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101-621: Estadio Américo Montanini (formerly Alfonso López ) is a sports venue located in the Colombian city of Bucaramanga . It has a capacity for 25,000 spectators. It is the headquarters of Atlético Bucaramanga , club of the Categoría Primera A of the Dimayor . Since 11 June 2024, it has been named after the Colombian-Argentine soccer player José Américo Montanini , one of the greatest idols of

202-563: A GaAs p-n junction light emitter and an electrically isolated semiconductor photodetector. On August 8, 1962, Biard and Pittman filed a patent titled "Semiconductor Radiant Diode" based on their findings, which described a zinc-diffused p–n junction LED with a spaced cathode contact to allow for efficient emission of infrared light under forward bias . After establishing the priority of their work based on engineering notebooks predating submissions from G.E. Labs, RCA Research Labs, IBM Research Labs, Bell Labs , and Lincoln Lab at MIT ,

303-657: A current source of a battery or a pulse generator and with a comparison to a variant, pure, crystal in 1953. Rubin Braunstein of the Radio Corporation of America reported on infrared emission from gallium arsenide (GaAs) and other semiconductor alloys in 1955. Braunstein observed infrared emission generated by simple diode structures using gallium antimonide (GaSb), GaAs, indium phosphide (InP), and silicon-germanium (SiGe) alloys at room temperature and at 77  kelvins . In 1957, Braunstein further demonstrated that

404-554: A glass window or lens to let the light out. Modern indicator LEDs are packed in transparent molded plastic cases, tubular or rectangular in shape, and often tinted to match the device color. Infrared devices may be dyed, to block visible light. More complex packages have been adapted for efficient heat dissipation in high-power LEDs . Surface-mounted LEDs further reduce the package size. LEDs intended for use with fiber optics cables may be provided with an optical connector. The first blue -violet LED, using magnesium-doped gallium nitride

505-436: A good reputation due to its numerous universities, among them: Industrial University of Santander ( Universidad Industrial de Santander ) The Universidad Industrial de Santander is an official institution that offers 95 degrees and a wide range of undergraduate and graduate courses within the health sciences, humanities, sciences, and engineering colleges. Also, it offers seven technological programs in different fields through

606-456: A larger stand was built, expanding the north and south platforms, while small radio booths for the press were built in the eastern stand. With this intervention the capacity would go from 10,000 to 15,000 spectators. The holding of the National Games 1996 was the purpose of the last important expansion. The works consisted of specifically erecting a parking lot for cars, removing the cover on

707-580: A leased room or other. An industrial activity developed in Bucaramanga that has gained national recognition is the footwear industry. For this reason, the Footwear Manufacturers' Association (Asoinducals) is located in the city. The footwear sector has a major market nationally and internationally in countries such as Argentina , Brazil , Canada , Ecuador , Italy , some Caribbean islands, United States , Peru , Venezuela and Mexico . There

808-568: A longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller sizes, and faster switching. In exchange for these generally favorable attributes, disadvantages of LEDs include electrical limitations to low voltage and generally to DC (not AC) power, the inability to provide steady illumination from a pulsing DC or an AC electrical supply source, and a lesser maximum operating temperature and storage temperature. LEDs are transducers of electricity into light. They operate in reverse of photodiodes , which convert light into electricity. Electroluminescence as

909-481: A loudspeaker. Intercepting the beam stopped the music. We had a great deal of fun playing with this setup." In September 1961, while working at Texas Instruments in Dallas , Texas , James R. Biard and Gary Pittman discovered near-infrared (900 nm) light emission from a tunnel diode they had constructed on a GaAs substrate. By October 1961, they had demonstrated efficient light emission and signal coupling between

1010-557: A method for producing high-brightness blue LEDs using a new two-step process in 1991. In 2015, a US court ruled that three Taiwanese companies had infringed Moustakas's prior patent, and ordered them to pay licensing fees of not less than US$ 13 million. Two years later, in 1993, high-brightness blue LEDs were demonstrated by Shuji Nakamura of Nichia Corporation using a gallium nitride (GaN) growth process. These LEDs had efficiencies of 10%. In parallel, Isamu Akasaki and Hiroshi Amano of Nagoya University were working on developing

1111-546: A national monument. Stands the Museum of Religious Art, with valuable paintings and ancient liturgical objects, The Basilica of the Lord of Miracles, pilgrimage site, and the Chapel of Corregidor, on the outskirts. Socorro : Located 121 kilometres (75 miles) from Bucaramanga. Cradle of the uprising of the villagers, is located in the province Comunera, northeastern department of Santander. It

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1212-514: A phenomenon was discovered in 1907 by the English experimenter Henry Joseph Round of Marconi Labs , using a crystal of silicon carbide and a cat's-whisker detector . Russian inventor Oleg Losev reported the creation of the first LED in 1927. His research was distributed in Soviet, German and British scientific journals, but no practical use was made of the discovery for several decades, partly due to

1313-567: A phosphor-silicon mixture on the LED using techniques such as jet dispensing, and allowing the solvents to evaporate, the LEDs are often tested, and placed on tapes for SMT placement equipment for use in LED light bulb production. Some "remote phosphor" LED light bulbs use a single plastic cover with YAG phosphor for one or several blue LEDs, instead of using phosphor coatings on single-chip white LEDs. Ce:YAG phosphors and epoxy in LEDs can degrade with use, and

1414-583: A preparation of viscera and goat blood mixed with white rice, roasted meat, arepa de maize pelado, and tamales . Also popular are caramels and candied items such as celery, lemon, citrón, rice, and pineapple. Most sweets are produced in the Floridablanca neighboring. The oblea , (a large, Holy communion -like wafer), and bocadillo veleño (a type of fudge made from puréed fruit or pressed caramel, or dulce de leche /milk caramel), are examples of treats found in great quantity in Bucaramanga. Nevertheless, one of

1515-503: A red light-emitting diode. GaAsP was the basis for the first wave of commercial LEDs emitting visible light. It was mass produced by the Monsanto and Hewlett-Packard companies and used widely for displays in calculators and wrist watches. M. George Craford , a former graduate student of Holonyak, invented the first yellow LED and improved the brightness of red and red-orange LEDs by a factor of ten in 1972. In 1976, T. P. Pearsall designed

1616-425: A specific use until 1949, when it began to serve as the headquarters of the nascent football team Atlético Bucaramanga ; Since then, three interventions have been performed. The first occurred in 1955, in which the western sector was built to be cast in concrete, but with a reduced extension compared to the existing one. It would be 17 years before the second intervention was carried out on the embankment in 1972, where

1717-401: A variety of shows and cultural work from the different neighborhoods of the city. The city sponsors these cultural activities with private investment. Bucaramanga also features a cultural radio station (Station Cultural Luis Carlos Galán Sarmiento) on 100.7 FM. Typical dishes from Bucaramanga include mute santandereano (a soup made from various grains, vegetables, herbs and meat), fricassee ,

1818-401: Is 3.6 people. 16.6% of people of the population are 10 years of age or younger. Of all cohabiting couples in the city, 46.3% were single, 26.7% were married, 5.8% were separated and 4.6% were widowed. 9.2% of the resident population aged over 4 years are from another municipality, and 0.3% from another country. In the city, 39% of people live in houses, while 56.7% live in apartments and 4.3% in

1919-424: Is Passion and Bavaria . Bucaramanga has wide hotel infrastructure composed by some of the best hotel chains in the country. Several areas of the city center have important restaurants and nightclubs. Morrorico: Located east of Bucaramanga, the road to Cucuta, you can see a panorama of the city, here is the statue of Sacred Heart , which is visited at Easter time, and the inhabitants and parishioners sector have

2020-416: Is also a big clothing industry. There are a growing number of technological research centers in various topics such as energy , gas, oil , corrosion, asphalt, leather and agro-industrial development tools, among others. The Chimitá Industrial Zone is located in the western area of the plateau near the town of Girón; many companies from different specialties like Terpel have production plants there. Also in

2121-571: Is currently in the process of coupling the second phase, which will cover the areas of Piedecuesta , Ciudadela Real de Minas, the Avenue of the Americas (Race 33) and will have trunks at Autosur, Real de Minas and the Americas. Bucaramanga is connected to the mainland by two main routes. The first is the National Route 66 which comes from Barrancabermeja and Cucuta communicates with and then into Venezuela,

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2222-550: Is difficult but desirable since it takes advantage of existing semiconductor manufacturing infrastructure. It allows for the wafer-level packaging of LED dies resulting in extremely small LED packages. GaN is often deposited using metalorganic vapour-phase epitaxy (MOCVD), and it also uses lift-off . Even though white light can be created using individual red, green and blue LEDs, this results in poor color rendering , since only three narrow bands of wavelengths of light are being emitted. The attainment of high efficiency blue LEDs

2323-486: Is difficult on silicon , while others, like the University of Cambridge, choose a multi-layer structure, in order to reduce (crystal) lattice mismatch and different thermal expansion ratios, to avoid cracking of the LED chip at high temperatures (e.g. during manufacturing), reduce heat generation and increase luminous efficiency. Sapphire substrate patterning can be carried out with nanoimprint lithography . GaN-on-Si

2424-790: Is more apparent with higher concentrations of Ce:YAG in phosphor-silicone mixtures, because the Ce:YAG decomposes with use. The output of LEDs can shift to yellow over time due to degradation of the silicone. There are several variants of Ce:YAG, and manufacturers in many cases do not reveal the exact composition of their Ce:YAG offerings. Several other phosphors are available for phosphor-converted LEDs to produce several colors such as red, which uses nitrosilicate phosphors, and many other kinds of phosphor materials exist for LEDs such as phosphors based on oxides, oxynitrides, oxyhalides, halides, nitrides, sulfides, quantum dots, and inorganic-organic hybrid semiconductors. A single LED can have several phosphors at

2525-457: Is neither hot nor cold, 22 degrees Celsius being the average temperature. Compared to cities at the same average altitude (such as Cali ), Bucaramanga has much cooler daytime temperatures, owing to the cold wind coming down the eastern peaks; its night temperatures are not cold, owing to the warm air coming from the canyon. These phenomena make the daily thermal oscillation narrower than in other Colombian cities. The municipal flag of Bucaramanga

2626-599: Is perceived as white light, with improved color rendering compared to wavelengths from the blue LED/YAG phosphor combination. The first white LEDs were expensive and inefficient. The light output then increased exponentially . The latest research and development has been propagated by Japanese manufacturers such as Panasonic and Nichia , and by Korean and Chinese manufacturers such as Samsung , Solstice, Kingsun, Hoyol and others. This trend in increased output has been called Haitz's law after Roland Haitz. Light output and efficiency of blue and near-ultraviolet LEDs rose and

2727-585: Is the shopping center La Florida, a six-storey mall with two pedestrian bridges and one vehicular bridge. A newer shopping center, Megamall, was built in 2007, where the first store of the French multinational retailer Carrefour opened in the city. In the following years, three more shopping centers were built in other areas of the city: Cacique, Parque Caracolí, and De la Cuesta. Another shopping district known as "Cabecera del Llano" includes five major shopping centers: Cabecera Etapa I, Etapa II and Etapa III, as well as

2828-451: Is to use individual LEDs that emit three primary colors —red, green and blue—and then mix all the colors to form white light. The other is to use a phosphor material to convert monochromatic light from a blue or UV LED to broad-spectrum white light, similar to a fluorescent lamp . The yellow phosphor is cerium -doped YAG crystals suspended in the package or coated on the LED. This YAG phosphor causes white LEDs to appear yellow when off, and

2929-521: Is written. The words Montani Semper Liberi are Latin for "Mountaineers are Always Free". This is also used as the official motto for the U.S. State of West Virginia . According to the data obtained from the 2018 census and information provided by the Metropolitan Area of Bucaramanga, the city has an estimated population of 681,130 inhabitants. Of the total population, 47.5% are men and 52.5% women. The average number of occupants per household

3030-456: The Köppen climate classification , Bucaramanga features a tropical rainforest climate ( Af in Köppen climate classification ), though a noticeably cool version of the climate. The city is slightly too dry for a tropical rainforest climate , as its driest month of December averages just under 67 mm (3 in) of rainfall. Although its altitude is not considered very high, Bucaramanga's climate

3131-911: The Nobel Prize in Physics in 2014 for "the invention of efficient blue light-emitting diodes, which has enabled bright and energy-saving white light sources." In 1995, Alberto Barbieri at the Cardiff University Laboratory (GB) investigated the efficiency and reliability of high-brightness LEDs and demonstrated a "transparent contact" LED using indium tin oxide (ITO) on (AlGaInP/GaAs). In 2001 and 2002, processes for growing gallium nitride (GaN) LEDs on silicon were successfully demonstrated. In January 2012, Osram demonstrated high-power InGaN LEDs grown on silicon substrates commercially, and GaN-on-silicon LEDs are in production at Plessey Semiconductors . As of 2017, some manufacturers are using SiC as

Estadio Américo Montanini - Misplaced Pages Continue

3232-544: The U.S. patent office issued the two inventors the patent for the GaAs infrared light-emitting diode (U.S. Patent US3293513 ), the first practical LED. Immediately after filing the patent, Texas Instruments (TI) began a project to manufacture infrared diodes. In October 1962, TI announced the first commercial LED product (the SNX-100), which employed a pure GaAs crystal to emit an 890 nm light output. In October 1963, TI announced

3333-457: The human eye as a pure ( saturated ) color. Also unlike most lasers, its radiation is not spatially coherent , so it cannot approach the very high intensity characteristic of lasers . By selection of different semiconductor materials , single-color LEDs can be made that emit light in a narrow band of wavelengths from near-infrared through the visible spectrum and into the ultraviolet range. The required operating voltages of LEDs increase as

3434-564: The 1960s, mostly into neighbouring locations within the metropolitan area. Floridablanca , Girón and Piedecuesta are inextricably linked geographically and commercially with Bucaramanga, and now all form together the Bucaramanga Metropolitan Area with a population of 1,304,288. The city is the base of the Colombian Petroleum Institute (ICP), the research branch of the state oil company Ecopetrol . Girón

3535-451: The 3-subpixel model for digital displays. The technology uses a gallium nitride semiconductor that emits light of different frequencies modulated by voltage changes. A prototype display achieved a resolution of 6,800 PPI or 3k x 1.5k pixels. In a light-emitting diode, the recombination of electrons and electron holes in a semiconductor produces light (be it infrared, visible or UV), a process called " electroluminescence ". The wavelength of

3636-560: The Distance Learning Institute. Nowadays, after 71 years of existence, there are nearly 14,000 students registered in undergraduate and graduate programs, as well as a total 22,000 alumni. It proudly stands as the leading higher education institution in the northeastern part of the country and ranks fourth among official universities nationwide. Also, the University has created affiliate branches in Barrancabermeja—home of

3737-459: The ants only emerging from underground during the months of May and June. A variety of tourism can be performed in Bucaramanga and its neighboring municipalities, such as ecological tourism through its parks, adventure tourism at the Ruitoque Plateau, and Paragliding at the "Voladero the Águilas", at just a 15 minute drive away from the city. The downtown area boasts colonial buildings like

3838-443: The belief that the statue does miracles. Also in this area is planned the construction of a cable car or cable metrocable called to transport the inhabitants of the sector. Palonegro: On the road to the airport of the same name, where you can have a splendid view of the metropolitan area of Bucaramanga. in place encuentan whereabouts visited several nightclubs and especially on weekends. ' Chicamocha National Park ' (PANACHI): on

3939-797: The blending of the colors. Since LEDs have slightly different emission patterns, the color balance may change depending on the angle of view, even if the RGB sources are in a single package, so RGB diodes are seldom used to produce white lighting. Nonetheless, this method has many applications because of the flexibility of mixing different colors, and in principle, this mechanism also has higher quantum efficiency in producing white light. There are several types of multicolor white LEDs: di- , tri- , and tetrachromatic white LEDs. Several key factors that play among these different methods include color stability, color rendering capability, and luminous efficacy. Often, higher efficiency means lower color rendering, presenting

4040-530: The churches of San Laureano, and the Dolores Chapel, among some widely recognised colonial houses such as the house of Simon Bolivar , and the Louis Peru de Lacroix ' house. Other colonial buildings are located in the neighboring municipalities of the city. Bucaramanga's tourism diversity earned it the title of being one of the seven national pride tourism destinations through a voting process convened by Colombia

4141-527: The city and a distribution center for eastern Colombia. Carrefour opened in 2007 the first store at Megamall, merging later with a local supermarket named Mercadefam. The chain now has seven stores in the city. Along with this, there are local small chain stores in Bucaramanga such as Mercomfenalco, Cootracolta, Cajasan, and others. Historically, Bucaramanga has had one of the lowest rates of unemployment among Colombian cities. As of September 2010, according to DANE statistics between July and September 2010,

Estadio Américo Montanini - Misplaced Pages Continue

4242-672: The city had an unemployment rate of 11.8%, increasing by 3.3% compared to October and December 2009 which showed a rate of 8.5%. Metrolínea is the Integrated Mass Transit System of Bucaramanga. Its construction began in 2006 during the administration of Mayor Honorio Galvis ; its operation is currently in its first phase, which began on 22 December 2009. The six lines inaugurated in this phase are: Avenida del Libertador (Diagonal 15), autocentral, Prospero Finch Avenue (27th Avenue), La Cumbre, Highway Floridablanca Villabel Bucarica and which have 91 stopways. The administration

4343-463: The city is one of the main production plants of Cervecería Bavaria S.A. (Bavaria Brewery). The city is planning to build the Zona Franca de Santander, a customs-free zone located within the metropolitan area of Bucaramanga. Bucaramanga has positioned itself as a city of congresses and events, having infrastructures like Fair and Exhibition Centre - CENFER, many fairs, and exhibitions in all branches of

4444-621: The city of Bucaramanga, Barichara was founded by the Parra family Pradilla to serve the veneration of the Virgin of the Stone. In May 1975 the town received the title of "Cutest little town in Colombia" and by Resolution 005 of 30 June 1975 was declared a National Monument. Attractions in this village of cobblestone streets and wooden balconies include: LED Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962,

4545-420: The city. One of the main pillars of culture in Bucaramanga is literature, as in the past there was a local cultural movement that produced a number of writers. In 1995, the administration of Mayor Luis Fernando Peña Cote decided to convert Gabriel Turbay Public Library to hold the newly created Municipal Institute of Culture, assigning the library building to Gabriel Turbay, who has overseen space management for

4646-1083: The cladding and quantum well layers for ultraviolet LEDs, but these devices have not yet reached the level of efficiency and technological maturity of InGaN/GaN blue/green devices. If unalloyed GaN is used in this case to form the active quantum well layers, the device emits near-ultraviolet light with a peak wavelength centred around 365 nm. Green LEDs manufactured from the InGaN/GaN system are far more efficient and brighter than green LEDs produced with non-nitride material systems, but practical devices still exhibit efficiency too low for high-brightness applications. With AlGaN and AlGaInN , even shorter wavelengths are achievable. Near-UV emitters at wavelengths around 360–395 nm are already cheap and often encountered, for example, as black light lamp replacements for inspection of anti- counterfeiting UV watermarks in documents and bank notes, and for UV curing . Substantially more expensive, shorter-wavelength diodes are commercially available for wavelengths down to 240 nm. As

4747-402: The corruption of some administrations has not allowed the project to be carried out. In 2020, the departmental authorities had in their government plan to expand the eastern stand to reach a maximum capacity on the stage of 33,000 spectators, with seats and a roof in all stands, if Colombia was chosen to host the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup . When the joint candidacy of Australia and New Zealand

4848-417: The cost of reliable devices fell. This led to relatively high-power white-light LEDs for illumination, which are replacing incandescent and fluorescent lighting. Experimental white LEDs were demonstrated in 2014 to produce 303 lumens per watt of electricity (lm/W); some can last up to 100,000 hours. Commercially available LEDs have an efficiency of up to 223 lm/W as of 2018. A previous record of 135 lm/W

4949-434: The departmental stadium changed its name to Américo Montanini . Likewise, the city's Olympic village would be renamed Hermán Aceros . This article about a Colombian sports venue is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Bucaramanga Bucaramanga ( Spanish pronunciation: [bukaɾaˈmaŋɡa] ) is the capital and largest city of the department of Santander , Colombia . Bucaramanga has

5050-1075: The earliest LEDs emitted low-intensity infrared (IR) light. Infrared LEDs are used in remote-control circuits, such as those used with a wide variety of consumer electronics. The first visible-light LEDs were of low intensity and limited to red. Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps, replacing small incandescent bulbs , and in seven-segment displays . Later developments produced LEDs available in visible , ultraviolet (UV), and infrared wavelengths with high, low, or intermediate light output, for instance, white LEDs suitable for room and outdoor lighting. LEDs have also given rise to new types of displays and sensors, while their high switching rates are useful in advanced communications technology with applications as diverse as aviation lighting , fairy lights , strip lights , automotive headlamps , advertising, general lighting , traffic signals , camera flashes, lighted wallpaper , horticultural grow lights , and medical devices. LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources, including lower power consumption,

5151-644: The economy such as transport, hotels, restaurants, shops and various services activities such as advertising, design and decoration, modeling, etc. The International Exhibition of Children's Fashion (EIMI) takes place in Bucaramanga. It is the only exhibition specialized in children's clothing in Latin America. The event is organized in the CENFER complex and 40% of the sales generated come from exported products. In recent years, several major shopping centers and commercial buildings have been built in Bucaramanga. An example

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5252-539: The emitted wavelengths become shorter (higher energy, red to blue), because of their increasing semiconductor band gap. Blue LEDs have an active region consisting of one or more InGaN quantum wells sandwiched between thicker layers of GaN, called cladding layers. By varying the relative In/Ga fraction in the InGaN quantum wells, the light emission can in theory be varied from violet to amber. Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN) of varying Al/Ga fraction can be used to manufacture

5353-491: The field of luminescence with research on radium . Hungarian Zoltán Bay together with György Szigeti patenting a lighting device in Hungary in 1939 based on silicon carbide, with an option on boron carbide, that emitted white, yellowish white, or greenish white depending on impurities present. Kurt Lehovec , Carl Accardo, and Edward Jamgochian explained these first LEDs in 1951 using an apparatus employing SiC crystals with

5454-477: The fifth-largest economy by GDP in Colombia , has the lowest unemployment rate and is the ninth most populous city in the country, with a population of 613,400 (2023 projection). Bucaramanga has over 160 parks scattered throughout the city and has been given the nickname "La Ciudad de Los Parques" ("The City of Parks") and "La Ciudad Bonita de Colombia" ("Colombia's Beautiful City"). Bucaramanga has grown rapidly since

5555-602: The first commercial hemispherical LED, the SNX-110. In the 1960s, several laboratories focused on LEDs that would emit visible light. A particularly important device was demonstrated by Nick Holonyak on October 9, 1962, while he was working for General Electric in Syracuse, New York . The device used the semiconducting alloy gallium phosphide arsenide (GaAsP). It was the first semiconductor laser to emit visible light, albeit at low temperatures. At room temperature it still functioned as

5656-518: The first commercially available blue LED, based on the indirect bandgap semiconductor, silicon carbide (SiC). SiC LEDs had very low efficiency, no more than about 0.03%, but did emit in the blue portion of the visible light spectrum. In the late 1980s, key breakthroughs in GaN epitaxial growth and p-type doping ushered in the modern era of GaN-based optoelectronic devices. Building upon this foundation, Theodore Moustakas at Boston University patented

5757-648: The first half of the 20th century. Bucaramanga is located on a plateau in the Cordillera Oriental of the Colombian Andes , and many residents occupy unstable lands descending steeply from the meseta . Westbound of it, the Rio de Oro Canyon is located at an altitude of 600 metres (2,000 ft) above sea level . Eastbound, the Andean Range rises up in high peaks, reaching almost 3,700 metres (12,100 ft) AMSL in

5858-721: The first high-brightness, high-efficiency LEDs for optical fiber telecommunications by inventing new semiconductor materials specifically adapted to optical fiber transmission wavelengths. Until 1968, visible and infrared LEDs were extremely costly, on the order of US$ 200 per unit, and so had little practical use. The first commercial visible-wavelength LEDs used GaAsP semiconductors and were commonly used as replacements for incandescent and neon indicator lamps , and in seven-segment displays , first in expensive equipment such as laboratory and electronics test equipment, then later in such appliances as calculators, TVs, radios, telephones, as well as watches. The Hewlett-Packard company (HP)

5959-413: The first in Colombia to have synthetic field Star 2. The new grass debuted with a friendly match between Atlético Bucaramanga and Club Olimpia from Paraguay , which ended with a 1:2 victory for the visitor. On 16 November 2007, FIFA grants official quality certification to synthetic grass. Since 2014 the expansion of the eastern stand of the stadium has been planned, but the lack of resources and

6060-407: The important GaN deposition on sapphire substrates and the demonstration of p-type doping of GaN. This new development revolutionized LED lighting, making high-power blue light sources practical, leading to the development of technologies like Blu-ray . Nakamura was awarded the 2006 Millennium Technology Prize for his invention. Nakamura, Hiroshi Amano , and Isamu Akasaki were awarded

6161-577: The institute, which has meant the movement of areas of the library to use the administrative area of the Municipal Institute of Culture. The creation of the Municipal Institute of Culture was conceived in order to expand the possibilities for sponsoring culture in the metropolitan area. But as culture has not traditionally played a leading role in local government, colleges do not receive sufficient funding and incentives to fulfill their purposes. The Institute provides library services, art workshops, and

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6262-426: The largest in Latin America. In these shopping centers, there are several movie theaters of major companies such as Cine Colombia, Cine Royal and Cinemark , clothing stores like Adidas , Levi's , and national brands such as Arturo Calle, restaurants and cafes as Presto, El Corral, McDonald's , Crêpes & Waffles, Juan Valdez . One of the largest hypermarket chains in Colombia, Exito, has five stores throughout

6363-420: The leopard team. The structure, which was initially built to meet the needs acquired with the commitment to hold the V National Games , was inaugurated on 12 December 1941. It was named Sports Unit Alfonso López Pumarejo , in honor of the one who led the reins of the nation for two periods (1934 to 1938 and 1942 to 1945), decree issued by the governor of the time, Alfredo Cadena D'Costa. The stage did not have

6464-417: The light depends on the energy band gap of the semiconductors used. Since these materials have a high index of refraction, design features of the devices such as special optical coatings and die shape are required to efficiently emit light. Unlike a laser , the light emitted from an LED is neither spectrally coherent nor even highly monochromatic . Its spectrum is sufficiently narrow that it appears to

6565-420: The light produced is engineered to suit the human eye. Because of metamerism , it is possible to have quite different spectra that appear white. The appearance of objects illuminated by that light may vary as the spectrum varies. This is the issue of color rendition, quite separate from color temperature. An orange or cyan object could appear with the wrong color and much darker as the LED or phosphor does not emit

6666-579: The more recognized Cabecera Etapa IV and the shopping center "La Quinta" or V Etapa. The Acropolis Shopping Center is located in an area known as Ciudadela Real de Minas, while the San Andresito commercial center and the traditional and renovated (2005) Cañaveral shopping center are located in the southern sector of the city along with the El Cacique shopping center, opened in November 2012 and considered one of

6767-415: The most exotic foods in this Colombian city is undoubtedly the “ hormigas culonas ”, or “big-butt ants”, which have made Bucaramanga famous nationally and internationally; the speciality has even been exported to Tokyo and London. These ants have a naturally high protein content, and their consumption among local peoples dates from well before the colonial era. This delicacy is only available seasonally, due to

6868-582: The most important businessmen in Colombia, Claudia Florez and Ivan Garzón. Colombian artist Oscar Rodríguez Naranjo came back from France during the Second World War and settled in Bucaramanga. Rodríguez Naranjo taught at the art school while he made a number of paintings that would build up his reputation in Colombia. In 1941 he became the Director of the Academia de Bellas Artes in Bucaramanga. The city has

6969-539: The most important oil refinery in the country—El Socorro and Málaga. Recently it has extended its services to Barranquilla and Bogotá through the offer of its Graduate Programs. Bucaramanga's culture has several expressions, from the visual arts such as painting, sculpture, photography, and recently also in experimental demonstrations that incorporate new technology for artistic communication, such as video. Throughout Bucaramanga's history, it has hosted many cultural offerings in various areas, causing arts groups to form within

7070-432: The national economic sectors are performed there annually. The city also has a polyfunctional center for events and shows, which gives a space for performing great shows, puzzle games, sports, and business. A number of meeting rooms and conferences allow Bucaramanga to hold conventions for entrepreneurs around the country. The trade fairs, as well as direct benefits to the respective sector, have benefits in other areas of

7171-404: The northern area of the stadium, with a modern programmable LED lighting system. In 2017 the initiative that had existed for several years to change the current name of the stadium to Hermán Aceros , a national sports glory and former player of Atlético Bucaramanga , was resumed, but it did not come to fruition. After Aceros died in 2018, the proposal took on a new boom, by fully complying with

7272-453: The occasion of the Final Phase of the 2020 CONMEBOL Pre-Olympic Tournament in the city, two alternate dressing rooms, two auditoriums and a cafeteria were built inside the stadium, in addition to adaptations in the main dressing rooms, the bathrooms, the press room and the box area of the western stand. Without a doubt, the most significant reform was the installation of an electronic board in

7373-674: The old airport Gómez Niño located in the Ciudadela Real de Minas. The airport currently operates under the administration of the Palonegro consortium Colombo-Korean SAS East Airports Group. There are daily flights from most major cities in Colombia, as well as international flights from the city of Panama . In 2009, Palonegro International Airport was ranked among Colombia's most important airports. Many important Colombian people are from Bucaramanga, such as Luis Carlos Galán , presidential candidate murdered in 1989, Carlos Ardila Lülle , one of

7474-445: The phosphors, the Ce:YAG phosphor converts blue light to green and red (yellow) light, and the PFS phosphor converts blue light to red light. The color, emission spectrum or color temperature of white phosphor converted and other phosphor converted LEDs can be controlled by changing the concentration of several phosphors that form a phosphor blend used in an LED package. The 'whiteness' of

7575-599: The photosensitivity of microorganisms approximately matches the absorption spectrum of DNA , with a peak at about 260 nm, UV LED emitting at 250–270 nm are expected in prospective disinfection and sterilization devices. Recent research has shown that commercially available UVA LEDs (365 nm) are already effective disinfection and sterilization devices. UV-C wavelengths were obtained in laboratories using aluminium nitride (210 nm), boron nitride (215 nm) and diamond (235 nm). There are two primary ways of producing white light-emitting diodes. One

7676-481: The place locally known as "Paramo de Berlin". The city is located at 7°08′N 73°08′W  /  7.133°N 73.133°W  / 7.133; -73.133 . The official metropolitan area includes the municipalities of: Girón , Piedecuesta and Floridablanca , but Lebrija is home to Bucaramanga's airport and is commonly considered part of greater Bucaramanga. Despite recent urbanization, all four neighboring municipalities contain extensive rural areas. Under

7777-502: The region, mainly due to what is known as the La Rosita ravine. Until 1778, Bucaramanga was considered an indigenous town and it was in 1779 when it began to be called a Parish. The name it took was the Parish of Our Lady of Chiquinquira and San Laureano de la Real de Minas de Bucaramanga. The city attracted a core of German merchants and adventurers in the 1860s and 1870s (the most famous of whom

7878-541: The requirements of Decree 2759 of 1997. After the death of the historic idol of Atlético Bucaramanga , Jose Américo Montanini , a proposal arose in the departmental assembly to name the stadium that name, because for many, the name of Alfonso López has no roots in Santander. On 11 June 2024 after a survey conducted through his Twitter account), the Governor of Santander Juvenal Díaz officially announced that From that date on,

7979-523: The road that leads to Bogotá at the maximum height of the Cordillera Oriental in the municipality of ARATOCA, offers an exceptional view of the mighty river canyon Chicamocha, is equally Chicamocha National Park, from where you can appreciate at its best canons of rivers Chicamocha and Suarez. Giron: : Located 9 km of Bucaramanga. Founded in 1631, the gold mines were important during the colonial era of tremendous architectural heritage, which made it

8080-421: The rudimentary devices could be used for non-radio communication across a short distance. As noted by Kroemer Braunstein "…had set up a simple optical communications link: Music emerging from a record player was used via suitable electronics to modulate the forward current of a GaAs diode. The emitted light was detected by a PbS diode some distance away. This signal was fed into an audio amplifier and played back by

8181-480: The same time. Some LEDs use phosphors made of glass-ceramic or composite phosphor/glass materials. Alternatively, the LED chips themselves can be coated with a thin coating of phosphor-containing material, called a conformal coating. The temperature of the phosphor during operation and how it is applied limits the size of an LED die. Wafer-level packaged white LEDs allow for extremely small LEDs. In 2024, QPixel introduced as polychromatic LED that could replace

8282-528: The second the Ruta Nacional 45A that comes from Bogotá and San Alberto comes up this road connects with the Colombian Caribbean region and major cities across the Ruta Nacional 45 . The international airport serving Bucaramanga is Palonegro International Airport , located on the hill of Palonegro, west of the metropolitan area and close to the town of Lebrija . The airport opened in 1974, replacing

8383-408: The space between the crystals allow some blue light to pass through in LEDs with partial phosphor conversion. Alternatively, white LEDs may use other phosphors like manganese(IV)-doped potassium fluorosilicate (PFS) or other engineered phosphors. PFS assists in red light generation, and is used in conjunction with conventional Ce:YAG phosphor. In LEDs with PFS phosphor, some blue light passes through

8484-547: The subsequent device Pankove and Miller built, the first actual gallium nitride light-emitting diode, emitted green light. In 1974 the U.S. Patent Office awarded Maruska, Rhines, and Stanford professor David Stevenson a patent for their work in 1972 (U.S. Patent US3819974 A ). Today, magnesium-doping of gallium nitride remains the basis for all commercial blue LEDs and laser diodes . In the early 1970s, these devices were too dim for practical use, and research into gallium nitride devices slowed. In August 1989, Cree introduced

8585-474: The substrate for LED production, but sapphire is more common, as it has the most similar properties to that of gallium nitride, reducing the need for patterning the sapphire wafer (patterned wafers are known as epi wafers). Samsung , the University of Cambridge , and Toshiba are performing research into GaN on Si LEDs. Toshiba has stopped research, possibly due to low yields. Some opt for epitaxy , which

8686-569: The team at Fairchild led by optoelectronics pioneer Thomas Brandt to achieve the needed cost reductions. LED producers have continued to use these methods as of about 2009. The early red LEDs were bright enough for use as indicators, as the light output was not enough to illuminate an area. Readouts in calculators were so small that plastic lenses were built over each digit to make them legible. Later, other colors became widely available and appeared in appliances and equipment. Early LEDs were packaged in metal cases similar to those of transistors, with

8787-487: The upper and lower western and eastern stands, which reduced the capacity of the stage to 25,000 spectators. The perimeter mesh was also removed, biomedical equipment was installed and adjustments were made to the press boxes and dressing rooms. The synthetic grass that was removed was used in the spaces where the athletic track was that was eliminated, completing the ornament of the surroundings with decorative plants and flowers. These works were delivered on 22 June 2017. On

8888-461: The very inefficient light-producing properties of silicon carbide, the semiconductor Losev used. In 1936, Georges Destriau observed that electroluminescence could be produced when zinc sulphide (ZnS) powder is suspended in an insulator and an alternating electrical field is applied to it. In his publications, Destriau often referred to luminescence as Losev-Light. Destriau worked in the laboratories of Madame Marie Curie , also an early pioneer in

8989-532: The wavelength it reflects. The best color rendition LEDs use a mix of phosphors, resulting in less efficiency and better color rendering. The first white light-emitting diodes (LEDs) were offered for sale in the autumn of 1996. Nichia made some of the first white LEDs which were based on blue LEDs with Ce:YAG phosphor. Ce:YAG is often grown using the Czochralski method . Mixing red, green, and blue sources to produce white light needs electronic circuits to control

9090-465: The western stand, moving the radio booths, constructing boxes for dignitaries, expanding the north and south west stands and, finally, the construction of a preferential high grandstand, which increased the capacity of the stage to a capacity of 28,000 spectators. In 2006 the Alfonso López stadium underwent a change of grass, to reduce costs in the maintenance of the field. This is how this plaza became

9191-511: Was Geo von Lengerke ) and tensions between the newcomers and local merchants flared in 1879, when the event named "La Culebra Pico de Oro" ("The Gold Beak Snake") occurred. With the political reorganization of 1886, Bucaramanga replaced Socorro as the departmental capital. The region (although not the city itself) was devastated by the civil war of 1899–1902—commonly known as the Thousand Days War —causing Bucaramanga to grow only modestly in

9292-618: Was achieved by Nichia in 2010. Compared to incandescent bulbs, this is a huge increase in electrical efficiency, and even though LEDs are more expensive to purchase, overall lifetime cost is significantly cheaper than that of incandescent bulbs. The LED chip is encapsulated inside a small, plastic, white mold although sometimes an LED package can incorporate a reflector. It can be encapsulated using resin ( polyurethane -based), silicone, or epoxy containing (powdered) Cerium-doped YAG phosphor particles. The viscosity of phosphor-silicon mixtures must be carefully controlled. After application of

9393-412: Was chosen by FIFA , the implementation of the project was put back. In November 2016 the recovery work on the stage began, including the change to Natural grass Bermuda 419, which is the same used by the stadiums that host international games, this after 10 years after the stage was installed. artificial grass, which completed its useful life sporting cycle. In addition, work began to install seating in

9494-406: Was designed by the historian Gustavo Gómez Mejía. Made of two green stripes with a yellow one in the middle. In the center, there's a blue disk, surrounded by a red circle. In the middle of the blue disk, there's a white star. In the red circle the following legend: "Below the azure of its sky and defended by the generous blood of its sons, Bucaramanga is opened to the four horizons of the motherland"

9595-415: Was engaged in research and development (R&D) on practical LEDs between 1962 and 1968, by a research team under Howard C. Borden, Gerald P. Pighini at HP Associates and HP Labs . During this time HP collaborated with Monsanto Company on developing the first usable LED products. The first usable LED products were HP's LED display and Monsanto's LED indicator lamp , both launched in 1968. Monsanto

9696-482: Was founded in 1681 and 1711 he was awarded the title of "Very Noble and Loyal Villa". In 1781 Manuela Beltrán broke the edict that raised taxes and contributions, which led to the revolt of the Communards. In the main square stand monuments to José Antonio Galán , leader of the uprising, and Antonia Santos. Other attractions are the house of culture and the cathedral. Barichara : Located 118 km (73 mi) from

9797-433: Was made at Stanford University in 1972 by Herb Maruska and Wally Rhines , doctoral students in materials science and engineering. At the time Maruska was on leave from RCA Laboratories , where he collaborated with Jacques Pankove on related work. In 1971, the year after Maruska left for Stanford, his RCA colleagues Pankove and Ed Miller demonstrated the first blue electroluminescence from zinc-doped gallium nitride, though

9898-443: Was quickly followed by the development of the first white LED . In this device a Y 3 Al 5 O 12 :Ce (known as " YAG " or Ce:YAG phosphor) cerium -doped phosphor coating produces yellow light through fluorescence . The combination of that yellow with remaining blue light appears white to the eye. Using different phosphors produces green and red light through fluorescence. The resulting mixture of red, green and blue

9999-415: Was the first and most significant town founded by Spanish colonialists in the region, and Bucaramanga (founded on 22 December 1622) did not overtake Girón in population or economic significance until the early 19th century. Bucaramanga was born as an indigenous town since the economic activity that occurred for the first time in the area was the extraction of gold from the alluvial deposits that predominated in

10100-567: Was the first intelligent LED display, and was a revolution in digital display technology, replacing the Nixie tube and becoming the basis for later LED displays. In the 1970s, commercially successful LED devices at less than five cents each were produced by Fairchild Optoelectronics. These devices employed compound semiconductor chips fabricated with the planar process (developed by Jean Hoerni , ). The combination of planar processing for chip fabrication and innovative packaging methods enabled

10201-479: Was the first organization to mass-produce visible LEDs, using Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) in 1968 to produce red LEDs suitable for indicators. Monsanto had previously offered to supply HP with GaAsP, but HP decided to grow its own GaAsP. In February 1969, Hewlett-Packard introduced the HP Model 5082-7000 Numeric Indicator, the first LED device to use integrated circuit (integrated LED circuit ) technology. It

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