A Eurobalise is a specific type of a balise installed between the rails of a railway. Eurobalises are part of the European train control system (ETCS) . The balises are pre-programmed and contain information that is read by train antennas. One of their many functions is to allow a train to determine its location.
138-444: A balise typically needs no wayside power source. Coupling between the balise and the vehicle-mounted antenna is by magnetic induction, similar to a transformer - although operating at frequencies typical of radio , it is not a radio system. In response to "telepowering" by means of a 27 MHz, CW-modulated magnetic field transmitted by a Balise Transmission Module [ de ] (BTM and its associated antenna) mounted under
276-429: A transformer is a passive component that transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit to another circuit, or multiple circuits . A varying current in any coil of the transformer produces a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, which induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) across any other coils wound around the same core. Electrical energy can be transferred between separate coils without
414-452: A 1974 strike protesting the new speed limit and other trucking regulations. The radios were crucial for independent truckers; many were paid by the mile, and the 55 mph speed limit lowered their productivity. Their use spread further into the general population in the US in the middle of the 1970s. Originally, CB radios required the use of a callsign in addition to a purchased license ($ 20 in
552-612: A CBer to monitor a town's home channel to contact another CBer from that town instead of a making a general call on channel 11. Since the price of CB was dropping and VHF Marine Band was still expensive, many boaters installed CB radios. Business caught on to this market, and introduced marine CBs containing a weather band (WX). There was much controversy over whether the Coast Guard should monitor CB radio, but for safety they did so, using Motorola base stations at their search and rescue stations. The Coast Guard stopped this practice in
690-403: A DC component flowing in the windings. A saturable reactor exploits saturation of the core to control alternating current. Knowledge of leakage inductance is also useful when transformers are operated in parallel. It can be shown that if the percent impedance and associated winding leakage reactance-to-resistance ( X / R ) ratio of two transformers were the same, the transformers would share
828-457: A balise group the maximum ERTMS message per balise group can encompass 8 * 830 = 6640 bits (note that every telegram must contain a header and the trailer packet 255). A fixed balise transmits a stable message which typically can include the linking information, gradient profile, and speed profile. It may also contain track information such as route suitability data for different train types and axle load restrictions. Almost all packet types contain
966-694: A channel must take turns transmitting. In the US and Canada , and in the EU and the UK , transmitter power is limited to 4 watts when using AM and FM and 12 W PEP when using SSB . Illegal amplifiers to increase range are common. CB radios using an omni-directional vertical antenna typically have a range of about 5 km to 30 km depending on terrain, for line of sight communication; however, various radio propagation conditions may intermittently allow communication over much greater distances. Base stations however may be connected to
1104-545: A directional Yagi–Uda antenna commonly called a Beam or a Yagi. Multiple countries have created similar radio services, with varying technical standards and requirements for licensing. While they may be known by other names, such as the General Radio Service in Canada, they often use similar frequencies (26–28 MHz) and have similar uses, and similar technical standards. Although licenses may be required, eligibility
1242-483: A finite number of frequencies during the mid-to-late 1970s and early 1980s, channels often were noisy and communication difficult, which reduced interest among hobbyists. Business users (such as tow-truck operators, plumbers, and electricians) moved to the VHF and UHF business band frequencies. The business band requires an FCC license, and usually results in an assignment to a single frequency. The advantages of fewer users sharing
1380-584: A flag if the speed restriction applies to the front or rear end of the train (possibly allowing for a delay). The trailer packet only contains its packet id with no parameters where 255 equals the state of all bits set in the 8-bit packet id field (11111111). The history of ETCS has seen the formation of UNISIG (Union of Signalling Industry) in 1998 to promote the development of the system. The founding members were Alstom , Ansaldo , Bombardier , Invensys , Siemens and Thales . The group has ensured that Eurobalises may be made by several different companies; while
1518-401: A flux equal and opposite to that produced by the primary winding. The windings are wound around a core of infinitely high magnetic permeability so that all of the magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary windings. With a voltage source connected to the primary winding and a load connected to the secondary winding, the transformer currents flow in the indicated directions and
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#17328632202221656-484: A frequency, greater authorized output power, clarity of FM transmission, lack of interference by distant stations due to skip propagation , and consistent communications made the VHF ( Very High Frequency ) radio an attractive alternative to the overcrowded CB channels. With these factors in play, CB radio has once again gained popularity in recent years, an uptick not seen since the 90's. Manufacturers report an increase in sales, while social media sites like YouTube show
1794-508: A growing popularity in CB radio content, mainly as a hobby. The technology has also given way to more compact CB radios with far more features afforded in older models. The FCC restricts channel 9 to emergency communications and roadside assistance. Most highway travelers monitor channel 19. Truck drivers still use CB, which is an effective means of obtaining information about road construction, accidents and police speed traps . Before CB
1932-456: A header followed by multiple packets defined in the ERTMS protocols. Typical packets are: Many applications include optional packets like Packet 3 - National Values , Packet 41 - Level Transition Order , and Packet 136 - Infill Location Reference . If the telegram maximum of 830 bits is reached then more packets can be sent in the following balises of the same balise group - with up to 8 balises in
2070-670: A large transformer at other than its design frequency may require assessment of voltages, losses, and cooling to establish if safe operation is practical. Transformers may require protective relays to protect the transformer from overvoltage at higher than rated frequency. One example is in traction transformers used for electric multiple unit and high-speed train service operating across regions with different electrical standards. The converter equipment and traction transformers have to accommodate different input frequencies and voltage (ranging from as high as 50 Hz down to 16.7 Hz and rated up to 25 kV). At much higher frequencies
2208-437: A license and may be used for business or personal communications. Like many other land mobile radio services, multiple radios in a local area share a single frequency channel, but only one can transmit at a time. The radio is normally in receive mode to receive transmissions of other radios on the channel; when users want to communicate they press a " push to talk " button on their radio, which turns on their transmitter. Users on
2346-523: A metallic (conductive) connection between the two circuits. Faraday's law of induction , discovered in 1831, describes the induced voltage effect in any coil due to a changing magnetic flux encircled by the coil. Transformers are used to change AC voltage levels, such transformers being termed step-up or step-down type to increase or decrease voltage level, respectively. Transformers can also be used to provide galvanic isolation between circuits as well as to couple stages of signal-processing circuits. Since
2484-493: A nameplate that indicate the phase relationships between their terminals. This may be in the form of a phasor diagram, or using an alpha-numeric code to show the type of internal connection (wye or delta) for each winding. The EMF of a transformer at a given flux increases with frequency. By operating at higher frequencies, transformers can be physically more compact because a given core is able to transfer more power without reaching saturation and fewer turns are needed to achieve
2622-653: A nationwide craze in the United States over the mid- to late-1970s. The phenomenon also inspired several country and rock music songs in 1975 and 1976. Betty Ford , the former First Lady of the United States , used the CB handle "First Mama". Voice actor Mel Blanc was also an active CB operator, often using " Bugs " or " Daffy " as his handle and talking on the air in the Los Angeles area in one of his many voice characters. He appeared in an interview (with clips having fun talking to children on his home CB radio station) in
2760-432: A number of approximations. Analysis may be simplified by assuming that magnetizing branch impedance is relatively high and relocating the branch to the left of the primary impedances. This introduces error but allows combination of primary and referred secondary resistances and reactance by simple summation as two series impedances. Transformer equivalent circuit impedance and transformer ratio parameters can be derived from
2898-454: A parameter flagging whether its information is relevant for the "nominal" or "reverse" direction (or both). If a train sees balise 1 before balise 2 then it passes over the group in the nominal direction. Consequently, some packets may be dropped by the application software of the receiver if they are not designated for the relevant direction. The ERTMS header block of 50 bits contains the ETCS version,
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#17328632202223036-452: A passing train, the balise transmits information to the train ( uplink ) by means of a 4.234 MHz FSK -modulated magnetic field. The original provisions for Eurobalises to receive information from the train ( downlink ) have been removed from the specification. The transmission rate is sufficient to transmit at least three copies of a 'telegram' to be received by a train passing at any speed up to 500 km/h. The BTM may be integrated into
3174-433: A permeability many times that of free space and the core thus serves to greatly reduce the magnetizing current and confine the flux to a path which closely couples the windings. Early transformer developers soon realized that cores constructed from solid iron resulted in prohibitive eddy current losses, and their designs mitigated this effect with cores consisting of bundles of insulated iron wires. Later designs constructed
3312-676: A power output of 0.5 watt. An unofficial citizens band radio club in Malaysia is the "Malaysia Boleh Citizen Radio Group", known as "Mike Bravo" ( Malaysia Boleh ). In the UK, a small but growing number of people were illegally using American CB radios during the late 1970s and early 1980s. The prominence of CB radio grew in Britain partly due to the success of novelty songs like C.W. McCall's "Convoy" and Laurie Lingo & The Dipsticks’ "Convoy GB" in 1976 (both of which were Top 5 hits). By 1980, CB radio
3450-926: A power output of 500 mW. A CB radio or Personal Radio Service Device under Class Assignment does not need an individual license to operate in Malaysia if it adheres to the rules of the Warta Kerajaan Malaysia On 1 April 2010 the MCMC (Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission) released a new regulation and later on 2017. This includes a new UHF PMR 446 MHz allocation: an eight-channel analog Personal Mobile Radio 446 MHz (Analog PMR446) with frequencies from 446.00625 to 446.09375 MHz (12.5 kHz spacing) FM with 0.5 watt power output, and 16 channels for Digital Personal Mobile Radio 446 MHz (Digital PMR 446). Frequencies for Digital PMR 446 are from 446.103125 to 446.196875 MHz with 6.25 kHz channel spacing in 4FSK mode and
3588-487: A previous balise group or when their function is reduced to provide only the exact position. There may be up to 8 balises in a balise group. Balises are differentiated as being either fixed-data , transmitting the same data to every train, or transparent data , switchable , or controllable , transmitting variable data. (Note that the word fixed refers to the information transmitted by the balise, not to its physical location; all balises are immobile.) A fixed-data balise
3726-624: A single balise transmission had only 12 bit but it allowed for 2 to 5 balises in a balise group providing 24 to 80 bit of signalling information. Most of the patents on that encoding are held by GEC Alsthom. It was then up to ABB to extend the telegram size from 12 bit in EBICAB 700 to 180 bit in EBICAB 900 (after encoding 255 bit) as used in the Mediterranean Corridor in Spain. In that time Ansaldo adopted
3864-474: A spacing of 20 kHz instead of the regular 10 kHz step. These intermediate frequencies are reserved for the Radio Control Radio Service (RCRS). The RCRS service is commonly used for remote control of model aircraft and boats. It is an unofficial practice to name these channels by their next lower standard channel number along with a suffix "A" ( after ). For example, channel "11A"
4002-715: A specific site. To allow a continuous transmission the telegrams may be sent along leaky feeder cable being up to 1000 metres long. The Euroloop cable is always connected with a balise at its end which serves as the end-of-loop marker (EOLM). The telegram structure is the same as for the balise it is connected to. Originally the Euroloop used the same frequency as the Eurobalises but that was changed for specification 2.0.1 in September 2004. Euroloops had been used in Switzerland which completed
4140-468: A transformer design to limit the short-circuit current it will supply. Leaky transformers may be used to supply loads that exhibit negative resistance , such as electric arcs , mercury- and sodium- vapor lamps and neon signs or for safely handling loads that become periodically short-circuited such as electric arc welders . Air gaps are also used to keep a transformer from saturating, especially audio-frequency transformers in circuits that have
4278-554: A transitional phase from one variant to another as typically used when switching from a national train protection system to ETCS. The following automatic train protection systems are based on Eurobalises: Eurobalises have also been used in Germany to transmit tilting instructions for curves to tilting trains while keeping the traditional train protection system. The original GNT ( Geschwindigkeitsüberwachung Neigetechnik ) from Siemens had used specific coupling coils in 1992 (ZUB 122) and it
Eurobalise - Misplaced Pages Continue
4416-557: Is 27.095 MHz, spaced 10 kHz after standard channel 11 (at 27.085 MHz) is used to provide for part of European railroad's Eurobalise radio communication with trains. Single-sideband (SSB) operation involves the selection of either the Lower Side Band (LSB) or the Upper Side Band (USB) mode for transmit and receive. SSB radios also have the standard AM mode for communicating with standard CB radio models. With
4554-522: Is a land mobile radio system , a system allowing short-distance one-to-many bidirectional voice communication among individuals, using two-way radios operating near 27 MHz (or the 11-m wavelength) in the high frequency or shortwave band. Citizens band is distinct from other personal radio service allocations such as FRS , GMRS , MURS , UHF CB and the Amateur Radio Service ( "ham" radio). In many countries, CB operation does not require
4692-435: Is a calling channel. On UHF 477 MHz, citizens band PRS radio devices are allowed 5 watts power output on FM on 39 assigned channels spaced at 12.5 kHz intervals from 477.0125 to 477.4875 MHz. Channel 9 is reserved for emergencies, and channel 11 for calling. A short-range simplex radio communications service for recreational use is from 477.5250 to 477.9875 MHz FM mode with 38 channels and
4830-417: Is also useful in reducing TV interference . MPT 1320 also restricted antennas to a maximum length of 1.5 meters (5'), with base loading being the only type permitted for 27 MHz operation. Over the next several years antenna regulations were relaxed, with antenna length increasing to 1.65 meters (5'5") and centre- or top-loading of the main radiating element permitted. On 1 September 1987
4968-519: Is at the expense of flux density at saturation. For instance, ferrite saturation occurs at a substantially lower flux density than laminated iron. Large power transformers are vulnerable to insulation failure due to transient voltages with high-frequency components, such as caused in switching or by lightning. Transformer energy losses are dominated by winding and core losses. Transformers' efficiency tends to improve with increasing transformer capacity. The efficiency of typical distribution transformers
5106-402: Is between about 98 and 99 percent. As transformer losses vary with load, it is often useful to tabulate no-load loss , full-load loss, half-load loss, and so on. Hysteresis and eddy current losses are constant at all load levels and dominate at no load, while winding loss increases as load increases. The no-load loss can be significant, so that even an idle transformer constitutes a drain on
5244-430: Is connected to a lineside electronics unit (LEU), which transmits dynamic data to the train, such as signal indications and temporary speed restrictions. Balises forming part of an ETCS Level 1 signalling system employ this capability. The LEU integrates with the conventional (national) signal system either by connecting to the lineside railway signal or to the signalling control tower. A balise transmits telegrams at
5382-508: Is far different: Attempting an SSB conversation while an AM conversation is in progress results in jammed communications for everyone. In general, each channel can only support one AM conversation and no others; if no AM conversation is in progress, two SSB conversations can share one channel without interference if one is in LSB and the other in USB mode. For a particular conversation, everyone must be tuned to
5520-728: Is generally simple. Some countries also have personal radio services in the UHF band, such as the European PMR446 and the Australian UHF CB. The citizens band radio service originated in the United States as one of several personal radio services regulated by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). These services began in 1945 to permit citizens a radio band for personal communication (e.g., radio-controlled model airplanes and family and business communications). In 1948,
5658-425: Is given by the universal EMF equation: A dot convention is often used in transformer circuit diagrams, nameplates or terminal markings to define the relative polarity of transformer windings. Positively increasing instantaneous current entering the primary winding's 'dot' end induces positive polarity voltage exiting the secondary winding's 'dot' end. Three-phase transformers used in electric power systems will have
Eurobalise - Misplaced Pages Continue
5796-474: Is programmed to transmit the same data to every train. Information transmitted by a fixed balise typically includes: the location of the balise; the geometry of the line , such as curves and gradients; and any speed restrictions. The programming is performed using a wireless programming device. Thus a fixed balise can notify a train of its exact location, and the distance to the next signal, and can warn of any permanent speed restrictions. A transparent data balise
5934-421: Is rarely attempted; the 'real' transformer model's equivalent circuit shown below does not include parasitic capacitance. However, the capacitance effect can be measured by comparing open-circuit inductance, i.e. the inductance of a primary winding when the secondary circuit is open, to a short-circuit inductance when the secondary winding is shorted. The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by
6072-401: Is rarely enforced. AM and SSB on the freeband and amplifier use are common among enthusiasts. Packet radio is legal in the UK, although not widely used. Internet gateway stations are also beginning to appear; although illegal on 27 MHz, these units are connected to other CB stations around the world. Although the use of CB radios in the UK is limited they are still in use, especially with
6210-414: Is used to power the passive balises (it is the intermediate channel 11A in CB radio ). The uplink uses frequency-shift keying with 3.951 MHz for a logical '0' and 4.516 MHz for a logical '1'. The data rate of 564.48 kbit/s is enough to transmit three copies of a telegram to a train passing at 500 km/h. The Euroloop frequency was moved to a centre of 13.54750 MHz (exactly half of
6348-540: The CRTC officially calls the CB band the "General Radio Service," though regulations also note that this service is commonly called "CB". Canada's GRS uses the identical frequencies and modes as the United States citizens band, and no special provisions are required for either Canadians or Americans using CB gear while traveling across the border. The General Radio Service was authorized in 1962. Initially, CB channels 1–3 remained allocated to amateur radio and channel 23
6486-576: The European Railway Agency . Eurobalises are not only used in the ETCS/ERTMS train protection system. There are alternative implementations that pick up on the telegram structure to encode only some packet types and adding additional specific information. ETCS trains may decode the telegrams possibly translating them like any other Class-B signalling information. It is also possible that a balise transmits telegrams for different systems allowing for
6624-490: The NBC Knowledge television episode about CB radio in 1978. Similar to Internet chat rooms a quarter-century later, CB allowed people to get to know one another in a quasi-anonymous manner. Originally, the U.S. had 23 CB channels; the 40 channel band plan was implemented in 1977. Two more channels between 22 & 23, commonly referred to as 22A & 22B, were available. Several people had 22A, but few had 22B. In
6762-662: The Velim railway test circuit and the Austrian railways test lab (Forschungs- und Prüfzentrum Arsenal). The Eurobalise FFFIS (Form Fit Function Interface Specification) was introduced to the ERMTS range of specifications as SUBSET-036. Its foreword describes the specification to be based on the results of EUROSIG consortium (ACEC Transport, Adtranz Signal, Alcatel SEL, GE C Alsthom Transport, Ansaldo Trasporti, CSEE Transport, SASIB Railway, Siemens, and Westinghouse Signal) that got financial support from
6900-468: The magnetizing branch of the model. Core losses are caused mostly by hysteresis and eddy current effects in the core and are proportional to the square of the core flux for operation at a given frequency. The finite permeability core requires a magnetizing current I M to maintain mutual flux in the core. Magnetizing current is in phase with the flux, the relationship between the two being non-linear due to saturation effects. However, all impedances of
7038-433: The power grid . Ideal transformer equations By Faraday's law of induction: where V {\displaystyle V} is the instantaneous voltage , N {\displaystyle N} is the number of turns in a winding, dΦ/dt is the derivative of the magnetic flux Φ through one turn of the winding over time ( t ), and subscripts P and S denotes primary and secondary. Combining
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#17328632202227176-436: The "Notification of Issuance Of Class Assignments" by Communication and Multimedia Malaysia was published on 1 April 2000. Under this class assignment, a CB radio is classified as a "Personal Radio Service device". The frequency band is HF, 26.9650 MHz to 27.4050 MHz (40 channels), power output is 4 watts for AM and FM and 12 watts PEP for SSB. Channel 9 is reserved for emergencies, and channel 11
7314-549: The "mid band" (standard CB band) as "band D" which shifts the letters up one (making 26.515–26.955 MHz "band C" and 27.415–27.855 MHz "band E". For the convenience of users of the grid were marked by letters. Classic is considered the marking when the main range is designated letter "C". The most common description of the channel is considered to be similar to the following: (C9FM or C9EFM or C9EF or 9EF). In it: An example of correct designations: C9EF, C9EA, C9RF, C9RA The 25–30 MHz band (including
7452-493: The "standard" 40 channel 26.965–27.405 MHz frequency plan for a total of 80 HF CB channels. New Zealand has adopted the Australian UHF CB System as well. Japan's CB allocation consists of 8 voice and 2 radio control channels with a maximum power output of 500 mW. AM mode is the only mode permitted and antennas must be non-removable and less than 199 cm (78 inches) long. In Japan,
7590-409: The 18 channel band plan. So channel 1 on an 18 channel was actually channel 5 on a 23 channel radio. These roughly corresponded to the present channels 5–22, except for the two unique frequencies that are known as 11A (Channel 7 on an 18 channel Australian CB) and 19A (Channel 16 on an 18 channel Australian CB) or remote control frequencies but are no longer part of
7728-518: The 1970s was frequently depicted in film, television, and music. Movies such as Smokey and the Bandit (1977), Breaker! Breaker! (1977), Handle with Care (also released as Citizens Band ; 1977), and Convoy (1978), made heavy reference to the phenomenon, as did television series such as Movin' On (debuted in 1974), The Dukes of Hazzard (debuted in 1979) and the animated series CB Bears (debuted in 1977) helped cement CB radio's status as
7866-473: The 26–28 MHz range is allocated to fishery radio services and these frequencies are heavily used for marine communications. Japan's "double side band fishery radio" or "DSB Fishery Radio Service" covers 26.760 MHz-26.944 MHz, 27.016 MHz, and 27.524-27.988 MHz. However, frequencies such as 27.005 MHz AM are widely pirated in Japan with very high power transmitters. This causes interference to
8004-599: The 460–470 MHz band was reassigned for business and public-safety use; CB Class A is the forerunner of the General Mobile Radio Service (GMRS). CB Class B is a more distant ancestor of the Family Radio Service . The Multi-Use Radio Service is another two-way radio service in the VHF high band . An unsuccessful petition was filed in 1973 to create a CB Class E service at 220 MHz, (part of
8142-468: The 91/440/EEC as of 29 July 1991. Since 1993 the organizational framework was in place to publish TSI standards . This allowed for the first drafts of the new technology and since 1996 the elements were tested by six railway operators which had joined the ERTMS user group. The Ebicab technology did already use the 27 MHz carrier frequency as well as putting the beacons in the center of the track. With Ebicab
8280-780: The American channels and their associated frequencies, which is generally in AM mode except some higher channels which are sometimes in SSB mode. In September 2021 the FCC approved the use of FM on CB radio. The standard channel numbering is harmonized through the FCC ( USA ) and the CEPT ( Europe ). See also channel assignments for CB use in the United States . When looking at the FCC/CEPT channel list there are some channels with
8418-461: The Australian 27 MHz CB band since 40 Channels were introduced. On January 1, 1982, the American 40 channel band plan was adopted. From the outset, the government attempted to regulate CB radio with license fees and call signs, but eventually they abandoned this approach. Enthusiasts rushed for licences when the doors opened at post offices around Australia in mid-1977 and by the end of
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#17328632202228556-475: The CB allocations and frequencies above and below the 26.5–27.860 MHz band) is heavily used for taxi cab and other mobile two-way communications systems in Russia, Ukraine and other former USSR country states. New Zealand and Japan have unique allocations compared to any other country. New Zealand authorizes use of their New Zealand specific 40 channel 26.330–26.770 MHz frequency plan in addition to
8694-502: The Eurobalise power frequency). In a practical setup the BTM requires 65 watts to power the Eurobalises and to receive the telegrams with the BTM mounted 21 centimetres ( 8 + 1 ⁄ 4 in) above top of rail on a bogie. Each pair of balises usually consists of a switchable balise and a fixed balise. A balise transmits a 'telegram' of either 1023 bits (93*11) or 341 bits (31*11) in
8832-658: The European Commission. The EUROSIG formed after the initial Eurobalise/Euroloop Project 92/94 leading into the actual ERTMS/EUROSIG Project 95/98 supported by the parallel EMSET Project 96/00 (testing the Eurocab specification). When the EUROSIG project had ended the ETCS was still not ready for real world application. So 1998 saw the formation of UNISIG (Union of Signalling Industry), including Alstom , Ansaldo , Siemens , Bombardier , Invensys and Thales which were to take over
8970-482: The Mississippi; channel 19 then became the preferred highway channel in most areas, as it did not have adjacent-channel interference problems with channel 9. Many CBers called channel 19 "the trucker's channel". The FCC originally restricted channel 11 for use as the calling channel. The original FCC output power limitation for CB radios was "5 watts DC input to the final amplifier stage", which
9108-490: The North American channel designation. Some member countries permit additional modes and frequencies; for example, Germany has 40 additional channels at 26 MHz for a total of 80. The United Kingdom has an additional 40 channels between 27.60125 and 27.99125 MHz, also making 80 channels in total. Before CEPT, most member countries used a subset of the 40 U.S. channels. In Russia and Poland ,
9246-574: The ORE A46 specification for the German LZB telegrams (about 83 bits). Siemens published a report showing the advantages of the balise technology for railway operations in 1992 and in the fall of 1995 they delivered prototypes of Siemens type S21 Eurobalise. ABB, Alsthom and Ansaldo did also cooperate in the development and the S21 balise along with other Eurobalise prototypes were tested from July to October 1996 at
9384-480: The UK added the usual 40 frequencies (26.965–27.405 MHz) used worldwide, for a total of 80 channels at 27 MHz; antenna regulations were further relaxed, and the 934 MHz band was withdrawn in 1998. CB radio in the UK was deregulated in December ;2006 by the regulatory body Ofcom , and CB radio in the UK is now license-free. The old MPT 1320 27/81 band will continue to be available for
9522-595: The allocation of channels available for UHF CB Radio from 40 to 80, and doubled the number of repeater channels from 8 to 16. Source: Several channels are allocated for maritime use in Australia. Australia also permits the use of marine VHF radio . 27 MHz radios have the advantage of not requiring a certificate of proficiency to use, however they may not be monitored by rescue organisations or larger vessels. VHF radios are recommended by state agencies, such as Marine Safety Victoria and Marine Rescue NSW . In Canada ,
9660-437: The amateur radio 1.25-meter band at the time) which was opposed by amateur radio organizations and others. There are several other classes of personal radio services for specialized purposes (such as remote control devices). During the 1960s, the service was used by small businesses (e.g., electricians, plumbers, carpenters), truck drivers and radio hobbyists. By the late 1960s, advances in solid-state electronics allowed
9798-555: The balise type for the digital evolution of the Italian SCMT also becoming a second supplier for the balise type to other railways. These balise types were later collectively named KER balises from their usage in KVB, Ebicab and RSDD (Ripetizione Segnali Discontinua Digitale). Another source for the technology comes from the Siemens ZUB 100 family where they used coupling coils at the side of
9936-470: The balises may vary in the details, they are manufactured to meet the same standards. The principal manufacturers of Eurobalises belong to a group of seven firms ( Alstom , Ansaldo STS , Bombardier , Invensys , Siemens , Sigma-Digitek , Thales ) within the UNIFE federation of railway suppliers. This group cooperated in developing the specifications for Eurobalises. Specifications for Eurobalises are governed by
10074-475: The busy Hume Highway between Melbourne and Sydney. Other regional cities such as Bendigo, Mildura, Mount Gambier and Port Augusta, developed lively, colourful CB radio communities. With the introduction of UHF CB radios in 1977, many operators used both UHF and HF radios and formed groups to own and operate local FM repeaters. Members of the CBTCC formed what became known as Australian Citizens Radio Movement (ACRM) in
10212-499: The ceremonial first legal British CB call from Trafalgar Square in London. The maximum power allowable on the MPT ;1320 27/81 system was 4 watts (in common with the American system), although initially radios were equipped to reduce output power by 10 dB (to 0.4 watts) if the antenna was mounted more than 7 meters (23') above ground level. The power-reduction switch
10350-456: The change in July 2010. ETCS and other applications using Eurobalise technology typically include protection against failure and theft of balises. Balises identify themselves to the trainborne equipment as being "linked" or "unlinked". Linked balises may send data (the "link list") to the trainborne equipment containing the identity of and distance to the following balise group or groups. By this means,
10488-419: The channel encoding with 11 bit per symbol. The user data block is cut into 10-bit user symbols before the scrambling and shaping operation - the effective payload of signalling information is 830 bit (83*10) for the long telegram and 210 bit (21*10) for the short telegram. The final telegram consists of The telegram is broadcast in a cyclic manner as the train passes over the balise. To avoid transmission errors
10626-467: The channels are shifted 5 kHz down; for example, channel 30 is 27.300 MHz. Many operators add a switch to change between the "zeroes" (the Russian/Polish channel assignment) and the "fives" (the international/European assignment). Most contemporary radios built for those markets can do "fives" as well as "zeroes" out of the box. Since roughly 2005–2006, Russia and Poland have adopted use of
10764-428: The confusion created by the false advertising that SSB radios have 120 channels compared to only 40 for AM radios. While a SSB radio has three possible "modes" (AM, LSB, USB) it can operate in, operation is still limited to the same 40 channels. Some manufacturers tried to sell more radios by claiming that with three different modes possible for each channel, it was the equivalent to 120 channels. Reality
10902-786: The core by stacking layers of thin steel laminations, a principle that has remained in use. Each lamination is insulated from its neighbors by a thin non-conducting layer of insulation. The transformer universal EMF equation can be used to calculate the core cross-sectional area for a preferred level of magnetic flux. The effect of laminations is to confine eddy currents to highly elliptical paths that enclose little flux, and so reduce their magnitude. Thinner laminations reduce losses, but are more laborious and expensive to construct. Thin laminations are generally used on high-frequency transformers, with some of very thin steel laminations able to operate up to 10 kHz. Citizens band radio#Intermediate channels Citizens band radio ( CB radio )
11040-507: The core magnetomotive force cancels to zero. According to Faraday's law , since the same magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary windings in an ideal transformer, a voltage is induced in each winding proportional to its number of turns. The transformer winding voltage ratio is equal to the winding turns ratio. An ideal transformer is a reasonable approximation for a typical commercial transformer, with voltage ratio and winding turns ratio both being inversely proportional to
11178-456: The core, the transformer is core form; when windings are surrounded by the core, the transformer is shell form. Shell form design may be more prevalent than core form design for distribution transformer applications due to the relative ease in stacking the core around winding coils. Core form design tends to, as a general rule, be more economical, and therefore more prevalent, than shell form design for high voltage power transformer applications at
11316-400: The corresponding current ratio. The load impedance referred to the primary circuit is equal to the turns ratio squared times the secondary circuit load impedance. The ideal transformer model neglects many basic linear aspects of real transformers, including unavoidable losses and inefficiencies. (a) Core losses, collectively called magnetizing current losses, consisting of (b) Unlike
11454-415: The current movement authority. These errors typically result from slippage and sliding of the train wheels on damp rails, or from controlled-creep traction. Balise designs usually include multiple redundant electronic circuitry, allowing them to continue providing normal service for many years despite partial failure. The downlink uses an amplitude modulation on the 27.095 MHz frequency. This frequency
11592-442: The current number and total count of balises within a balise group (up to 8 balises), a flag whether it is a copy (up to 4 copies) that increases chances for the receiver to see the telegram of the balise in a group, a serial number flagging whether the message has changed lately, a 10-bit country identifier along with the 14-bit balise group identifier allowing for a unique ID of every balise group. The linking information informs about
11730-458: The distance to the next balise group (one linking packet per direction) and the required train reaction if the next balise group is missed (e.g. train stop). The movement authority packet defines a maximum speed that may be used for a given maximum distance and maximum time - setting the maximum speed to zero will force the train to stop. The gradient profile may have a variable length based on the contained pairs of section length (scalar and number in
11868-485: The early 1970s Radio Shack sold a "base station" CB radio that contained a crystal for each of the 23 channels, two extra slots existed, and one could order the 22A & 22B crystals for an easy plug-in. Channel 9 was officially reserved for emergency use by the FCC in 1969. Channel 10 was originally often used for highway travel communications east of the Mississippi River , and channel 19 west of
12006-520: The early 1970s, reduced to $ 4 on March 1, 1975, or $ 22.6 in 2023 dollars). However, when the CB craze was at its peak, many people ignored the requirement and invented their own nicknames (known as "handles"). Lax enforcement of the rules on authorized use of CB radio led to further widespread disregard of regulations (such as for antenna height, distance communications, licensing, call signs, and transmitter power). Individual licensing came to an end on April 28, 1983. The growing popularity of CB radios in
12144-499: The early 1970s; this organization became the voice for legalization of CB radio throughout Australia. After peaking in the 1970s and early 1980s, the use of 27 MHz CB in Australia has fallen dramatically due to the introduction of 477 MHz UHF CB (with FM and repeaters) and the proliferation of cheap, compact handheld UHF transceivers. Technology such as mobile telephones and the internet have provided people with other choices for communications. The Australian government has changed
12282-440: The electrical supply. Designing energy efficient transformers for lower loss requires a larger core, good-quality silicon steel , or even amorphous steel for the core and thicker wire, increasing initial cost. The choice of construction represents a trade-off between initial cost and operating cost. Transformer losses arise from: Closed-core transformers are constructed in 'core form' or 'shell form'. When windings surround
12420-448: The equivalent circuit shown are by definition linear and such non-linearity effects are not typically reflected in transformer equivalent circuits. With sinusoidal supply, core flux lags the induced EMF by 90°. With open-circuited secondary winding, magnetizing branch current I 0 equals transformer no-load current. The resulting model, though sometimes termed 'exact' equivalent circuit based on linearity assumptions, retains
12558-849: The farming community, truckers, off-roaders and mini-cab services. The widely used channel for the Young Farmers' Club is channel 11. The normal calling and truckers' channel is channel 19, although many truck organisations and groups use other channels to avoid abuse. CB radio is not a worldwide, standardized radio service. Each country decides if it wants to authorize such a radio service from its domestic frequency authorizations, and what its standards will be; however, similar radio services exist in many countries. Frequencies, power levels and modes (such as frequency modulation (FM), amplitude modulation (AM), and single-sideband modulation (SSB), often vary from country to country; use of foreign equipment may be illegal. However, many countries have adopted
12696-605: The finalisation of the standard. The first baseline specification has been tested by six railways since 1999 as part of the European Rail Traffic Management System The railway companies defined some extended requirements that were added to ETCS including telegram packet types for RBC-Handover and track profile information - the resulting Class 1 Version 2.0.0 specification of ETCS was then published in April 2000. Transformer In electrical engineering ,
12834-532: The first line fully equipped with the system was operational in 1983. The adaptation of the Ebicab system in France is the KVB system. It had been developed after a crash in 1985 and it was deployed in the early 1990s on French lines. The name for the beacons: "balise" was however in use in the Ebicab system in the late 1970s. About the same time the idea came up to develop a common train protection system for Europe leading to
12972-590: The first quarter of 1978 an estimated 200,000 licences were issued (Australia's Population in 1978 was 14.36 million). The regulations called for one licence per CB radio. The price for a licence in 1977 was AU$ 25 per year (In mid 1977 the Australian Dollar exchange rate was AU$ 0.90 to US$ 1.00), a not insubstantial amount for the average Australian wage-earner. Australian CB radio uses AM, USB, and LSB modes (no FM) on 27 MHz, allowed output power being 4 Watts AM and 12 Watts SSB. When UHF CB
13110-424: The following series loop impedances of the model: In normal course of circuit equivalence transformation, R S and X S are in practice usually referred to the primary side by multiplying these impedances by the turns ratio squared, ( N P / N S ) = a . Core loss and reactance is represented by the following shunt leg impedances of the model: R C and X M are collectively termed
13248-457: The following tests: open-circuit test , short-circuit test , winding resistance test, and transformer ratio test. If the flux in the core is purely sinusoidal , the relationship for either winding between its rms voltage E rms of the winding, and the supply frequency f , number of turns N , core cross-sectional area A in m and peak magnetic flux density B peak in Wb/m or T (tesla)
13386-421: The foreseeable future. On 27 June 2014, changes were made by Ofcom to allow the use of AM & SSB modes on CB in the UK legally for the first time. The rules regarding non-approved radios and power levels above 4 Watts on AM/FM and 12 Watts on SSB still apply, despite deregulation. Persons using illegal equipment or accessories still risk prosecution, fines or confiscation of equipment, although this
13524-412: The ideal model, the windings in a real transformer have non-zero resistances and inductances associated with: (c) similar to an inductor , parasitic capacitance and self-resonance phenomenon due to the electric field distribution. Three kinds of parasitic capacitance are usually considered and the closed-loop equations are provided Inclusion of capacitance into the transformer model is complicated, and
13662-465: The ideal transformer identity : where L {\displaystyle L} is winding self-inductance. By Ohm's law and ideal transformer identity: An ideal transformer is linear , lossless and perfectly coupled . Perfect coupling implies infinitely high core magnetic permeability and winding inductance and zero net magnetomotive force (i.e. i p n p − i s n s = 0). A varying current in
13800-443: The invention of the first constant-potential transformer in 1885, transformers have become essential for the transmission , distribution , and utilization of alternating current electric power. A wide range of transformer designs is encountered in electronic and electric power applications. Transformers range in size from RF transformers less than a cubic centimeter in volume, to units weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect
13938-469: The last official registration date for 23 channel sets was January 31, 1978. After this date, use of unregistered 23 channel CB sets was deemed illegal and unlicensed sets were no longer eligible to be licensed. The 18 channel band plan used 16 channels of the 23 channel CB radios plus 2 extra channels at 27.095 and 27.195 MHz, to make up the 18 channels. The original channels 1, 2, 3, 4, 10, 21 and 23 were deleted from
14076-421: The late 1980s and recommends VHF Marine Band radios for boaters. CB has lost much of its original appeal due to development of mobile phones , the internet and the Family Radio Service . Changing radio propagation for long-distance communications due to the 11–year sunspot cycle is a factor at these frequencies. In addition, CB may have become a victim of its own popularity; with millions of users on
14214-445: The limitations of early electric traction motors . Consequently, the transformers used to step-down the high overhead line voltages were much larger and heavier for the same power rating than those required for the higher frequencies. Operation of a transformer at its designed voltage but at a higher frequency than intended will lead to reduced magnetizing current. At a lower frequency, the magnetizing current will increase. Operation of
14352-413: The link list and could typically be to make an enforced brake application or to display a message to the train driver. Balises also provide a set of fixed position references to the ETCS onboard equipment, allowing the latter to correct its odometry system for cumulative errors accrued during travel from one balise group to the next and maintain accurate tracking of its position relative to the end point of
14490-455: The load power in proportion to their respective ratings. However, the impedance tolerances of commercial transformers are significant. Also, the impedance and X/R ratio of different capacity transformers tends to vary. Referring to the diagram, a practical transformer's physical behavior may be represented by an equivalent circuit model, which can incorporate an ideal transformer. Winding joule losses and leakage reactance are represented by
14628-662: The lower end of their voltage and power rating ranges (less than or equal to, nominally, 230 kV or 75 MVA). At higher voltage and power ratings, shell form transformers tend to be more prevalent. Shell form design tends to be preferred for extra-high voltage and higher MVA applications because, though more labor-intensive to manufacture, shell form transformers are characterized as having inherently better kVA-to-weight ratio, better short-circuit strength characteristics and higher immunity to transit damage. Transformers for use at power or audio frequencies typically have cores made of high permeability silicon steel . The steel has
14766-429: The metric system) and section gradient (uphill/downhill flag and a number in %). Similarly the international static speed profile is given in a variable count of section parts with each part denoting the section length (number in meters - the scale is only given once at the start of the packet for all sections), the maximum speed (number * 5 km/h - allowed numbers are 0-120 i.e. some spare values are left over) and
14904-407: The on-board antenna or a separate electronic module, according to the preference of the system vendor. Eurobalises are typically placed in pairs on two sleepers in the center of the track. For ETCS they are typically spaced three metres apart. With the balises being numbered the train will know whether it travels in nominal (1→2) or reverse direction (2→1). Singular balises exist only when linked to
15042-466: The original 23 CB channels SSB stations commonly used channel 16, to avoid interference to those using AM (SSB stations are authorized to use 12 watts, as opposed to 4 watts for AM stations) and to more easily locate other SSB stations. With the FCC authorization of 40 channels, SSB operation shifted to channels 36–40. Channel 36 (or 38 for LSB) became the unofficial SSB "calling channels" for stations seeking contacts, with
15180-477: The original CB radios were designed for operation on the 460–470 MHz UHF band. There were two classes of CB radio: "A" and "B". Class B radios had simpler technical requirements, and were limited to a smaller frequency range. Al Gross established the Citizens Radio Corporation during the late 1940s to manufacture class B handhelds for the general public. Originally designed for use by
15318-457: The payload is scrambled (avoiding burst errors), substituted with a symbol code of different Hamming distance , and a checksum is added for validity checks. Since the checksum is computed after the symbol substitution the telegram contains extra shaping bits to allow the resulting checksum bits to be filled up in a way that only valid symbols of the chosen channel code are in the telegram where each symbol has 11 bits. The payload data consists of
15456-444: The power supply. It is not directly a power loss, but results in inferior voltage regulation , causing the secondary voltage not to be directly proportional to the primary voltage, particularly under heavy load. Transformers are therefore normally designed to have very low leakage inductance. In some applications increased leakage is desired, and long magnetic paths, air gaps, or magnetic bypass shunts may deliberately be introduced in
15594-457: The prefix "GL" (for Gippsland ), since "CB" could not be used. After July 1, 1977, the club changed its name to Citizens Band Two Way Communication Club (CBTCC). Other early clubs were "LV" ( Latrobe Valley ) and "WB" (named after Wayne Britain). Members of these clubs are still active, and have also become amateur radio operators . Other Australian cities which became CB radio "hotspots" were Seymour, Benalla, Holbrook and Gundagai, all located on
15732-401: The primary winding links all the turns of every winding, including itself. In practice, some flux traverses paths that take it outside the windings. Such flux is termed leakage flux , and results in leakage inductance in series with the mutually coupled transformer windings. Leakage flux results in energy being alternately stored in and discharged from the magnetic fields with each cycle of
15870-479: The public sector, the Citizens Radio Corporation sold over 100,000 units, primarily to farmers and the US Coast Guard. Ultra-high frequency (UHF) radios, at the time, were neither practical nor affordable for the average consumer. On September 11, 1958 CB service class D was created on 27 MHz, and this band became what is commonly known today as "Citizens Band". Only 23 channels were available at
16008-446: The radio", resulting in a far simpler and easier specification. Initially, the FCC intended for CB to be the "poor man's business-band radio", and CB regulations were structured similarly to those regulating the business band radio service. Until 1975, only channels 9–14 and 23 could be used for "interstation" calls (to other licensees). Channels 1–8 and 15–22 were reserved for "intrastation" communications (among units with
16146-439: The ratio of eq. 1 & eq. 2: where for a step-up transformer a < 1 and for a step-down transformer a > 1. By the law of conservation of energy , apparent , real and reactive power are each conserved in the input and output: where S {\displaystyle S} is apparent power and I {\displaystyle I} is current . Combining Eq. 3 & Eq. 4 with this endnote gives
16284-561: The same channel and same mode in order to talk with each other. Starting in October 2021 the FCC has approved FM for CB in the US. The European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT) adopted the North American channel assignments, except channel 23, frequency 27.235 MHz; channel 24, frequency 27.245 MHz; and channel 25, frequency 27.255 MHz. However, legal CB equipment sold in Europe does follow
16422-436: The same impedance. However, properties such as core loss and conductor skin effect also increase with frequency. Aircraft and military equipment employ 400 Hz power supplies which reduce core and winding weight. Conversely, frequencies used for some railway electrification systems were much lower (e.g. 16.7 Hz and 25 Hz) than normal utility frequencies (50–60 Hz) for historical reasons concerned mainly with
16560-512: The same license). After the inter-station/intra-station rule was dropped, channel 11 was reserved as a calling frequency (for the purpose of establishing communications); however, this was withdrawn in 1977. During this early period, many CB radios had "inter-station" channels colored on their dials, while the other channels were clear or normally colored. It was common for a town to adopt an inter-station channel as its "home" channel. This helped prevent overcrowding on channel 11, enabling
16698-409: The specification had changed to 4 watts output. The older 23 channel radios built under the old specifications typically had an output of around 3.5 to 3.8 watts output when measured at the antenna connector. The FCC simply rounded up the old "5 watts DC input to the final amplifier stage" specification to the new "4 watts output as measured at the antenna connector on the back of
16836-512: The standard US channel offset as well as the older channel plan, for two overlapping "grids" of channels. Russia uses an alphanumeric designation for their CB channel plans, because several "grids" or "bands" of 40 channels each are used, along with both AM and FM mode. Russian CB allocations follow the CB band 26.965–27.405 MHz (designated as band C), as well as 26.515–26.955 MHz (designated as band B) and 27.415–27.855 MHz (designated as band D). Some radios refer to
16974-405: The subsequent conversation moving to channels 37–40. CBers with AM-only radios are asked to not use channels 36 through 40. In return, SSB stations stay off the remaining 35 channels so they could be used by AM stations. This agreement provides interference-free operation for all operators by separating the far more powerful SSB stations from the AM stations. This solution also resolves
17112-533: The time; the first 22 were taken from the former amateur radio service 11-meter band, and channel 23 was shared with radio-controlled devices. Some hobbyists continue to use the designation "11 meters" to refer to the Citizens Band and adjoining frequencies. Part 95 of the Code of Federal Regulations regulates the class D CB service, on the 27 MHz band, since the 1970s and continuing today. Most of
17250-516: The tracks to augment the existing train protection system with additional signalling. The first ZUB 111 beacon did just allow for 21 states (using 2 out of 7 frequencies). The successor ZUB 122 switched to a digital telegram modulated on an 850 kHz carrier. The latter was used first in the ZUB 121 [ de ] for Switzerland since 1992 and ZUB 123 [ de ] for Denmark since 1992. The telegram types of these systems are compatible with
17388-461: The trainborne equipment is able to determine where to expect a balise and thus to identify if a balise has failed. Alternatively, in ETCS application levels 2 and 3, the "link list" may be transmitted to the trainborne equipment from the Radio Block Centre (RBC). The reaction that the trainborne equipment shall apply in case of a missing or failed balise is itself defined by data transmitted with
17526-637: The transformer core size required drops dramatically: a physically small transformer can handle power levels that would require a massive iron core at mains frequency. The development of switching power semiconductor devices made switch-mode power supplies viable, to generate a high frequency, then change the voltage level with a small transformer. Transformers for higher frequency applications such as SMPS typically use core materials with much lower hysteresis and eddy-current losses than those for 50/60 Hz. Primary examples are iron-powder and ferrite cores. The lower frequency-dependant losses of these cores often
17664-418: The transformer's primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer core, which is also encircled by the secondary winding. This varying flux at the secondary winding induces a varying electromotive force or voltage in the secondary winding. This electromagnetic induction phenomenon is the basis of transformer action and, in accordance with Lenz's law , the secondary current so produced creates
17802-607: The weight, size, and cost of the radios to fall, giving the public access to a communications medium previously only available to specialists. CB clubs were formed; a CB slang language evolved alongside ten-code , similar to those used in emergency services . After the 1973 oil crisis , the U.S. government imposed a nationwide 55 mph speed limit , and fuel shortages and rationing were widespread. Drivers (especially commercial truckers ) used CB radios to locate service stations with better supplies of fuel, to notify other drivers of speed traps , and to organize blockades and convoys in
17940-514: Was a reference to the earlier radios equipped with tubes. With solid state radios becoming more common in the 1970s, the FCC revised this specification at the same time the authorized channels were increased to 40. The current specification is simply "4 watts output (AM) or 12 watts output (SSB)" as measured at the antenna connector on the back of the radio. The old specification was often used in false advertising by some manufacturers who would claim their CB radios had "5 watts" long after
18078-599: Was adopted; a VHF band was added in 1994, along with allowing use of the Australian UHF CB channel plan at 476-477 MHz On 10 November 1980, the Indonesian Directorate General of Posts and Telecommunications issued another decree establishing RAPI ( Radio Antar Penduduk Indonesia ) as the official citizens band radio organization in Indonesia. In Malaysia, citizens band radios became legal when
18216-399: Was authorized in Australia, hand-held 27-MHz "walkie-talkies" were available, which used several frequencies between the present CB channels, such as 27.240 MHz. By the mid-1970s, hobbyists were experimenting with handheld radios and unauthorized 23 channel American CB radios. At that time in Australia, licensed ham operators and Emergency Services still used the 11 meter band which
18354-638: Was becoming a popular pastime in Britain; as late as the summer of 1981 the British government was still saying that CB would never be legalized on 27 MHz, proposing a UHF service around 860 MHz called "Open Channel" instead. However, in November 1981 (after high-profile public demonstrations) 40 frequencies unique to the UK, known as the 27/81 Bandplan using FM were allocated at 27 MHz plus 20 channels on 934 MHz (934.0125–934.9625 MHz with 50 kHz spacing). CB's inventor, Al Gross , made
18492-685: Was first legalised the 27 MHz CB Band was intended to be closed to Australian CBers in 1982 and only the 477 MHz UHF band was to continue, however this did not eventuate. The first 477 MHz CB radio in 1977 was designed and made in Australia by Philips TMC and was a 40 channel CB called the FM320. The first CB club in Australia was the Charlie Brown Touring Car Club (CBTCC), which formed in Morwell, Victoria in 1967 and consisted mainly of four-wheel drive enthusiasts. The club used
18630-590: Was known around large cities such as Jakarta , Bandung , Yogyakarta , Surabaya and Medan . The Indonesian government legalized CB on 6 October 1980 with a decision by the Minister of Communications, the "Ministerial Decree on the Licensing for the Operation of Inter-Citizens Radio Communication". Because many people were already using 40 channel radios prior to legalization, the American band plan (with AM and SSB)
18768-527: Was not yet available for CB use. Multiple CB clubs had formed by this time, which assigned call signs to members, exchanged QSL cards , and lobbied for the legalisation of CB. In late 1977, having legalised Australian CB and allowed the import / sale of American and Japanese 23 channel sets, the Federal Government drafted new interim regulations for Australian 18 channel transceivers. The new RB249 regulations came into effect on January 1, 1978, and
18906-590: Was switched to Eurobalises in 2005 (ZUB 262). The additional telegram packet types for tilting trains have been added to the Baseline 3 series of ETCS. The direct predecessor of Eurobalises are the balises of the Ebicab train protection system. The Ebicab system was developed in Sweden (and Norway) by LMEricson and SRT. The Ebicab system was developed after a crash in Norway in 1975 (Tretten). Trial runs started in 1979, and in Norway
19044-441: Was used by paging services . American CB licensees were initially required to apply for a temporary license to operate in Canada. In April 1977, the service was expanded to the same 40 channels as the American service. In Indonesia , CB radios were first introduced about 1977 when some transceivers were imported illegally from Australia, Japan and the United States. The dates are hard to confirm accurately, but early use
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