some fireflies ( Rhagophthalmidae ) have divided eyes, while many have eyes that are notched, and a few have ocelli , small, simple eyes usually farther back on the head (on the vertex ); these are more common in larvae than in adults. The anatomical organization of
6372-447: The back part of the thorax is concealed by the beetle's wings . This further segmentation is usually best seen on the abdomen. The multisegmented legs end in two to five small segments called tarsi. Like many other insect orders, beetles have claws, usually one pair, on the end of the last tarsal segment of each leg. While most beetles use their legs for walking, legs have been variously adapted for other uses. Aquatic beetles including
6480-631: The bark of trees together with the jewel beetles (Buprestidae). The diversity of jewel beetles increased rapidly, as they were the primary consumers of wood, while longhorn beetles ( Cerambycidae ) were rather rare: their diversity increased only towards the end of the Upper Cretaceous. The first coprophagous beetles are from the Upper Cretaceous and may have lived on the excrement of herbivorous dinosaurs. The first species where both larvae and adults are adapted to an aquatic lifestyle are found. Whirligig beetles (Gyrinidae) were moderately diverse, although other early beetles (e.g. Dytiscidae) were less, with
6588-504: The beetle became established near USA military bases in Bordeaux during or immediately following World War I and had proceeded to spread by the beginning of World War II to Belgium, the Netherlands, and Spain. The population increased dramatically during and immediately following World War II and spread eastward, and the beetle is now found over much of the continent. After World War II , in
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#17330854649516696-413: The beetle finding a plant, mate, or habitat. This is important for the success of orientation mechanisms. New beetles disperse for crops once they emerge. The crops affect colonization: crop rotation prolongs colonization, and neighboring crops are colonized rapidly and by walking. Overwintered beetles fly to find crops and once a host plant is found, flight frequency decreases. The strategy behind this
6804-400: The beetle's ability to locate potato fields, and the mulch creates an environment that favours beetle's predators; Plastic-lined trenches have been used as pitfall traps to catch the beetles as they move toward a field of potatoes in the spring, exploiting their inability to fly immediately after emergence; flamethrowers may also be used to kill the beetles when they are visible at the top of
6912-413: The beetles had a positive response between 45° and 0° in terms of mean angular directions (MADs). Beads and dead beetles without boards evoked a weaker response with MADs being variable. Colored boards and bead combinations displayed more positive MADs responses between 45° and 0°. Experience with female substances showed that male beetles showed high responses to female scent. According to the study, 43 of
7020-402: The beetles were attracted to kairomone substance but after mating, their attraction to it reduced. Within 24 hours of mating, there was no difference between levels of attraction to kairomone and control solvent. Lack of attraction occurred for two days but resumed three days after mating. Male beetles produce a pheromone that is further enhanced by plant host volatiles like the kairomone. After
7128-586: The beetles. Specifically, the Russet Burbank Potato . The insertion of a cryIIIA gene that codes for the insect control protein Bacillus thuringiensis var. Tenebrionis is the method that was used. Prior to its insertion, research showed that wild-type cryIIIA genes were expressed in low levels in plants. Plants with this gene expressed the cryIIIA protein at levels less than 0.001% of total leaf protein. Plants contain some resistance and toxicity to
7236-404: The beetles. Colorado potato beetles respond to light, and intensity is proportional to rest period. Beetles exhibit phototactic orientation in which they align themselves with a cone of light and move with it. Compass orientation is when large amounts of beetles walk in a single direction and have memory of their angle to the sun. The rate of linear displacement is important for the probability of
7344-407: The beetles. Estonian and Spanish beetles clustered, French and Italian beetles formed separate groups, and Russian and Finnish beetles were closely related to Estonian ones. European beetles could be categorized by East and West except for Polish beetles which had relations to multiple countries. To help explain why Colorado Potato beetles are such difficult agricultural pests to manage and control,
7452-433: The body whilst submerged. Equally, some families use antennae during mating, and a few species use them for defense. In the cerambycid Onychocerus albitarsis , the antennae have venom injecting structures used in defense, which is unique among arthropods . Antennae vary greatly in form, sometimes between the sexes, but are often similar within any given family. Antennae may be clubbed , threadlike , angled , shaped like
7560-411: The build-up of early-season beetle populations because the adults emerging from diapause can only disperse to new food sources by walking. One 1984 study showed that rotating potatoes with nonhost plants reduced the density of early-season adults by 95.8%. Other cultural controls may be used in combination with crop rotation: Mulching the potato crop with straw early in the growing season may reduce
7668-543: The compound eyes may be modified and depends on whether a species is primarily crepuscular, or diurnally or nocturnally active. Ocelli are found in the adult carpet beetle (as a single central ocellus in Dermestidae ), some rove beetles ( Omaliinae ), and the Derodontidae . Beetle antennae are primarily organs of sensory perception and can detect motion, odor and chemical substances, but may also be used to physically feel
7776-562: The cost of the measures used to exclude L. decemlineata from the UK was less than the likely costs of control if it became established. In July 2023, Colorado beetle were officially confirmed in a potato field in Kent, England. Farmers and growers, gardeners and members of the public are being encouraged to remain vigilant for signs of the pest and to report potential sightings to APHA . Elsewhere in Europe,
7884-578: The differences between the Colorado potato beetle in these two regions. The Colorado potato beetle has invaded North America and Europe. Because of its widespread invasion, the Colorado potato beetle displays genetic diversity in its different regions. In the paper The voyage of an invasive species across continents: genetic diversity of North American and European Colorado potato beetle populations by Grapputo, Boman, Lindström, and Mappes, sequencing of amplified mtDNA from 109 beetles in 13 populations showed 20 unique haplotypes. Three haplotypes were shared in
7992-644: The diversity of the early plant-eating species increased. Most recent plant-eating beetles feed on flowering plants or angiosperms, whose success contributed to a doubling of plant-eating species during the Middle Jurassic . However, the increase of the number of beetle families during the Cretaceous does not correlate with the increase of the number of angiosperm species. Around the same time, numerous primitive weevils (e.g. Curculionoidea ) and click beetles (e.g. Elateroidea ) appeared. The first jewel beetles (e.g. Buprestidae ) are present, but they remained rare until
8100-715: The elytra for use while diving. Beetles are holometabolans , which means that they undergo complete metamorphosis , with a series of conspicuous and relatively abrupt changes in body structure between hatching and becoming adult after a relatively immobile pupal stage. Some, such as stag beetles , have a marked sexual dimorphism , the males possessing enormously enlarged mandibles which they use to fight other males. Many beetles are aposematic , with bright colors and patterns warning of their toxicity, while others are harmless Batesian mimics of such insects. Many beetles, including those that live in sandy places, have effective camouflage . Beetles are prominent in human culture , from
8208-515: The elytra. Colorado potato beetles display genetic differentiation based on region. In the Columbia Basin and Central Sands, beetles in the Columbia Basin had less genetic diversity than those in Central Sands. According to the study done by Crossly, Rondon, and Schoville, in the paper Effects of contemporary agricultural land cover on Colorado potato beetle genetic differentiation in the Columbia Basin and Central Sands , nucleotide diversity in
8316-448: The end of the summer. In order for dispersal to occur, certain conditions need to be met, both abiotic and biotic. Abiotic factors include temperature, photoperiod, insolation, wind, and gravity. A soil temperature of 9 °C causes soiled beetles to move up. They emerge when soil surface temperature is 14–15 °C. Optimal flight takeoff temperature is 27 °C. Long photoperiods enable proper flight-muscle development. Insolation
8424-485: The entire larval stage, but adults are capable of consuming 10 cm of foliage per day. The economic cost of insecticide resistance is significant, but published data on the subject are minimal. In 1994, total costs of the insecticide and crop losses in the US state of Michigan were $ 13.3 million, representing 13.7% of the total value of the crop. The estimate of the cost implication of insecticides and crop losses per hectare
8532-583: The evolutionary biologist J. B. S. Haldane to quip, when some theologians asked him what could be inferred about the mind of the Christian God from the works of His Creation, "An inordinate fondness for beetles". However, the ranking of beetles as most diverse has been challenged. Multiple studies posit that Diptera (flies) and/or Hymenoptera (sawflies, wasps, ants and bees) may have more species. Beetles are found in nearly all habitats, including freshwater and coastal habitats, wherever vegetative foliage
8640-440: The first part is called the scape and the second part is the pedicel. The other segments are jointly called the flagellum. Beetles have mouthparts like those of grasshoppers . The mandibles appear as large pincers on the front of some beetles. The mandibles are a pair of hard, often tooth-like structures that move horizontally to grasp, crush, or cut food or enemies (see defence , below). Two pairs of finger-like appendages,
8748-477: The first three tarsomeres. The fourth is hidden and the fifth bears sensory setae with no adhesive function. Both males and females have filamentous with a tapered terminal part, lanceolate with a flattened tapered terminal part, and spatula-shaped with an enlarged tape-like terminal part. Males have a discoidal terminal part with a bulge around the disc. Female elytra appears smooth on the surface, but further magnification shows irregular lines. This indicates fluid on
8856-462: The fourth lasts 4–7 days. Upon reaching full size, each fourth instar spends several days as a nonfeeding prepupa , which can be recognized by its inactivity and lighter coloration. The prepupae drop to the soil and burrow to a depth of several inches, then pupate . In 5 to 10 days, the adult beetle emerges to feed and mate. This beetle can thus go from egg to adult in as little as 21 days. Depending on temperature, light conditions, and host quality,
8964-429: The gene were tested for kanamycin resistance and Colorado potato beetle resistance. In 308 plants that were tested, 18% (55) displayed complete resistance to the beetle. Later larval stages and adult beetles are more sensitive to cryIIIA protein. Controlling adults is important because they produce the next larvae generation. Colorado potato beetles overwinter as adults in the soil and feed immediately after emerging in
9072-431: The legs are usually located recessed within a coxal cavity. The genitalic structures are telescoped into the last abdominal segment in all extant beetles. Beetle larvae can often be confused with those of other holometabolan groups. The beetle's exoskeleton is made up of numerous plates, called sclerites , separated by thin sutures. This design provides armored defenses while maintaining flexibility. The general anatomy of
9180-407: The legs, the mouthparts, and the ventral plates (sterna, pleura, coxae). In many species accurate identification can only be made by examination of the unique male genitalic structures. The head, having mouthparts projecting forward or sometimes downturned, is usually heavily sclerotized and is sometimes very large. The eyes are compound and may display remarkable adaptability, as in the case of
9288-489: The maxillary and labial palpi, are found around the mouth in most beetles, serving to move food into the mouth. In many species, the mandibles are sexually dimorphic, with those of the males enlarged enormously compared with those of females of the same species. The thorax is segmented into the two discernible parts, the pro- and pterothorax. The pterothorax is the fused meso- and metathorax, which are commonly separated in other insect species, although flexibly articulate from
9396-436: The most widespread being the species of Coptoclavidae , which preyed on aquatic fly larvae. A 2020 review of the palaeoecological interpretations of fossil beetles from Cretaceous ambers has suggested that saproxylicity was the most common feeding strategy, with fungivorous species in particular appearing to dominate. Many fossil sites worldwide contain beetles from the Cretaceous. Most are in Europe and Asia and belong to
9504-490: The other suborders. Adephaga contains about 10 families of largely predatory beetles, includes ground beetles (Carabidae), water beetles ( Dytiscidae ) and whirligig beetles (Gyrinidae). In these insects, the testes are tubular and the first abdominal sternum (a plate of the exoskeleton ) is divided by the hind coxae (the basal joints of the beetle's legs). Archostemata contains four families of mainly wood-eating beetles, including reticulated beetles (Cupedidae) and
9612-438: The paper Role of visual stimuli in host and mate location of the Colorado potato beetle, the beetles' attraction to boards with different spectral bands, reaction to beetle-sized stationary objects, responses to such objects on boards, and attraction to prior female substances were investigated. The researchers' hypothesis was that experience with female substances would cause behavior changes in males. When shown colored boards,
9720-467: The pest until it became resistant to DDT in 1952 and dieldrin in 1958. Insecticides remain the main method of pest control on commercial farms. However, many chemicals are often unsuccessful when used against this pest because of the beetle's ability to rapidly develop insecticide resistance . Different populations in different geographic regions have, between them, developed resistance to all major classes of insecticide, although not every population
9828-550: The populations and all others were restricted to a single population in North America. 51 European beetles collected from eight populations yielded in one haplotype that was also fixed in the Idaho population. Mitochondrial data, mtDNA , of North American beetles showed significant population differentiation. For example, 44% of the variation can be attributed to subdivision among populations, especially in Kentucky and Idaho. Polymorphism
9936-544: The potato plant ( Solanum tuberosum ) was not made until about 1859, when it began destroying potato crops in the region of Omaha , Nebraska . Its spread eastward was rapid, at an average distance of 140 km per year. The beetle has the potential to spread to temperate areas of East Asia, India, South America, Africa, New Zealand, and Australia. By 1874 it had reached the Atlantic Coast. From 1871, American entomologist Charles Valentine Riley warned Europeans about
10044-468: The potential for an accidental infestation caused by the transportation of the beetle from America. From 1875, several Western European countries, including Germany, Belgium, France, and Switzerland, banned imports of American potatoes to avoid infestation by L. decemlineata . These controls proved ineffective, as the beetle soon reached Europe. In 1877, L. decemlineata reached the United Kingdom and
10152-406: The pronotum changes colour from black in first- and second-instar larvae to having an orange-brown edge in its third-instar. In fourth-instar larvae, about half the pronotum is coloured light brown. This tribe is characterised within the subfamily by round to oval-shaped convex bodies, which are usually brightly coloured, simple claws which separate at the base, open cavities behind the procoxae, and
10260-410: The prothorax. When viewed from below, the thorax is that part from which all three pairs of legs and both pairs of wings arise. The abdomen is everything posterior to the thorax. When viewed from above, most beetles appear to have three clear sections, but this is deceptive: on the beetle's upper surface, the middle section is a hard plate called the pronotum , which is only the front part of the thorax;
10368-510: The sea and the polar regions , they interact with their ecosystems in several ways: beetles often feed on plants and fungi , break down animal and plant debris, and eat other invertebrates . Some species are serious agricultural pests, such as the Colorado potato beetle , while others such as Coccinellidae (ladybirds or ladybugs) eat aphids , scale insects , thrips , and other plant-sucking insects that damage crops. Some others also have unusual characteristics, such as fireflies , which use
10476-403: The second being eastern European beetles. 13% of total variation is from variation among the two continent groups, and 17% of variation is from population variance within groups. Beetles from North American and Europe formed clusters. With the exception of New Brunswick and Kentucky beetles, most beetles from the same population cluster together. In Europe, there were more complex relations between
10584-652: The southern Atlantic Ocean and the isolation of New Zealand, while South America, Antarctica, and Australia grew more distant. The diversity of Cupedidae and Archostemata decreased considerably. Predatory ground beetles (Carabidae) and rove beetles (Staphylinidae) began to distribute into different patterns; the Carabidae predominantly occurred in the warm regions, while the Staphylinidae and click beetles (Elateridae) preferred temperate climates. Likewise, predatory species of Cleroidea and Cucujoidea hunted their prey under
10692-426: The species Solanum lycopersicum (tomato) and the genus Capsicum (pepper). At least 13 insect genera, three spider families , one phalangid ( Opiliones ), and one mite have been recorded as either generalist or specialized predators of the varying stages of L. decemlineata . These include the ground beetle Lebia grandis , the coccinellid beetles Coleomegilla maculata and Hippodamia convergens ,
10800-531: The spring. In cryIIIA expression levels above 0.005%, adult feeding was negligible. Oviposition was also affected. In non- transgenic leafs, mean number of eggs per cage were 117 and 143 in two separate trials. On the other hand, transgenic leafs displayed a mean of 1.7 and 0 eggs per cage in two trials. The female beetles were also studied, and the beetles put in the cage with transgenic plants displayed reduced size with ova that were partially or totally reabsorbed. They absorbed body fat and reproductive tissue as
10908-678: The temperate climate zone during the Cretaceous. Lower Cretaceous sites include the Crato fossil beds in the Araripe basin in the Ceará , North Brazil, as well as overlying Santana formation; the latter was near the equator at that time. In Spain, important sites are near Montsec and Las Hoyas . In Australia, the Koonwarra fossil beds of the Korumburra group, South Gippsland , Victoria, are noteworthy. Major sites from
11016-482: The tip (males and females), spatula-like with a pin on its dorsal surface (males and females), setae with an adhesive terminal disc (males only). Male setae are better designed for smooth surfaces; male Colorado potato beetles have been observed attaching onto smooth glass and plastic surfaces and also attach to the smooth female elytra. Microscopy of the tarsal reveals five articulated tarsomeres and paired curved claws. Males and females have an adhesive setae covering
11124-478: The tip. The Scarabaeidae typically have lamellate antennae with the terminal segments extended into long flat structures stacked together. The Carabidae typically have thread-like antennae. The antennae arises between the eye and the mandibles and in the Tenebrionidae, the antennae rise in front of a notch that breaks the usually circular outline of the compound eye. They are segmented and usually consist of 11 parts,
11232-519: The underside of host leaves. Development of all life stages depends on temperature. After 4–15 days, the eggs hatch into reddish-brown larvae with humped backs and two rows of dark brown spots, one row on each side. They feed on the leaves of their host plants. Larvae progress through four distinct growth stages ( instars ). First instars measure about 1.50 mm (0.059 in) long, and the last (fourth) instars about 8 mm (0.31 in) long. The first through third instars each last about 2–3 days;
11340-647: Was first observed in 1811 by Thomas Nuttall and was formally described in 1824 by American entomologist Thomas Say . The beetles were collected in the Rocky Mountains , where they were feeding on the buffalo bur, Solanum rostratum . Adult beetles typically are 6–11 mm (0.24–0.43 in) in length and 3 mm (0.12 in) in width. They weigh 50–170 mg . The beetles are orange-yellow in color with 10 characteristic black stripes on their front wings or elytra . The specific name decemlineata , meaning "ten-lined", derives from this feature. Adult beetles may be visually confused with L. juncta , which
11448-581: Was first recorded from Liverpool docks, but it did not become established. Many further outbreaks have occurred; the species has been eradicated in the UK at least 163 times. The last major outbreak was in 1977. It remains as a notifiable quarantine pest in the United Kingdom and is monitored by the Plant Health and Seeds Inspectorate of the Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA) to prevent it from becoming established. A cost-benefit analysis from 1981 suggested that
11556-515: Was highest in Colorado potato beetles in Colorado and the lowest was in France. Polymorphism and heterozygosity was higher in North America than in Europe. Heterozygosity ranged from 0.25 in New Brunswick to 0.14 in France. Further analysis revealed population differentiations between North America and Europe. There were two separate groups of European beetles, one formed by western European beetles and
11664-428: Was the highest in the Columbia Basin. However, when comparing all the land types, no particular land cover displayed any significant difference from the others. Genetic differentiation in the Colorado potato beetle can be impacted by agricultural practices such as crop rotation . The same study mentioned earlier examines crop rotation's effects on genetic differentiation in Colorado potato beetles that were not found in
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