Misplaced Pages

#914085

124-700: Somalis in Ethiopia refers to the ethnic Somalis from Ethiopia , particularly the Ogaden , officially known as the Somali Region . Their language is primarily Somali and are predominantly Muslim . According to the 2007 census from the Central Statistical Authority , the Somalis were the third largest ethnic group in Ethiopia with roughly 4.6 million people accounting for 8.2% of the country's population, after

248-470: A chartered company . An Anglo-Italian border protocol was later signed on 5 May 1894, followed by an agreement in 1906 between Cavalier Pestalozza and General Swaine acknowledging that Baran fell under the Majeerteen Sultanate's administration. With the gradual extension into northern Somalia of Italian colonial rule, both Kingdoms were eventually annexed in the early 20th century. However, unlike

372-562: A coaling station . As they were not a party to the Hewett Treaty , the Italians began restricting access to arms shipments and imposing customs duties on Ethiopian goods immediately. In the disorder that followed the 1889 death of Yohannes IV, Gen.  Oreste Baratieri occupied the highlands along the Eritrean coast and Italy proclaimed the establishment of a new colony of Eritrea (from

496-562: A bloodless takeover. The putsch was spearheaded by Major General Mohamed Siad Barre , who at the time commanded the army. Alongside Barre, the Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC) that assumed power after President Sharmarke's assassination was led by Lieutenant Colonel Salaad Gabeyre Kediye and Chief of Police Jama Korshel . The SRC subsequently renamed the country the Somali Democratic Republic , dissolved

620-454: A central part in Somali culture and politics. Clan families are patrilineal , and are divided into clans, primary lineages or subclans, and dia -paying kinship groups. The lineage terms qabiil , qolo , jilib and reer are often interchangeably used to indicate the different segmentation levels. The clan represents the highest kinship level. It owns territorial properties and is typically led by

744-435: A clan-head or Sultan . Primary lineages are immediately descended from the clans, and are exogamous political units with no formally installed leader. They comprise the segmentation level that an individual usually indicates he or she belongs to, with their founding patriarch reckoned to between six and ten generations. The five major clan families are the traditionally nomadic pastoralist Dir , Isaaq , Darod , Hawiye and

868-771: A conference for the independence of Eritrea, promoted by the Vatican. After the war DiMeglio was named director of the Comitato Rappresentativo Italiani dell' Eritrea (CRIE). In 1947 he supported the creation of the Associazione Italo-Eritrei and the Associazione Veterani Ascari , in order to ally with the Eritreans favorable to Italy in Eritrea. As a result of these creations, he cofounded

992-628: A further report inclusive of Somali Region stipulating 2% adherence to a minority sect (e.g. Ibadism , Quranism etc.). In the neighboring country of Somalia , 99.8% of the population is Muslim according to the Pew Research Center. The majority belong to the Sunni branch of Islam and the Shafi'i school of Islamic jurisprudence . Sufism , the mystical sect of Islam, is also well established, with many local jama'a ( zawiya ) or congregations of

1116-441: A huge increase in population: in 1935 there were only 4,000 Italians and 12,000 Eritreans; in 1938 there were 48,000 Italians and 36,000 Eritreans. Historian Gian Luca Podesta wrote that practically Asmara has become an Italian city ("in pratica Asmara era diventata una citta' italiana"). The Italian government continued to implement agricultural reforms but primarily on farms owned by Italian colonists (exports of coffee boomed in

1240-662: A later date from the Arabian Peninsula in the 10th or 11th centuries. Sheikh Darod is asserted to have married a woman from the Dir (while some accounts say Hawiye ), thus establishing matrilateral ties with the Samaale family. The Isaaq clan trace paternal descent to the Islamic leader Ishaaq bin Ahmed al-Hashimi (Sheikh Isaaq). The Digil & Mirifle (Rahanweyn) trace their ancestry back to

1364-648: A length of two years. In the late 19th century, after the Berlin Conference had ended, the Scramble for Africa reached the Horn of Africa. Increasing foreign influence in the region culminated in the creation of the first Darawiish, an armed resistance movement calling for the independence from the European powers. The Dervish had their leaders, Mohammed Abdullah Hassan , Haji Sudi and Sultan Nur Ahmed Aman , who sought

SECTION 10

#1733085827915

1488-483: A position to which he was appointed by Shermarke. On 15 October 1969, while paying a visit to the northern town of Las Anod , Somalia's then President Abdirashid Ali Shermarke was shot dead by one of his own bodyguards. His assassination was quickly followed by a military coup d'état on 21 October 1969 (the day after his funeral), in which the Somali Army seized power without encountering armed opposition — essentially

1612-635: A rectangular point where Dewa and Genale rivers conjoin. In December 1934, the Welwal incident was erupted in Welwal located in Dollo Zone of the Somali, as the beginning of the Second Italo-Ethiopian War and Italian occupation of Ethiopia. During an occupation, the British Somaliland annexed to Italian East Africa to Haud and Ogaden region. From this point, Italy promoted and initiated

1736-529: A regional power reputed for their advanced architecture and gold wealth, which was so plentiful that they shackled their prisoners in golden chains. Several ancient city-states, such as Opone , Essina , Sarapion , Nikon , Malao , Damo and Mosylon near Cape Guardafui , which competed with the Sabaeans , Parthians and Axumites for the wealthy Indo - Greco-Roman trade, also flourished in Somalia. Islam

1860-697: A result of its successes against the British, the Dervish movement received support from the Ottomans and Germans . The Ottoman government also named Hassan Emir of the Somali nation, and the German government promised to officially recognise any territories the Dervishes were to acquire. After a quarter of a century of military successes against the British, the Dervishes were finally defeated by Britain in 1920 in part due to

1984-481: A robust trading network, entered into treaties with foreign powers, and exerted strong centralized authority on the domestic front. The Majeerteen Sultanate was nearly dismantled in the late-1800s by a power struggle between Boqor Osman Mahamuud and his ambitious cousin, Yusuf Ali Kenadid who founded the Sultanate of Hobyo in 1878. Initially Kenadid wanted to seize control of the neighbouring Sultanate. However, he

2108-752: A significant presence in the Danot woreda. Subclans of the Hawiye inhabit the western and southern areas of the region, with large presence of Degodia being majority in Liben and significant presence in some regions . Karanle and Sheekhaal present in the western areas bordering the Oromia region and the Hawadle and Habar Gidir subclans are present in the Shabelle zone. The closely related Samaale subclan of Garre are also present in

2232-512: A spring located in the southeast of Biyo Kabobe. Menelik erected flag by claiming Gadabuursi and Issa clan's territories (in present-day Shinile , Jijiga to Awbare ) belongs to the Ethiopian Empire . Menelik proposed boundary extension of his Empire to Western Somali territories of Ogaden and submitted to Italy on 24 June 1896, and one year later. Italy unilaterally agreed its boundaries by only telegraphing without proper agreement. In 1897,

2356-516: A state in the Nugaal and began one of the longest African conflicts in modern history. The news of the incident that sparked the 21 year long Dervish rebellion , according to the consul-general James Hayes Sadler , was spread or as he claimed was concocted by Sultan Nur of the Habr Yunis . The incident in question was that of a group of Somali children who were converted to Christianity and adopted by

2480-453: A succession of Italian governors maintained a notable degree of unity and public order. Nicknamed Colonia Primogenita ("First-born Colony") in contrast to the newer and less-developed territories of Italian Somaliland and Libya , Eritrea boasted a larger native Italian settlement than the other lands. The first few dozen families were sponsored by the Italian government around the start of

2604-451: A time. During the late twentieth century Assab would become Ethiopia 's main port, but it was long overshadowed by nearby Djibouti , whose railway (completed to Dire Dawa in 1902) permitted it to quickly supplant traditional caravan -based routes to Assab and Zeila . Massawa remained the primary port for most of northern Ethiopia, but its relatively high customs dues, dependence on caravans, and political antagonism limited

SECTION 20

#1733085827915

2728-669: A vast land of Somalia fell under three colonial domains: the British protectorate of Somaliland was established through a number of Anglo-Somali Treaties of Protection. In the same manner, the Italians took direct claims of Italian Somalia and its coast in 1889. This was resolved in 1891 Anglo-Italian Treaty with British colonial powers on their sphere of influence in the East Africa (mainly Ethiopia, Somalia, and Eritrea ). In accordance with Treaty of Wuchale (1889) signed between Ethiopia and Italy, Italy, acting as protector of Ethiopia, demarcated

2852-561: A young monk, preparing himself in Cairo for missionary work, he had been dispatched in 1837 into Abyssinia . Afterward, he became an active advocate of European penetration, initially encouraging the French to establish themselves in the area. After 1866, following the political unification of Italy, he sought to develop Italian influence instead. As the Suez Canal neared completion, he began to visualize

2976-470: Is no evidence that Ethiopia controlled any Somali inhabited territory at any point in history prior the Menelik's Expansions to south and south-east in the late 19th century. Rather independent historical accounts are unanimous that prior to Ethiopian penetration into the Ogaden and Hararghe in the late 1880s, Somali clans were free of Ethiopian and Shewan control. In 1884, during the Scramble for Africa ,

3100-560: Is the shared mother tongue of ethnic Somalis, which is part of the Cushitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family. They are predominantly Sunni Muslim . Forming one of the largest ethnic groups on the continent, they cover one of the most expansive landmasses by a single ethnic group in Africa . According to most scholars, the ancient Land of Punt and its native inhabitants formed part of

3224-531: The Partito Nuova Eritrea Pro Italia (Party of Shara Italy ) in September 1947 as an Eritrean political party favorable to the Italian presence in Eritrea. It obtained more than 200,000 applications for membership in a single month, the majority of whom were former Italian soldiers and Eritrean Ascari . The organization was even backed by the government of Italy. The main objective of this party

3348-588: The Ancient Egyptians , Phoenicians , Mycenaeans and Babylonians . According to most scholars, the ancient Land of Punt and its native inhabitants formed part of the ethnogenesis of the Somali people. The ancient Puntites were a nation of people that had close relations with Pharaonic Egypt during the times of Pharaoh Sahure and Queen Hatshepsut . The pyramidal structures , temples and ancient houses of dressed stone littered around Somalia may date from this period. In classical antiquity ,

3472-683: The Arab world , eventually joining the Arab League (AL) in 1974. That same year, Barre also served as chairman of the Organization of African Unity (OAU), the predecessor of the African Union (AU). Somalis are ethnically of Cushitic ancestry , but have genealogical traditions of descent from various patriarchs associated with the spread of Islam. Being one tribe, they are segmented into various clan groupings, which are important kinship units that play

3596-432: The Arabian Peninsula . Additionally, the Somali and Ethiopian interiors were very dependent on Berbera for trade, where most of the goods for export arrived from. During the 1833 trading season, the port town swelled to over 70,000 people, and upwards of 6,000 camels laden with goods arrived from the interior within a single day. Berbera was the main marketplace in the entire Somali seaboard for various goods procured from

3720-525: The Danakil chiefs at Assab Bay in return for their promise to sell their territory to him on his return. Meanwhile, the government had been in touch with Raffaele Rubattino , whose company was planning to establish a steamship line through the newly opened Suez Canal and the Red Sea to India. It was agreed that the company would buy the territory in its own name and with its own funds, but should undertake to use it in

3844-832: The Egyptian–Ethiopian War and by the success of the Mahdi 's uprising in the Sudan . In 1884, the British Hewett ;Treaty promised the Bogos —the highlands of modern Eritrea —and free access to the Massawan coast to Emperor Yohannes IV in exchange for his help evacuating garrisons from the Sudan; In the vacuum left by the Egyptian withdrawal, though, British diplomats were concerned about

Somalis in Ethiopia - Misplaced Pages Continue

3968-669: The Ethiopian Empire , the 16th century Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi united the Muslims of the Horn of Africa , and led an invasion of Abyssinia which brought much of the Christian polity under Muslim control. The Ethiopians, as a last resort managed to secure the assistance of the Portuguese Empire and maintained their domain's autonomy, defeating Imam Ahmad at the Battle of Wayna Daga . There

4092-692: The Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). In 1994, new constitution was drafted marked with the creation of Somali Region drawn to other regions. With a staggering population of over 4.6 million almost all of the major Somali clan families are represented in Ethiopia. The Issa and Gadabuursi subclans of the Dir primarily inhabit the northern Sitti zone and the Awbare woreda in Fafan zone. The Habr Awal , Garhajis , Habr Je'lo and Arap clans of

4216-617: The Gulf of Aden . The terms of each treaty specified that Italy was to steer clear of any interference in the Sultanates' respective administrations. In return for Italian arms and an annual subsidy, the Sultans conceded to a minimum of oversight and economic concessions. The Italians also agreed to dispatch a few ambassadors to promote both the Sultanates' and their own interests. The new protectorates were thereafter managed by Vincenzo Filonardi through

4340-639: The Isaaq clan family inhabit the northern part of the region bordering Somaliland. The Habr Awal primarily inhabit the Fafan zone making up the majority in Harshin woreda as well as making up a significant portion of the population of the Kebribeyah woreda as well as the lucrative towns of Wajaale and Hart Sheik . The Garhajis and Habr Je'lo make up the majority of Awaare and Misrak Gashamo woredas in Jarar zone with

4464-469: The Italians also started to set up new factories, which in turn made due contribution in enhancing trade activities. The newly opened factories produced buttons, cooking oil, and pasta, construction materials, packing meat, tobacco, hide and other household commodities. In the year 1939, there were around 2,198 factories and most of the employees were Eritrean citizens, some even moved from the villages to work in

4588-612: The Jalelo site in Somalia are said to be the most important link in evidence of the universality in palaeolithic times between the East and the West . In antiquity , the ancestors of the Somali people were an important link in the Horn of Africa connecting the region's commerce with the rest of the ancient world. Somali sailors and merchants were the main suppliers of frankincense , myrrh and spices , items which were considered valuable luxuries by

4712-686: The Latin name for the Red Sea ), with capital Asmara in substitution of Massawa . In the Treaty of Wuchale (It.  Uccialli ) signed the same year, King Menelik of Shewa —a southern Ethiopian kingdom—recognized the Italian occupation of his rivals' lands of Bogos , Hamasien , Akele Guzay , and Serae in exchange for guarantees of financial assistance and continuing access to European arms and ammunition. His subsequent victory over his rival kings and enthronement as Emperor Menelik II (r. 1889–1913) made

4836-425: The Liben zone and Dawa zone where they make up the majority. Various subclans of the Darod clan family primarily inhabit the central and eastern parts of the region, with the Ogaden and Jidwaq inhabiting the interior as well as the major towns of Jijiga , Gode , Kebridehar . The Harti as well as the Leelkase clans inhabit the Dollo zone where they make up the majority while the Marehan clan inhabit

4960-496: The Macrobians , who may have been ancestral to the Automoli or ancient Somalis, established a powerful tribal kingdom that ruled large parts of modern Somalia . They were reputed for their longevity and wealth, and were said to be the "tallest and handsomest of all men". The Macrobians were warrior herders and seafarers. According to Herodotus' account, the Achaemenid emperor Cambyses II , upon his conquest of Egypt in 525 BCE , sent ambassadors to Macrobia, bringing luxury gifts for

5084-456: The Middle Ages , several powerful Somali empires dominated the regional trade including the Ajuran Sultanate , which excelled in hydraulic engineering and fortress building, the Adal Sultanate , whose general Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (Ahmed Gurey) was the first commander to use cannon warfare on the continent during Adal's conquest of the Ethiopian Empire , and the Sultanate of the Geledi , whose military dominance forced governors of

Somalis in Ethiopia - Misplaced Pages Continue

5208-486: The Middle East , North America , Western Europe , African Great Lakes region, Southern Africa and Oceania . Samaale , the oldest common ancestor of several Somali clans , is generally regarded as the source of the ethnonym Somali . One other theory is that the name is held to be derived from the words soo and maal , which together mean "go and milk". This interpretation differs depending on region with northern Somalis imply it refers to go and milk in regards to

5332-445: The Nile Valley , or Near East . Other scholars propose that the Afro-Asiatic family developed in the Horn of Africa , with its speakers subsequently dispersing from there. Islam was introduced to the area early on by the first Muslims of Mecca fleeing prosecution during the first Hejira with Masjid al-Qiblatayn being built before the Qiblah faced towards Mecca . The town of Zeila 's two- mihrab Masjid al-Qiblatayn dates to

5456-407: The Ogaden to Ethiopia, based on a treaty they signed in 1897 in which the British ceded Somali territory to the Ethiopian Emperor Menelik in exchange for his help against raids by Somali clans. Britain included the proviso that the Somali nomads would retain their autonomy, but Ethiopia immediately claimed sovereignty over them. This prompted an unsuccessful bid by Britain in 1956 to purchase back

5580-496: The Omani empire north of the city of Lamu to pay tribute to the Somali Sultan Ahmed Yusuf . The Harla , an early group who inhabited parts of Somalia, Tchertcher and other areas in the Horn, also erected various tumuli . These masons are believed to have been ancestral to the Somalis ("proto-Somali"). Berbera was the most important port in the Horn of Africa between the 18th–19th centuries. For centuries, Berbera had extensive trade relations with several historic ports in

5704-402: The Oromo (34.4%) and Amhara (27%). The Somali population in Ethiopia make up around 30% of the total Somali population worldwide. Somalis have inhabited the interiors of the Horn for thousands of years. According to linguists, the first Afro-Asiatic -speaking populations arrived in the region during the ensuing Neolithic period from the family's proposed "Urheimat" (Original Homeland) in

5828-416: The Ottoman Empire and Egypt — was not settled by the Italians until 1880. Two years later, Italy formally took possession of the nascent colony from its commercial owners. Most of the western coast of the Red Sea was then formally claimed by the Khedivate of Egypt (under the notional rule of the Ottoman Empire, who held the eastern coast) but the region was thrown into chaos by major Egyptian defeats in

5952-429: The Shilavo woreda and the Liben zone. In 2009, Ethiopia had an estimated 135,000 asylum seekers and refugees, mostly from Somalia (64,000). Somalis The Somali people ( Somali : Soomaalida , Osmanya : 𐒈𐒝𐒑𐒛𐒐𐒘𐒆𐒖 , Wadaad : صومالِدَ ‎) are a Cushitic ethnic group native to the Horn of Africa who share a common ancestry, culture and history. The East Cushitic Somali language

6076-452: The State of Somaliland , and the Trust Territory of Somalia (the former Italian Somalia) followed suit five days later. On 1 July 1960, the two territories united to form the Somali Republic , albeit within boundaries drawn up by Italy and Britain. A government was formed by Abdullahi Issa Mohamud and Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal other members of the trusteeship and protectorate governments, with Haji Bashir Ismail Yusuf as president of

6200-446: The Walashma dynasty with its capital at Zeila , ruled over parts of what is now eastern Ethiopia, Djibouti and Somaliland. The historian al-Umari records that Ifat was situated near the Red Sea coast, and states its size as 15 days travel by 20 days travel. Its army numbered 15,000 horsemen and 20,000 foot soldiers. Al-Umari also credits Ifat with seven "mother cities": Belqulzar, Kuljura, Shimi, Shewa , Adal, Jamme and Laboo. In

6324-418: The 1930s). In 1940, in the area of Asmara, there were more than 2,000 small and medium-sized industrial companies, which were concentrated in the areas of construction, mechanics, textiles, food processing and electricity. Consequently, the standard of living in Eritrea in 1939 was considered among the best on the continent for both the local Eritreans and the Italian settlers. Mussolini's government considered

SECTION 50

#1733085827915

6448-421: The 20th century and settled around Asmara and Massawa . The Italian-Eritrean community then grew from around 4,000 during World War I to nearly 100,000 at the beginning of World War II . While tolerating Islamic adherence, the Italians endorsed a huge expansion of Catholicism in Eritrea and constructed many churches in the highlands around Asmara and Keren , centered on the Church of Our Lady of

6572-422: The 7th century, and is one of the oldest mosques in Africa. Consequently, the Somalis were some of the earliest non-Arabs to convert to Islam. The first clear written Ethiopian reference of the ethnonym Somali dates back to the early 15th century during the reign of Ethiopian Emperor Yeshaq I who had one of his court officials compose a hymn celebrating a military victory over the Sultanate of Ifat . Simur

6696-416: The Anglo-Ethiopian delimitation of 1897 and provided no legal recognition. In 1948 and 1954 discontent led to liberate and cede the Greater Somalia and subsequently denied the validity of Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement of 1897. Following Somalia's independence in 1960, its successive government launched campaign what they called "lost territories" and raised the issues to regional and international communities like

6820-403: The Ascari become the main source of paid employment for the indigenous male population of Italian Eritrea. During the expansion required by the Italian invasion of Ethiopia in 1936, 40% of eligible Eritreans were enrolled in these colonial troops. According to the Italian census of 1939 the city of Asmara had a population of 98,000, of which 53,000 (54.0%) were Italians . This fact made Asmara

6944-440: The Automoli (Asmach), a group of warriors from ancient Egypt described by Herodotus . Asmach is thought to have been their Egyptian name, with Automoli being a Greek derivative of the Hebrew word S’mali (meaning "on the left hand side"). A Tang Chinese document from the 9th century CE referred to the northern Somalia coast — which was then part of a broader region in Northeast Africa known as Barbaria , in reference to

7068-426: The Bevin Plan was rejected and the Soviet Union , United States and France blatantly stood against that plan. In 1948, the British administration withdrew from Ogaden and without formal concession using secret agenda, the British handed the region to Ethiopia. Thus, the modern Somali Region united to Ethiopia. In 1955, the British administration withdrew from the Haud and the Reserved Area, and Ethiopia took all over

7192-400: The British administration and Somali people were not consulted and informed. In addition, the treaty violated an agreement between the British and Somali clans in which it was one of the main reasons that Somali's denied the validity of the treaty. In 1907, Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement demarcated their boundary with the British East African protectorate (Kenya). This placed Italian Somaliland in

7316-402: The Ethiopian Empire continued its expansion territories of the south and southeast where Somali people settled, reached an agreement with the British to demarcate border between Ethiopia and British Somaliland, excluding Haud in Ethiopia. In the treaty, British ceded Somali territory to the Menelik in exchange for his help fighting against Somali clans. However, the treaty occurred when Ethiopia,

7440-406: The Ethiopian birr initially circulated in Italian Eritrea and Italian Somalia . Since 1890, the Eritrean tallero was minted in Rome, divided into 5 lire , which joined the previous coins without finding favor with the local population, such as the italicum thaler minted in 1918. With the annexation to the Italian East Africa, the official currency for all the colonies of the Horn of Africa became

7564-400: The French Catholic Mission at Berbera in 1899. Whether Sultan Nur experienced the incident first hand or whether he was told of it is not clear but what is known is that he propagated the incident in June 1899, precipitating the religious rebellion of the Dervishes. The Dervish movement successfully stymied British forces four times and forced them to retreat to the coastal region. As

SECTION 60

#1733085827915

7688-508: The French over a railway brought things to a head: the Italian —but not Amharic —version of the Treaty of Wuchale had prohibited Ethiopia with foreign negotiations except through Italy, effectively making the realm an Italian protectorate . Secure both domestically and militarily (thanks to arms shipments via French Djibouti and Harar ), Menelik denounced the treaty in whole and the ensuing war , culminating in Italy's disastrous defeat at Adwa , ended their hopes of annexing Ethiopia for

7812-458: The Italians in the area of Asmara and Massawa , but the beginning of World War II stopped the blossoming industrialization of Eritrea. When the Allies captured Italian-held Eritrea in January 1941, most of the infrastructure and the industrial areas were extremely damaged and the remaining ones (like the Asmara-Massawa Cableway) were successively removed and sent to India and Kenya as war reparations . The subsequent Italian guerrilla war

7936-420: The Macrobian king to entice his submission. The Macrobian ruler, who was elected based on his stature and beauty, replied instead with a challenge for his Persian counterpart in the form of an unstrung bow: if the Persians could manage to draw it, they would have the right to invade his country; but until then, they should thank the gods that the Macrobians never decided to invade their empire. The Macrobians were

8060-488: The Rosary in the capital. By the early 1940s, Catholicism was the declared religion of around 28% of the colony's population, while Christianity was the religion of more than half the Eritreans. Benito Mussolini 's rise to power in Italy in 1922 brought profound changes to the colonial government in Eritrea. After il Duce declared the birth of Italian Empire in May 1936, Italian Eritrea (enlarged with northern Ethiopia's regions) and Italian Somaliland were merged with

8184-455: The Somali National Assembly, Aden Abdullah Osman Daar as the president of the Somali Republic and Abdirashid Ali Shermarke as Prime Minister (later to become president from 1967 to 1969). On 20 July 1961 and through a popular referendum , the people of Somalia ratified a new constitution , which was first drafted in 1960. The constitution was rejected by the people of Somaliland. In 1967, Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal became Prime Minister,

8308-435: The Somali lands it had turned over. The British government also granted administration of the almost exclusively Somali-inhabited Northern Frontier District (NFD) to the Kenyan government despite an informal plebiscite demonstrating the overwhelming desire of the region's population to join the newly formed Somali Republic. A referendum was held in neighboring Djibouti (then known as French Somaliland ) in 1958, on

8432-411: The Somali population by Somali Muslim scholars in the following centuries, the ancient city-states eventually transformed into Islamic Mogadishu , Berbera , Zeila , Barawa , Hafun and Merca , which were part of the Berberi civilization. The city of Mogadishu came to be known as the City of Islam , and controlled the East African gold trade for several centuries. The Sultanate of Ifat , led by

8556-409: The Somalis the opportunity to gain experience in political education and self-government. These were advantages that British Somaliland, which was to be incorporated into the new Somali Republic state, did not have. Although in the 1950s British colonial officials attempted, through various administrative development efforts, to make up for past neglect, the protectorate stagnated. The disparity between

8680-402: The United Nations and Organization of Islamic countries. Consecutive governments of Somalia attempted to incorporate the regions and established the Somali Republic to achieve Greater Somalia. The hostility between Ethiopia and Somalia relations grew faster, even garnered international interests involving Somali pastoralists and Ethiopian police forces in the region. In February 1964, a brief war

8804-430: The area's Barbars ( Cushitic ) inhabitants — as Po-pa-li . The first clear written reference of the sobriquet Somali dates back to the early 15th century CE during the reign of Ethiopian Emperor Yeshaq I who had one of his court officials compose a hymn celebrating a military victory over the Sultanate of Ifat . Simur was also an ancient Harari alias for the Somali people. Somalis overwhelmingly prefer

8928-505: The boundary between Ethiopia and British Somaliland as follows: The boundary of the spheres of influence of Great Britain and of Italy in the regions of the Gulf of Aden shall be constituted by a line which, starting from Gildessa [Jeldesa] and running toward the eighth degree of north latitude, skirts the north-east frontier of the territories of the Girrhi, Bertiti, and Rer Ali Tribes, leaving to

9052-476: The camel's milk, southern Somalis use the transliteration " sa' maal " which refers to cow's milk. This is a reference to the ubiquitous pastoralism of the Somali people. Another plausible etymology proposes that the term Somali is derived from the Arabic word for "wealthy" ( zāwamāl ), again referring to Somali riches in livestock. Alternatively, the ethnonym Somali is believed to have been derived from

9176-498: The city walls which frightened Al Barr's followers and caused them to abandon their posts and succeeded Al Barr as the ruler of Zeila. Sharmarke's governorship had an instant effect on the city, as he maneuvered to monopolize as much of the regional trade as possible, with his sights set as far as Harar and the Ogaden . In 1845, Sharmarke deployed a few matchlock men to wrest control of neighboring Berbera from that town's then feuding Somali local authorities. Sharmarke's influence

9300-634: The colony as a strategic base for future aggrandizement and ruled accordingly, using Eritrea as a base to launch its 1935–1936 campaign to conquer and colonize Ethiopia. Even in World War II the Italians used Eritrea to attack Sudan and occupy the Kassala area. Indeed, the best Italian colonial troops were the Eritrean Ascari , as stated by Italian Marshall Rodolfo Graziani and legendary officer Amedeo Guillet . Furthermore, after World War I , service with

9424-534: The condition — first proposed by the Somali Youth League (SYL) and other nascent Somali political organizations, such as Hizbia Digil Mirifle Somali (HDMS) and the Somali National League (SNL) — that Somalia achieve independence within ten years. British Somalia remained a protectorate of Britain until 1960. To the extent that Italy held the territory by UN mandate, the trusteeship provisions gave

9548-465: The country soon became involved in a violent process of independence (from the British in the late 1940s and after 1952 from the Ethiopians, who annexed Eritrea in that year). During the final years of World War II some Italian Eritreans like Vincenzo DiMeglio defended politically the presence of Italians in Eritrea and successively promoted the independence of Eritrea. He went to Rome to participate in

9672-409: The demonym Somali over the incorrect Somalian since the former is an endonym, while the latter is an exonym with double suffixes. The hypernym of the term Somali from a geopolitical sense is Horner and from an ethnic sense, it is Cushite . The origin of the Somali people which was previously theorized to have been from Southern Ethiopia since 1000 BC or from the Arabian Peninsula in

9796-480: The eleventh century has now been overturned by newer archeological and linguistic studies which puts the original homeland of the Somali people in Somaliland region, which concludes that the Somalis are the indigenous inhabitants of the Horn of Africa for the last 7000 years. Ancient rock paintings , which date back 5000 years (estimated), have been found in Somaliland region. These engravings depict early life in

9920-692: The end of April, a large fair assembles in Berbera, and caravans of 6,000 camels at a time come from the interior loaded with coffee, (considered superior to Mocha in Bombay), gum, ivory, hides, skins, grain, cattle, and sour milk, the substitute of fermented drinks in these regions; also much cattle is brought there for the Aden market.” As a tributary of Mocha , which in turn was part of the Ottoman possessions in Western Arabia,

10044-411: The establishment of a coaling station and port of call for Italian steamships in the Red Sea. Sapeto won over the Italian minister for foreign affairs, and King Victor Emmanuel II , to whom he explained his ideas. In the autumn of 1869 he, together with Admiral Acton , was sent by the government to the Red Sea to choose a suitable port and arrange for its sale. This he did by paying a small deposit to

10168-717: The ethnogenesis of the Somali people. This ancient historical kingdom is where a great portion of their cultural traditions and ancestry are said to derive from. Somalis share many historical and cultural traits with other Cushitic peoples , especially with Lowland East Cushitic people, specifically the Afar and the Saho . Ethnic Somalis are principally concentrated in Somalia (around 17.6 million), Somaliland (5.7 million), Ethiopia (4.6 million), Kenya (2.8 million), and Djibouti (534,000). Somali diasporas are also found in parts of

10292-469: The eve of Somalia's independence in 1960, to decide whether or not to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum turned out in favour of a continued association with France, largely due to a combined yes vote by the sizable Afar ethnic group and resident Europeans. There was also widespread vote rigging , with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the referendum reached

10416-439: The factories. The establishment of industries also made an increase in the number of both Italians and Eritreans residing in the cities. The number of Italians residing in the country increased from 4,600 to 75,000 in five years; and with the involvement of Eritreans in the industries, trade and fruit plantation was expanded across the nation, while some of the plantations were owned by Eritreans . The capital of Eritrea experienced

10540-576: The first few weeks of the war. The Soviet Union, Cuba, and South Yemen supported Ethiopia's Derg government led by Colonel Mengistu Haile Mariam and force Somali troops back to the area occupied and led to weakening the government. In March 1978, Siad Barre recalled his army from Ethiopia. After the Derg collapse , many Somalis returned to Ethiopia in May 1991 after they evacuated in 1960s. Some of these were senior military leaders and political entrepreneurs to form

10664-419: The following year. In signing the agreements, both rulers also hoped to exploit the rival objectives of the European imperial powers so as to more effectively assure the continued independence of their territories. The Italians, for their part, were interested in the territories mainly because of its ports specifically Port of Bosaso which could grant them access to the strategically important Suez Canal and

10788-605: The founders of Darod, Dir and Isaaq as well as the Abgaal subclan of Hawiye are all located in northern Somalia. Tradition holds this area as the ancestral homeland of the Somali people. According to data from the Pew Research Center , the creed breakdown of Muslims in the Somali-majority Djibouti is as follows: 77% adhere to Sunnism , 8% are non-denominational Muslim , 2% are Shia and 13% declined to answer, and

10912-707: The idea of "Greater Somalia", constituting Somali settled territories. By September 1940, Benito Mussolini declared the formation of Greater Somalia into the Italian Empire . In 1941, the British entered the Italian Somaliland , Haud and Ogaden with the help of Ethiopian armies. Soon after the restoration of Haile Selassie rule, the Haud and Ogaden region immediately placed under British military administration until Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement of 1942 warranted its sovereignty status in 1944. The first Somali nationalist group

11036-454: The interior, such as livestock , coffee , frankincense , myrrh , acacia gum , saffron , feathers , ghee , hide (skin) , gold and ivory . Historically, the port of Berbera was controlled indigenously between the mercantile Reer Ahmed Nur and Reer Yunis Nuh sub-clans of the Habar Awal . According to a trade journal published in 1856, Berbera was described as “the freest port in

11160-406: The just conquered Ethiopia in the new Italian East Africa ( Africa Orientale Italiana ) administrative territory. This Fascist period was characterized by imperial expansion in the name of a "new Roman Empire". Eritrea was chosen by the Italian government to be the industrial center of Italian East Africa: After the establishment of new transportation and communication methods in the country,

11284-501: The main "Italian town" of the Italian empire in Africa. Furthermore, because of the Italian architecture of the city, Asmara was called Piccola Roma (Little Rome). The total number of Italians in all of Eritrea was 75,000 in that year. Asmara was known to be an exceptionally modern city, not only because of its architecture, but Asmara also had more traffic lights than Rome did when the city

11408-520: The mere fact of its possession by that Soumaulee chief, and as this change occurred whilst I was in Abyssinia, I shall not say anything more upon the subject. However, the previous governor was not eager to relinquish his control of Zeila. Hence in 1841, Sharmarke chartered two dhows (ships) along with fifty Somali Matchlock men and two cannons to target Zeila and depose its Arab Governor, Syed Mohammed Al Barr. Sharmarke initially directed his cannons at

11532-458: The national interest. Sapeto returned to the Red Sea on behalf of the company, completed the purchase and bought more land to the south. By March 1870, an Italian shipping company had thus become claimant to territory at the northern end of Assab Bay, a deserted but spacious bay about half-way between Annesley Bay to the north and Obock to the South. However, the area, — which had been long dominated by

11656-484: The parliament and the Supreme Court, and suspended the constitution. The revolutionary army established large-scale public works programs and successfully implemented an urban and rural literacy campaign, which helped dramatically increase the literacy rate. In addition to a nationalization program of industry and land, the new regime's foreign policy placed an emphasis on Somalia's traditional and religious links with

11780-630: The patriarch Sab. Both Samaale and Sab are supposed to have descended from a common ancestor with origins in the Arabian Peninsula . Contemporary genetic studies indicate that Somalis in general do not possess any noticeable Arab ancestry. The traditions of descent from noble elite forefathers who settled on the littoral are debated, although they are based on early Arab documents and northern folklore. A comprehensive genealogy of Somali clans can be found in Abbink (2009), providing detailed family trees and historical background information. The tombs of

11904-598: The polls. The majority of those who voted no were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia, as had been proposed by Mahmoud Harbi , Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later. Djibouti finally gained its independence from France in 1977, and Hassan Gouled Aptidon , a Somali who had campaigned for a yes vote in the referendum of 1958, eventually wound up as Djibouti's first president (1977–1991). British Somaliland became independent on 26 June 1960 as

12028-523: The port of Zeila had seen several men placed as governors over the years. The Ottomans based in Yemen held nominal authority of Zeila when Sharmarke Ali Saleh , who was a successful and ambitious Somali merchant, purchased the rights of the town from the Ottoman governor of Mocha and Hodeida. Allee Shurmalkee [Ali Sharmarke] has since my visit either seized or purchased this town, and hoisted independent colours upon its walls; but as I know little or nothing save

12152-453: The rapid expansion of French Somaliland , France 's colony along the Gulf of Tadjoura . Ignoring their treaty with Ethiopia, they openly encouraged Italy to expand north into Massawa , which was taken without a shot from its Egyptian garrison. Located on a coral island surrounded by lucrative pearl -fishing grounds, the superior port was fortified and made the capital of the Italian governor. Assab, meanwhile, continued to find service as

12276-455: The region in 1941, during the East African campaign of World War II . Italian Eritrea then came under British military administration , which in 1951 fell under United Nations supervision. In September 1952 it became an autonomous part of Ethiopia , until its independence in 1991 . The leading figure of the early history of Italian enterprises in the Red Sea was Giuseppe Sapeto . When

12400-492: The right the villages of Gildessa, Darmi, Gig, and Milmil. On reaching the eighth degree of the north latitude the line follows that parallel as far as its intersection with the 48th degree of longitude east of Greenwich. Ignoring the Anglo-Italian Treaty that laid foundation of Gadabuursi clan land under British protectorate, Menelik attempted and penetrated Somali territory in 1896 by building some grass hits at Alola,

12524-497: The rock paintings, but archaeologists have so far been unable to decipher this form of ancient writing. During the Stone Age , the Doian and Hargeisan cultures flourished here with their respective industries and factories. The oldest evidence of burial customs in the Horn of Africa comes from cemeteries in Somalia dating back to 4th millennium BC . The stone implements from

12648-492: The sedentary agropastoralist Rahanweyn . Minor Somali clans include Asharaf . The Dir , Hawiye , Gardere ( Gaalje'el , Degodia , Garre ), Hawadle and Ajuran trace agnatic origins to the patriarch Samaale . The Darod have separate paternal traditions of descent through Abdirahman bin Isma'il al-Jabarti (Sheikh Darod), who is said to have Banu Hashim origins through Aqiil Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib . He arrived at

12772-494: The shared religion, their presumed noble Arabian origins genealogically unite them. The purpose behind claiming genealogical traditions of descent from the Arabian Peninsula is used to reinforce one's lineage and the various associated patriarchs with the spread of Islam. Italian Eritrea In 1936 the region was integrated into Italian East Africa as the Eritrea Governorate . This would last until Italy's loss of

12896-533: The southern territories, the northern sultanates were not subject to direct rule due to the earlier treaties they had signed with the Italians. Following World War II , Britain retained control of both British Somaliland and Italian Somalia as protectorates . In 1945, during the Potsdam Conference , the United Nations granted Italy trusteeship of Italian Somalia, but only under close supervision and on

13020-411: The successful deployment of the newly-formed Royal Air Force by the British government . Majeerteen Sultanate was founded in the early-1700s and rose to prominence in the following century, under the reign of the resourceful Boqor (King) Osman Mahamuud . His Kingdom controlled Bari Karkaar, Nugaaal, and also central Somalia in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The Majeerteen Sultanate maintained

13144-583: The territories. In March 1955, the National United Front (NUF) attempted to retake the Haud and the Reserved Area and to end the Somalia rule under British protectorate, culminating in series violent clashes and conflicts. In 1958, the UN Trusteeship Council appointed arbitration tribunal for the disputed territories between Ethiopia and Somalia with futile effort. Somalia constantly denied

13268-586: The territory. The most famous of these is the Laas Geel complex . It contains some of the earliest known rock art on the African continent and features many elaborate pastoralist sketches of animal and human figures. In other places, such as the Dhambalin region, a depiction of a man on a horse is postulated as being one of the earliest known examples of a mounted huntsman. Inscriptions have been found beneath many of

13392-491: The treaty formally binding upon the entire country. Once established, however, Menelik took a dim view towards Italian involvement with local leaders in his northern province of Tigray ; while the Italians, for their part, felt bound to involvement given the regular Tigrayan raiding of tribes within their colony's protectorate and the Tigrayan leaders themselves continued to claim the provinces now held by Italy. Negotiations with

13516-476: The two territories in economic development and political experience would cause serious difficulties when it came time to integrate the two parts. Meanwhile, in 1948, under pressure from their World War II allies and to the dismay of the Somalis, the British ceded official control of the Haud (an important Somali grazing area that was brought under British protection via treaties with the Somalis in 1884 and 1886) and

13640-623: The various tariiqa or Sufi orders. The constitution of Somalia likewise defines Islam as the state religion of the Federal Republic of Somalia, and Islamic sharia law as the basic source for national legislation. It also stipulates that no law that is inconsistent with the basic tenets of Shari'a can be enacted. There are some nobles who believe with great pride that they are of Arabian ancestry, and trace their stirp to Muhammad's lineage of Quraysh and those of his companions. Although they do not consider themselves culturally Arabs, except for

13764-463: The volume on its trade with Ethiopia. Seeking to develop their own lands, the Italian government launched the first development projects in the new colony in the late 1880s. The Eritrean Railway was completed to Saati in 1888 and reached Asmara in the highlands in 1911. The Asmara–Massawa Cableway (dismantled by the British as war reparations in World War II) was the longest line in

13888-447: The world during its time. Italian administration of Eritrea also brought improvements in the medical and agricultural sectors of Eritrean society. Despite an imposition of racial laws, all urban Eritreans had access to modern sanitation and hospital services. The Italians also employed local Eritreans in public service, particularly the police and public works departments. In a region marked by cultural, linguistic, and religious diversity,

14012-418: The world, and the most important trading place on the whole Arabian Gulf.”: “The only seaports of importance on this coast are Feyla [Zeila] and Berbera; the former is an Arabian colony, dependent of Mocha, but Berbera is independent of any foreign power. It is, without having the name, the freest port in the world, and the most important trading place on the whole Arabian Gulf. From the beginning of November to

14136-482: Was Eritrean freedom, but they had a pre-condition that stated that before independence the country should be governed by Italy for at least 15 years. With the peace treaty of 1947 , the new Italian Republic officially accepted the end of the colony. As a consequence the Italian community started to disappear, especially after the Ethiopian Empire took control of Eritrea in 1952. Both the Maria Theresa thaler and

14260-470: Was also an ancient Harari alias for the Somali people. Somalis began building nation-state networks to various states in the form of sultanates. The Adal Sultanate (ruled by the Somali Muslims with other signification Cushitic Muslim populations like Hararis and Afars ) was one of the most powerful states with capital Zeila (in present-day Somalia ). In response to centuries of mistreatment by

14384-427: Was being built. The city incorporates many features of a planned city. Indeed, Asmara was an early example of an ideal modern city created by architects, an idea which was introduced into many cities across the world, such as Brasilia , but which was not altogether popular. Features include designated city zoning and planning, wide treed boulevards, political areas and districts and space and scope for development. Asmara

14508-695: Was emerged in May 1943 called Somali Youth Club (later renamed SYL) by thirteenth young Somali nationalist operating its field offices in Ogaden region, particularly in Jijiga and Kenya . In 1946, the British foreign secretary, Ernest Bevin , proposed to the Allied Council of Foreign Ministers a plan to place the Somali-inhabited territories under the British Military Administration. Unfortunately

14632-596: Was established and recruit reluctant inhabitants of the region. Somalia supported WSLF, Somali Abo Liberation Front (SALF) and Oromo Liberation Front (OLF) to weaken the Ethiopian forces in the region as well to destabilize the country. In 1977, large-scale war launched known as Ogaden War after Somali National Army crossed the border into Ethiopia and carried out military operations in Degehabur , Kebri Dahar , Warder and Godey taking control of Jijiga and other western region in

14756-487: Was introduced to the area early on by the first Muslims of Mecca fleeing prosecution during the first Hejira with Masjid al-Qiblatayn being built before the Qiblah faced towards Mecca . The town of Zeila 's two- mihrab Masjid al-Qiblatayn dates to the 7th century, and is one of the oldest mosques in Africa. Consequently the Somalis were some of the earliest non-Arabs that converted to Islam. The peaceful conversion of

14880-641: Was not built for the Eritreans however; the Italians built it primarily for themselves and made the city a typical Italian city with even its own car race (called the Asmara circuit ). The city has been regarded as "New Rome" due to its quintessential Italian touch, not only for the architecture but also for the wide streets, piazzas and coffee bars. While the boulevards are lined with palms and indigenous shiba'kha trees, there are numerable pizzerias and coffee bars, serving cappuccinos and lattes, as well as ice cream parlours. Many industrial investments were endorsed by

15004-752: Was not limited to the Somali coast as he had allies and influence in the interior of the Somali country, the Danakil coast and even further afield in Abyssinia. Among his allies were the Kings of Shewa. When there was tension between the Amir of Harar Abu Bakr II ibn `Abd al-Munan and Sharmarke, as a result of the Amir arresting one of his agents in Harar , Sharmarke persuaded the son of Sahle Selassie , ruler of Shewa , to imprison on his behalf about 300 citizens of Harar then resident in Shewa, for

15128-690: Was started in the border until Sudan mediates in front of Organization of African Unity . Minister from both sides met in Khartoum to announce ceasefire with 15 km military withdrawal from both sides. In 1966, Ethiopia suspended martial law in the Somali Region and neighboring Oromo region accompanied by shocking retribution against herders to force them renounce their support for the fighters. Many of these were applied through confiscation, arbitrary arrests, to control water points and destroying their livestock. In 1973, Western Somali Liberation Front (WSLF)

15252-415: Was supported by many Eritrean colonial troops (like the hero of Eritrean independence, Hamid Idris Awate ) until the Italian armistice in September 1943. Eritrea was placed under British military administration after the Italian surrender in World War II . After the defeat of Italy, there were 70,000 Italian settlers in Eritrea. The British initially maintained the Italian administration of Eritrea, but

15376-494: Was unsuccessful in this endeavour, and was eventually forced into exile in Yemen . Both sultanates maintained written records of their activities, which still exist. In late 1888, Sultan Yusuf Ali Kenadid entered into a treaty with the Italian government, making his Sultanate of Hobyo an Italian protectorate known as Italian Somalia . His rival Boqor Osman Mahamuud was to sign a similar agreement vis-a-vis his own Majeerteen Sultanate

#914085