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102-553: The European Youth Orienteering Championships (EYOC) are a competition in orienteering involving competitors either between 14 and 16 or 16 and 18 (M/W 16 and M/W 18). The current championship events are: Orienteering Orienteering is included in the programs of world sporting events including the World Games (see Orienteering at the World Games ) and World Police and Fire Games . The history of orienteering begins in

204-421: A nautical almanac , can be used to calculate the time at zero longitude (see Greenwich Mean Time ). Reliable marine chronometers were unavailable until the late 18th century and not affordable until the 19th century. For about a hundred years, from about 1767 until about 1850, mariners lacking a chronometer used the method of lunar distances to determine Greenwich time to find their longitude. A mariner with

306-433: A sextant and using sight reduction tables to correct for height of eye and atmospheric refraction. The height of Polaris in degrees above the horizon is the latitude of the observer, within a degree or so. Similar to latitude, the longitude of a place on Earth is the angular distance east or west of the prime meridian or Greenwich meridian . Longitude is usually expressed in degrees (marked with °) ranging from 0° at

408-441: A whistle be carried for safety reasons. Competitive orienteers usually use specialized equipment: Orienteering events can be classified in many different aspects: Classic orienteering involves a race between controls in a preset order. The winner is the person who completes the course in the shortest time. This is called a "cross-country" course as distinct from a score course (see below). Courses are normally designed so that

510-502: A "control description sheet" or "clue sheet" which gives a precise description of the feature and the location of the kite, e.g., boulder, 5m, north side. For experienced orienteers the descriptions use symbols (pictorial), in accordance with the IOF Control descriptions . Each competitor is required to carry an electronic or paper control card, and to present it at the Start and hand it in at

612-702: A Portuguese expedition commanded by Vasco da Gama reached India by sailing around Africa, opening up direct trade with Asia . Soon, the Portuguese sailed further eastward, to the Spice Islands in 1512, landing in China one year later. The first circumnavigation of the earth was completed in 1522 with the Magellan-Elcano expedition , a Spanish voyage of discovery led by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan and completed by Spanish navigator Juan Sebastián Elcano after

714-691: A chronometer could check its reading using a lunar determination of Greenwich time. In navigation, a rhumb line (or loxodrome) is a line crossing all meridians of longitude at the same angle, i.e. a path derived from a defined initial bearing. That is, upon taking an initial bearing, one proceeds along the same bearing, without changing the direction as measured relative to true or magnetic north. Most modern navigation relies primarily on positions determined electronically by receivers collecting information from satellites. Most other modern techniques rely on finding intersecting lines of position or LOP. A line of position can refer to two different things, either

816-478: A distance produces a circle or arc of position. Circles, arcs, and hyperbolae of positions are often referred to as lines of position. If the navigator draws two lines of position, and they intersect he must be at that position. A fix is the intersection of two or more LOPs. If only one line of position is available, this may be evaluated against the dead reckoning position to establish an estimated position. Lines (or circles) of position can be derived from

918-587: A few meters using time signals transmitted along a line of sight by radio from satellites . Receivers on the ground with a fixed position can also be used to calculate the precise time as a reference for scientific experiments. As of October 2011, only the United States NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS) and the Russian GLONASS are fully globally operational GNSSs. The European Union 's Galileo positioning system

1020-571: A format suitable for Olympic competitions have focused on park orienteering, micro-orienteering, and short-distance relays. Sprint Orienteering on foot as a format of the sport is most likely to be included in Olympic Games, as this discipline is becoming more and more popular worldwide and can have a significant spectator interest. According to the website of a Chicago Orienteering club, "the International Orienteering Federation

1122-458: A larger tournament. Competitors use a headlamp to navigate in the dark. Reflective markers often are used on control point flags, which shifts the tactics from precision navigation to searching. Competitors can travel at high speed to the vicinity of the control point, then sweep the area with the light to catch a reflection off the control flag. If a night event starts before dark, a mass start must be used so all competitors have equal time in

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1224-402: A line on a chart or a line between the observer and an object in real life. A bearing is a measure of the direction to an object. If the navigator measures the direction in real life, the angle can then be drawn on a nautical chart and the navigator will be somewhere on that bearing line on the chart. In addition to bearings, navigators also often measure distances to objects. On the chart,

1326-544: A low-key affair; score events, often at night, normally as informal training events. The Venice street-O is notable for attracting a large international participation. With Park World Tour races and other (e.g. World championships) elite sprint races often being held in urban areas, and the development of a map specification for urban areas (ISSOM), from the mid-2000s, Street-O has been rebranded as urban orienteering, and has taken itself rather more seriously, with full colour maps and electronic punching, and may now be regarded as

1428-649: A new results system. In 2005, the International Olympic Committee confirmed that ski orienteering was under consideration for inclusion in the review process of the Olympic sport program for the 2014 Winter Olympic Games . On 28 November 2006, the Executive Board of the IOC decided not to include any new sports in this review process. The World Orienteering Championships (WOC) is an annual event organised by

1530-450: A number of stars in succession to give a series of overlapping lines of position. Where they intersect is the celestial fix. The Moon and Sun may also be used. The Sun can also be used by itself to shoot a succession of lines of position (best done around local noon) to determine a position. In order to accurately measure longitude, the precise time of a sextant sighting (down to the second, if possible) must be recorded. Each second of error

1632-399: A particularly good navigation system for ships and aircraft that might be flying at a distance from land. RDFs works by rotating a directional antenna and listening for the direction in which the signal from a known station comes through most strongly. This sort of system was widely used in the 1930s and 1940s. RDF antennas are easy to spot on German World War II aircraft, as loops under

1734-418: A radio time signal. Times and frequencies of radio time signals are listed in publications such as Radio Navigational Aids . The second critical component of celestial navigation is to measure the angle formed at the observer's eye between the celestial body and the sensible horizon. The sextant, an optical instrument, is used to perform this function. The sextant consists of two primary assemblies. The frame

1836-456: A serious competition with inclusion in national ranking lists. Such urban races are often much longer than the sprint distance. Orienteering sports combine significant navigation with a specific method of travel. Because the method of travel determines the needed equipment and tactics, each sport requires specific rules for competition and guidelines for orienteering event logistics and course design. International Orienteering Federation ,

1938-400: A single object," "two or more bearings," "tangent bearings," and "two or more ranges." Radar can also be used with ECDIS as a means of position fixing with the radar image or distance/bearing overlaid onto an Electronic nautical chart . Parallel indexing is a technique defined by William Burger in the 1957 book The Radar Observer's Handbook . This technique involves creating a line on

2040-404: A sufficient depth of water below the hull as well as a consideration for squat . It may also involve navigating a ship within a river, canal or channel in close proximity to land. A military navigation team will nearly always consist of several people. A military navigator might have bearing takers stationed at the gyro repeaters on the bridge wings for taking simultaneous bearings, while

2142-406: A time limit. There is usually a mass start (rather than staggered), with a time limit. Controls may have different point values depending on difficulty, and there is a point penalty for each minute late. The competitor with the most points is the winner. The large-scale, endurance-style version of a Score-O is known as a rogaine , competed by teams in events lasting (often) 24 hours. A very large area

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2244-413: A variety of sources: There are some methods seldom used today such as "dipping a light" to calculate the geographic range from observer to lighthouse. Methods of navigation have changed through history. Each new method has enhanced the mariner's ability to complete his voyage. One of the most important judgments the navigator must make is the best method to use. Some types of navigation are depicted in

2346-449: Is Pulsar navigation , which compares the X-ray bursts from a collection of known pulsars in order to determine the position of a spacecraft. This method has been tested by multiple space agencies, such as NASA and ESA . A radio direction finder or RDF is a device for finding the direction to a radio source. Due to radio's ability to travel very long distances "over the horizon", it makes

2448-446: Is a field of study that focuses on the process of monitoring and controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle from one place to another. The field of navigation includes four general categories: land navigation, marine navigation , aeronautic navigation, and space navigation. It is also the term of art used for the specialized knowledge used by navigators to perform navigation tasks. All navigational techniques involve locating

2550-436: Is a quartz crystal oscillator. The quartz crystal is temperature compensated and is hermetically sealed in an evacuated envelope. A calibrated adjustment capability is provided to adjust for the aging of the crystal. The chronometer is designed to operate for a minimum of one year on a single set of batteries. Observations may be timed and ship's clocks set with a comparing watch, which is set to chronometer time and taken to

2652-425: Is a rigid triangular structure with a pivot at the top and a graduated segment of a circle, referred to as the "arc", at the bottom. The second component is the index arm, which is attached to the pivot at the top of the frame. At the bottom is an endless vernier which clamps into teeth on the bottom of the "arc". The optical system consists of two mirrors and, generally, a low power telescope. One mirror, referred to as

2754-407: Is clubs who put on events usually open to all-comers. Clubs may also put on practice, training, and social events. Open clubs are open to anyone and there is usually no restriction on joining them. Closed clubs restrict their membership to specific groups. For example, BAOC (British Army Orienteering Club) has restrictions on who may join, principally British Army personnel. The competition, or race,

2856-810: Is committed to entering the Olympic World." Although not an official demonstration sport , an international ski-orienteering event was held in Sugadaira Kōgen , Japan , as part of the International Cultural Festival held in conjunction with the XVIII Winter Olympic Games in Nagano in 1998. The International Orienteering Federation petitioned the International Olympic Committee in 2002 to include ski orienteering in

2958-1027: Is considered to be the V-2 guidance system deployed by the Germans in 1942. However, inertial sensors are traced to the early 19th century. The advantages INSs led their use in aircraft, missiles, surface ships and submarines. For example, the U.S. Navy developed the Ships Inertial Navigation System (SINS) during the Polaris missile program to ensure a reliable and accurate navigation system to initial its missile guidance systems. Inertial navigation systems were in wide use until satellite navigation systems (GPS) became available. INSs are still in common use on submarines (since GPS reception or other fix sources are not possible while submerged) and long-range missiles. Not to be confused with satellite navigation, which depends upon satellites to function, space navigation refers to

3060-668: Is derived from a word root meaning to find the direction or location. The first civilian orienteering competition open to the public was held in Norway in 1897, when Norway was still a part of the Swedish Union . From the beginning, locations selected for orienteering have been chosen in part for their beauty, natural or man-made. For the first public orienteering competition in Sweden, in 1901, control points included two historic churches, Spånga kyrka and Bromma kyrka (a round church ). With

3162-441: Is equivalent to 15 seconds of longitude error, which at the equator is a position error of .25 of a nautical mile, about the accuracy limit of manual celestial navigation. The spring-driven marine chronometer is a precision timepiece used aboard ship to provide accurate time for celestial observations. A chronometer differs from a spring-driven watch principally in that it contains a variable lever device to maintain even pressure on

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3264-430: Is intended to test the navigational skill, concentration, and running ability of the competitors. High levels of fitness and running speed are required to compete successfully at an international or elite level. To ensure fairness between competitors the map is not usually provided until the start, and starts are normally staggered with competitors starting at not less than one-minute intervals. The objective on each leg

3366-413: Is like. Precision orienteering generally is not a speed event, but rather a test of the competitors' ability to precisely match map and terrain. Examples include trail-O (untimed), TREC style mounted orienteering , and Radio Orienteering in a Compact Area (ROCA). Both trail-O and ROCA use decoys in the vicinity of the control point. Efforts begun in 1996 to promote the inclusion of orienteering in

3468-478: Is not affected by adverse weather conditions and it cannot be detected or jammed. Its disadvantage is that since the current position is calculated solely from previous positions and motion sensors, its errors are cumulative, increasing at a rate roughly proportional to the time since the initial position was input. Inertial navigation systems must therefore be frequently corrected with a location 'fix' from some other type of navigation system. The first inertial system

3570-449: Is particularly useful due to their high power and location near major cities. Decca , OMEGA , and LORAN-C are three similar hyperbolic navigation systems. Decca was a hyperbolic low frequency radio navigation system (also known as multilateration ) that was first deployed during World War II when the Allied forces needed a system which could be used to achieve accurate landings. As

3672-485: Is probably the earliest form of open-ocean navigation; it was based on memory and observation recorded on scientific instruments like the Marshall Islands Stick Charts of Ocean Swells . Early Pacific Polynesians used the motion of stars, weather, the position of certain wildlife species, or the size of waves to find the path from one island to another. Maritime navigation using scientific instruments such as

3774-455: Is reasonable for the navigator to simply monitor the progress of the ship along the chosen track, visually ensuring that the ship is proceeding as desired, checking the compass, sounder and other indicators only occasionally. If a pilot is aboard, as is often the case in the most restricted of waters, his judgement can generally be relied upon, further easing the workload. But should the ECDIS fail,

3876-420: Is to follow the fastest route between controls. The fastest is not always the shortest route, and can depend heavily on route choice . Orienteering competitions use specially prepared orienteering maps . They are topographic maps although much more detailed than general-purpose maps. The ISOM map scales are 1:15,000, 1:10,000, or 1:7,500, with grids aligned to magnetic north . Map symbols are standardized by

3978-467: Is used for competition, and the map scale is smaller. The format originated in Australia. The term ROGAINE is often said to stand for Rugged Outdoor Group Activity Involving Navigation and Endurance; this is essentially a backronym , as the name actually originates from the names of Rod, Gail and Neil Phillips, who were among Australian Rogaining's first participants. Very short races, with winning times in

4080-499: The 2006 Winter Olympic Games , noting that it could share the venue with the biathlon competitions. In its formal recommendation that ski orienteering not be included in those games, the Olympic Programme Commission focused on a lack of participation in the sport outside Nordic countries , "the challenges for broadcasters and spectators to easily follow the competition", and the costs associated with new technology and

4182-553: The Age of Discovery . The earliest known description of how to make and use a sea astrolabe comes from Spanish cosmographer Martín Cortés de Albacar 's Arte de Navegar ( The Art of Navigation ) published in 1551, based on the principle of the archipendulum used in constructing the Egyptian pyramids . Open-seas navigation using the astrolabe and the compass started during the Age of Discovery in

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4284-642: The International Orienteering Federation . The first World Championships was held in Fiskars , Finland in 1966. They were held biennially up to 2003 (with the exception of 1978 and 1979). Since 2003, competitions have been held annually. The format of the World Orienteering Championships alternates every 2 years, with even years hosting sprint format events and odd years hosting forest format events. As of 2019 , when applying

4386-452: The International Orienteering Federation . These federations enabled the development of national and world championships. World championships were held every two years until 2003, then every year. Throughout this time, orienteering has remained most popular in Scandinavia . There, the two oldest recurring orienteering meets have been held since the 1940s ( Jukola relay and Tiomila ), and

4488-535: The Olympic Games have so far been unsuccessful, although orienteering became a sport in the World Games in 2001, and is a sport in the Summer Deaflympics . Supporters recognize that the sport is neither television- nor spectator-friendly, the venue of competition is often necessarily remote from major cities, and the duration of the event is longer than most other individual competitions. Efforts to develop

4590-600: The United Kingdom use colour coding to define the difficulty of the courses. Short, easy courses are provided for beginners and younger competitors, with technically and physically demanding courses being provided for experienced orienteers. Ranging from easy and short to long and technical, there are; White, Yellow, Orange, Light Green, Green, Blue and Brown. Some orienteering clubs have set up permanent courses, which can be used for personal, or club, training. Non-standard permanent markers are used as control kites, and maps of

4692-537: The United States in cooperation with six partner nations. OMEGA was developed by the United States Navy for military aviation users. It was approved for development in 1968 and promised a true worldwide oceanic coverage capability with only eight transmitters and the ability to achieve a four-mile (6 km) accuracy when fixing a position. Initially, the system was to be used for navigating nuclear bombers across

4794-402: The United States , the national governing body is Orienteering USA . Most nations have some form of regional governing bodies. These are not rule-making bodies but are there to assist in coordinating clubs within that region, e.g., they may allocate dates so that clubs do not clash with their events. Clubs are usually formed at a local level and affiliated to their national governing body. It

4896-673: The mariner's astrolabe first occurred in the Mediterranean during the Middle Ages. Although land astrolabes were invented in the Hellenistic period and existed in classical antiquity and the Islamic Golden Age , the oldest record of a sea astrolabe is that of Spanish astronomer Ramon Llull dating from 1295. The perfecting of this navigation instrument is attributed to Portuguese navigators during early Portuguese discoveries in

4998-458: The race . At international level, the International Orienteering Federation (IOF) defines rules and guidelines which govern four orienteering sports: foot orienteering , mountain bike orienteering , ski orienteering , and trail orienteering . It is based in Sweden and it claims on its website to aim to "spread the sport of orienteering, to promote its development and to create and maintain an attractive world event programme." Since 1977

5100-400: The "index mirror" is fixed to the top of the index arm, over the pivot. As the index arm is moved, this mirror rotates, and the graduated scale on the arc indicates the measured angle ("altitude"). The second mirror, referred to as the "horizon glass", is fixed to the front of the frame. One half of the horizon glass is silvered and the other half is clear. Light from the celestial body strikes

5202-765: The 15th century. The Portuguese began systematically exploring the Atlantic coast of Africa from 1418, under the sponsorship of Prince Henry . In 1488 Bartolomeu Dias reached the Indian Ocean by this route. In 1492 the Spanish monarchs funded Christopher Columbus 's expedition to sail west to reach the Indies by crossing the Atlantic, which resulted in the Discovery of the Americas . In 1498,

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5304-465: The Finish. The control card is marked by some means at each control point to show that the competitor has completed the course correctly. Most events now use electronic punching, although cards and needle punches are still widely used. The winner is normally the competitor with the fastest time, but other scoring systems can be used, e.g., score events and Trail-O. Most events produce provisional results 'on

5406-479: The Greenwich meridian to 180° east and west. Sydney , for example, has a longitude of about 151° east . New York City has a longitude of 74° west . For most of history, mariners struggled to determine longitude. Longitude can be calculated if the precise time of a sighting is known. Lacking that, one can use a sextant to take a lunar distance (also called the lunar observation , or "lunar" for short) that, with

5508-538: The IOF has been recognised by the IOC . There are governing bodies for most of the individual nations that are represented in the sport of orienteering. These national bodies are the rule-making body for that nation. For example, the British Orienteering Federation is the national governing body for the United Kingdom . The federation was founded in 1967 and it is made up of 13 constituent associations. For

5610-402: The IOF, and designed to be readable by any competitor regardless of background or native tongue. Orienteering events offer a range of courses, of varying physical and technical difficulty, to meet the needs of competitors. The orienteering course is marked in purple or red on a map. A triangle is used to indicate the start and a double circle indicates the finish. Circles are used to show

5712-536: The North Pole to Russia. Later, it was found useful for submarines. Due to the success of the Global Positioning System the use of Omega declined during the 1990s, to a point where the cost of operating Omega could no longer be justified. Omega was terminated on September 30, 1997, and all stations ceased operation. LORAN is a terrestrial navigation system using low frequency radio transmitters that use

5814-607: The Olympic-style gold first rankings method to medals won at the World Orienteering Championships, Europe has been dominant, with Sweden 's 171 medals won marking them as the most successful world championships nation. Orienteering has been a part of the World Games program since 2001. As Orienteering is a sport practiced primarily in Europe, the European Orienteering Championships is also an important event in

5916-627: The Park World Tour organisation who organised an independent "world cup" in park sprint orienteering. In 2001 in Tampere, the IOF included a sprint distance in the orienteering world championships. Ultrasprint events are held in a specially constructed labyrinth. Due to the limited area of the labyrinth, ultrasprint is a more spectator-friendly form of orienteering. Also, as the course is artificial, identical courses can be set in different geographical locations for simultaneous local competitions as parts of

6018-553: The Philippines, north to parallel 39°, and hit the eastward Kuroshio Current which took its galleon across the Pacific. He arrived in Acapulco on October 8, 1565. The term stems from the 1530s, from Latin navigationem (nom. navigatio ), from navigatus , pp. of navigare "to sail, sail over, go by sea, steer a ship," from navis "ship" and the root of agere "to drive". Roughly,

6120-508: The United States, rule A.34.1 states that competitors are free to choose clothing that they are most comfortable in (full leg cover is not required), unless specifically stated in the meet announcement. In Australia, under the 2021 rules, 2.1.21, the choice of clothing is also left up to the competitor, and full leg cover is not required. In Canada, no specific clothing is required, but participants are encouraged to wear clothing suitable for

6222-492: The bridge wing for recording sight times. In practice, a wrist watch coordinated to the nearest second with the chronometer will be adequate. A stop watch, either spring wound or digital, may also be used for celestial observations. In this case, the watch is started at a known GMT by chronometer, and the elapsed time of each sight added to this to obtain GMT of the sight. All chronometers and watches should be checked regularly with

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6324-426: The bulk purchase of clothing, which are then made in the club colours with the club's name prominently displayed. Some competitors prefer lycra tights or leggings. Gaiters are also often worn. Lightweight studded (and often cleated) orienteering shoes are commonly used. The basic equipment required for orienteering is usually listed as a compass and appropriate outdoor clothing. Most national bodies recommend that

6426-421: The civilian navigator on a merchant ship or leisure craft must often take and plot their position themselves, typically with the aid of electronic position fixing. While the military navigator will have a bearing book and someone to record entries for each fix, the civilian navigator will simply pilot the bearings on the chart as they are taken and not record them at all. If the ship is equipped with an ECDIS , it

6528-460: The control points. At international, national, and the larger events, courses are classified by age, e.g., M35 for men 35 years of age and older. Classes requiring similar distances and difficulties are usually combined into a smaller number of courses, e.g., M60 will normally share a course with W50, and often with M65 and W55. The results are normally arranged by class. In the smaller events courses are provided by ability. The United States and

6630-429: The courses are usually available publicly for a fee. The courses are usually set up in public areas and there may be some restrictions on access, e.g., daylight hours only. Clubs also organise informal events for practice and training. Control points are placed on features on the map that can be clearly identified on the ground. Control points are marked in the terrain by white and orange "flags". Competitors receive

6732-570: The day', with draft results on the Internet that night; the final results being confirmed a few days later. With electronic punching the results can include split times for competitors. These show the times between controls and aggregate times to each control. With suitable computer software these times can be displayed in a graphical form (Progressograph). Each competitor is responsible for his or her own safety. There are no rules, but there are guidelines, which should be followed. The basic safety check

6834-479: The fastest route is not straightforward to find on the map, or to follow on the ground. The classic race has a typical winning time of 75–90 minutes. As of 2007, the IOF have dictated that the "classic" course should be redesignated the "long". The middle distance is a shorter cross-country race than the classic (or long), with a winning time in the region of 30 minutes and with an emphasis more on fine navigation than route-choice. When races of this distance were run in

6936-486: The finish whether they have completed the course or not. IOF rule 21.1 is that the specification for clothing is delegated to the national organising body, and no specific clothing is required. Unique among English speaking countries, Ireland and the UK require legs to be covered. Rule 7.1.1 requires full body cover : the torso and legs must be covered, while organizer may allow shorts (e.g., in park or street orienteering). In

7038-642: The former's death in the Philippines in 1521. The fleet of seven ships sailed from Sanlúcar de Barrameda in Southern Spain in 1519, crossed the Atlantic Ocean and after several stopovers rounded the southern tip of South America . Some ships were lost, but the remaining fleet continued across the Pacific making a number of discoveries including Guam and the Philippines. By then, only two galleons were left from

7140-413: The governing body of the sport, currently sanctions the following four disciplines as official disciplines in the sport of orienteering: Moreover, International Amateur Radio Union (IARU) sanctions the following orienteering sport: Other orienteering disciplines include, but are not limited to: Adventure racing is a combination of two or more disciplines, and usually includes orienteering as part of

7242-422: The highest number of participating clubs 1,787 (in 2015), while 25-manna has the highest number of legs 25. To reduce competitors following each other, various spreading methods might be used. This is called "gaffling", which is a Swedish word meaning "forking". The key principle is that every team must run every leg (between each pair of two controls), but not necessarily in the same order. The IOF have introduced

7344-426: The horizon or more preferably a star, each time the sextant is used. The practice of taking celestial observations from the deck of a rolling ship, often through cloud cover and with a hazy horizon, is by far the most challenging part of celestial navigation. Inertial navigation system (INS) is a dead reckoning type of navigation system that computes its position based on motion sensors. Before actually navigating,

7446-480: The index mirror and is reflected to the silvered portion of the horizon glass, then back to the observer's eye through the telescope. The observer manipulates the index arm so the reflected image of the body in the horizon glass is just resting on the visual horizon, seen through the clear side of the horizon glass. Adjustment of the sextant consists of checking and aligning all the optical elements to eliminate "index correction". Index correction should be checked, using

7548-662: The initial latitude and longitude and the INS's physical orientation relative to the Earth (e.g., north and level) are established. After alignment, an INS receives impulses from motion detectors that measure (a) the acceleration along three axes (accelerometers), and (b) rate of rotation about three orthogonal axes (gyroscopes). These enable an INS to continually and accurately calculate its current latitude and longitude (and often velocity). Advantages over other navigation systems are that, once aligned, an INS does not require outside information. An INS

7650-466: The invention of inexpensive yet reliable compasses, the sport gained popularity during the 1930s. By 1934, over a quarter million Swedes were participants, and orienteering had spread to Finland , Switzerland , the Soviet Union , and Hungary . Following World War II , orienteering spread throughout Europe and to Asia, North America and Oceania. In Sweden in 1959, an international orienteering conference

7752-548: The late 19th century in Sweden . The actual term "orientering" (the original Swedish name for orienteering, lits. "orientation") was first used in 1886 at the Swedish Military Academy Karlberg and meant the crossing of unknown land with the aid of a map and a compass. In Sweden, orienteering grew from military training in land navigation into a competitive sport for military officers, then for civilians. The name

7854-675: The latitude of a place on Earth is its angular distance north or south of the equator . Latitude is usually expressed in degrees (marked with °) ranging from 0° at the Equator to 90° at the North and South poles. The latitude of the North Pole is 90° N, and the latitude of the South Pole is 90° S. Mariners calculated latitude in the Northern Hemisphere by sighting the pole star ( Polaris ) with

7956-437: The light and dark. The two classic club relays, Tiomila and Jukola , both include night legs. Full length (24-hour) rogaines and many adventure races run through the night, without a light period, and competitors may choose not to rest. Competitors follow a string around a short course, noting down things that they find on the way. This is generally used by young children and people new to the sport who want to find out what it

8058-448: The mainspring, and a special balance designed to compensate for temperature variations. A spring-driven chronometer is set approximately to Greenwich mean time (GMT) and is not reset until the instrument is overhauled and cleaned, usually at three-year intervals. The difference between GMT and chronometer time is carefully determined and applied as a correction to all chronometer readings. Spring-driven chronometers must be wound at about

8160-586: The mid-late 1990s, they were called "short" races, or "sprint-O". The short distance was introduced as a world championship discipline in 1991. More recently, though the IOF have renamed this distance as "middle". A relay race is run by a team of competitors each running a course, and the result is based on the team's total time. Relays usually employ a mass start instead of a staggered start. Relays are part of World Orienteering Championships both as sprint relays and as cross-country relays. Additionally, there are popular mass club races out of which Jukola relay has

8262-540: The navigation of spacecraft themselves. This has historically been achieved (during the Apollo program ) via a navigational computer , an Inertial navigation system, and via celestial inputs entered by astronauts which were recorded by sextant and telescope. Space rated navigational computers, like those found on Apollo and later missions, are designed to be hardened against possible data corruption from radiation. Another possibility that has been explored for deep space navigation

8364-459: The navigator will have to rely on his skill in the manual and time-tested procedures. Celestial navigation systems are based on observation of the positions of the Sun , Moon , planets and navigational stars . Such systems are in use as well for terrestrial navigating as for interstellar navigating. By knowing which point on the rotating Earth a celestial object is above and measuring its height above

8466-516: The navigator's position compared to known locations or patterns. Navigation, in a broader sense, can refer to any skill or study that involves the determination of position and direction . In this sense, navigation includes orienteering and pedestrian navigation. In the European medieval period, navigation was considered part of the set of seven mechanical arts , none of which were used for long voyages across open ocean. Polynesian navigation

8568-420: The nomenclature to try to clarify the usage of the word "leg". In orienteering usage, leg normally refers to the part of a race between two control points. In relay (non-orienteering) usage, leg refers to the part of a race run by a single team member. The IOF prefer "lap" for this latter term, but despite this, in common parlance, "leg" is used for both terms. Competitors visit as many controls as possible within

8670-405: The observer's horizon, the navigator can determine his distance from that subpoint. A nautical almanac and a marine chronometer are used to compute the subpoint on Earth a celestial body is over, and a sextant is used to measure the body's angular height above the horizon. That height can then be used to compute distance from the subpoint to create a circular line of position. A navigator shoots

8772-742: The orienteering calendar. As of 2021, the European Championships is held in tandem with the World Championships, with the European Championships hosting the Sprint events when the World Championships hosts the Forest events and vice versa. The annual Orienteering World Cup is hosted over a number of events throughout the year, with winners of the overall world cup being awarded following the final event. The World University Orienteering Championships are hosted biannually. Navigation Navigation

8874-646: The original seven. The Victoria led by Elcano sailed across the Indian Ocean and north along the coast of Africa, to finally arrive in Spain in 1522, three years after its departure. The Trinidad sailed east from the Philippines, trying to find a maritime path back to the Americas , but was unsuccessful. The eastward route across the Pacific, also known as the tornaviaje (return trip) was only discovered forty years later, when Spanish cosmographer Andrés de Urdaneta sailed from

8976-476: The path a radar object should follow on the radar display if the ship stays on its planned course. During the transit, the navigator can check that the ship is on track by checking that the pip lies on the drawn line. Global Navigation Satellite System or GNSS is the term for satellite navigation systems that provide positioning with global coverage. A GNSS allow small electronic receivers to determine their location ( longitude , latitude , and altitude ) within

9078-429: The radar scanner. When a vessel (ship or boat) is within radar range of land or fixed objects (such as special radar aids to navigation and navigation marks) the navigator can take distances and angular bearings to charted objects and use these to establish arcs of position and lines of position on a chart. A fix consisting of only radar information is called a radar fix. Types of radar fixes include "range and bearing to

9180-514: The rear section of the fuselage, whereas most US aircraft enclosed the antenna in a small teardrop-shaped fairing. In navigational applications, RDF signals are provided in the form of radio beacons , the radio version of a lighthouse . The signal is typically a simple AM broadcast of a morse code series of letters, which the RDF can tune in to see if the beacon is "on the air". Most modern detectors can also tune in any commercial radio stations, which

9282-424: The region of 12–15 minutes, often held in city parks and other more urban settings. Map scales are usually 1:5,000 or 1:4,000. Control sites can include benches, litterbins, sculptures, and other objects common to urban parks. The sprint distance may also be held in the forest, when it would be called a "forest sprint" as opposed to an "urban sprint". This distance was pioneered in the late 1990s as an elite event by

9384-409: The same frequency range, called CHAYKA . LORAN use is in steep decline, with GPS being the primary replacement. However, there are attempts to enhance and re-popularize LORAN. LORAN signals are less susceptible to interference and can penetrate better into foliage and buildings than GPS signals. Radar is an effective aid to navigation because it provides ranges and bearings to objects within range of

9486-412: The same time each day. Quartz crystal marine chronometers have replaced spring-driven chronometers aboard many ships because of their greater accuracy. They are maintained on GMT directly from radio time signals. This eliminates chronometer error and watch error corrections. Should the second hand be in error by a readable amount, it can be reset electrically. The basic element for time generation

9588-400: The screen that is parallel to the ship's course, but offset to the left or right by some distance. This parallel line allows the navigator to maintain a given distance away from hazards . The line on the radar screen is set to a specific distance and angle, then the ship's position relative to the parallel line is observed. This can provide an immediate reference to the navigator as to whether

9690-495: The ship is on or off its intended course for navigation. Other techniques that are less used in general navigation have been developed for special situations. One, known as the "contour method," involves marking a transparent plastic template on the radar screen and moving it to the chart to fix a position. Another special technique, known as the Franklin Continuous Radar Plot Technique, involves drawing

9792-424: The single largest orienteering meet has been held every year since 1965 and attracts around 15,000 competitors ( O-Ringen ). Typically, orienteering is run in wild terrain. In its Scandinavian origins, this typically meant in the forest , but orienteering in open fell , heathland , moorland and other mixed terrain is also common. Orienteering in towns has been common for many years. Street-O has typically been

9894-809: The table. The practice of navigation usually involves a combination of these different methods. By mental navigation checks, a pilot or a navigator estimates tracks, distances, and altitudes which will then help the pilot avoid gross navigation errors. Piloting (also called pilotage) involves navigating an aircraft by visual reference to landmarks, or a water vessel in restricted waters and fixing its position as precisely as possible at frequent intervals. More so than in other phases of navigation, proper preparation and attention to detail are important. Procedures vary from vessel to vessel, and between military, commercial, and private vessels. As pilotage takes place in shallow waters , it typically involves following courses to ensure sufficient under keel clearance , ensuring

9996-459: The time interval between radio signals received from three or more stations to determine the position of a ship or aircraft. The current version of LORAN in common use is LORAN-C, which operates in the low frequency portion of the EM spectrum from 90 to 110 kHz . Many nations are users of the system, including the United States , Japan , and several European countries. Russia uses a nearly exact system in

10098-548: The weather, and hiking or running shoes. Similarly in New Zealand, there are no rules in force limiting orienteers to running only in full leg cover. The early competitors used standard athletic clothing, i.e., shorts and an athletic vest, which provided little protection for racing through undergrowth . Purpose-made lightweight nylon full-body suits were later adopted. The early O-suits were made in muted colours but modern suits are generally multi-coloured. Clubs often organise

10200-489: Was held. Representatives from 12 countries ( Austria , Bulgaria , Czechoslovakia , Denmark , Finland , East and West Germany , Hungary , Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Yugoslavia ) participated. In 1961, orienteering organizations representing 10 European nations founded the International Orienteering Federation (IOF). Since then, IOF has supported the founding of many national orienteering federations. By 2010, 71 national orienteering federations were member societies of

10302-443: Was the stub check . The competitor hands in his stub at the start and his control card at the finish. Event officials match the two and any unmatched stubs represent a missing competitor. This has been superseded with electronic punching in that event officials can now request a 'still to finish' report listing all those competitors who punched at the start but have not yet downloaded their electronic card. All competitors must report to

10404-490: Was the case with Loran C , its primary use was for ship navigation in coastal waters. Fishing vessels were major post-war users, but it was also used on aircraft, including a very early (1949) application of moving-map displays. The system was deployed in the North Sea and was used by helicopters operating to oil platforms . The OMEGA Navigation System was the first truly global radio navigation system for aircraft, operated by

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