Pontic Steppe
86-760: Estévez , or Estevez in English, is a Galician family name. It is a patronymic , meaning son of Stephen , in Galician Estevo. In Portuguese the equivalent is Esteves , the Italian equivalent is Di Stefano and Stefani and the Spanish equivalent is Estébanez, from the Spanish name Esteban . The name may refer to: A family of American actors. Galician people Galicians ( Galician : galegos [ɡaˈleɣʊs] ; Spanish: gallegos [ɡaˈʎeɣos] ) are
172-726: A Romance-speaking European ethnic group from northwestern Spain; they are closely related to the northern Portuguese people and have their historic homeland in Galicia , in the north-west of the Iberian Peninsula . Two Romance languages are widely spoken and official in Galicia: the native Galician and Spanish . The ethnonym of the Galicians ( galegos ) derives directly from the Latin Gallaeci or Callaeci , itself an adaptation of
258-646: A triumph back in Rome, receiving the name Callaicus . Recently a very large marching Roman camp was discovered at high altitude, in Lomba do Mouro, at the very frontier of Galicia with Portugal. In 2021 a C-14 dating showed that it was built during the 2nd century BCE; since it is north of the Limia, it probably belonged to this campaign. The Roman contact had a very large impact on the Castro Culture: an increase in commerce with
344-469: A Celtico promunturio ad Pyrenaeum usque. Perpetua eius ora, nisi ubi modici recessus ac parva promunturia sunt, ad Cantabros paene recta est. In ea primum Artabri sunt etiamnum Celticae gentis, deinde Astyres. In Artabris sinus ore angusto admissum mare non angusto ambitu excipiens Adrobricam urbem et quattuor amnium ostia incingit: duo etiam inter accolentis ignobilia sunt, per alia Ducanaris exit et Libyca "That ocean front for some distance has
430-535: A French Jesuit who spent most of his life in India, had specifically demonstrated the analogy between Sanskrit and European languages. According to current academic consensus, Jones's famous work of 1786 was less accurate than his predecessors', as he erroneously included Egyptian , Japanese and Chinese in the Indo-European languages, while omitting Hindi . In 1818, Danish linguist Rasmus Christian Rask elaborated
516-659: A PIE homeland, the Kurgan and Anatolian hypotheses are the ones most widely accepted, and also the ones most debated against each other. Following the publication of several studies on ancient DNA in 2015, Colin Renfrew, the original author and proponent of the Anatolian hypothesis, has accepted the reality of migrations of populations speaking one or several Indo-European languages from the Pontic steppe towards Northwestern Europe. The table lists
602-587: A campaign of conquest against Gallaecians, Asturians and Cantabrians. The most memorable episode of this war was the siege on the Mons Medullius, who Paulus Orosius placed near the Minho river: it was surrounded by a 15 mille trench before a simultaneous Roman advance; according to Anneus Florus the besieged decided to kill themselves, by fire, sword, or by the venon of the yew tree . Tens of Roman camps have been found related to this war, most of them corresponding to
688-612: A common appellative : Dacosta (or Da Costa ), "of the slope", Dopazo or Do Pazo ("of the palace/manor house"); Doval , "of the valley" (cfr. French Duval ), Daponte ("of the bridge"), Davila ("of the town", not to be confused with Spanish Dávila ), Daporta ("of the gate"); Dasilva ("of the forest"), Dorrío ("of the river"), Datorre ("of the Tower"). Through rebracketing , some of these surnames gave origin to others such as Acosta or Acuña . A few of these toponymic surnames can be considered nobiliary , as they first appear as
774-544: A conventional mark of reconstructed words, such as * wódr̥ , * ḱwn̥tós , or * tréyes ; these forms are the reconstructed ancestors of the modern English words water , hound , and three , respectively. No direct evidence of PIE exists; scholars have reconstructed PIE from its present-day descendants using the comparative method . For example, compare the pairs of words in Italian and English: piede and foot , padre and father , pesce and fish . Since there
860-453: A detailed, though conservative, overview of the lexical knowledge accumulated by 1959. Jerzy Kuryłowicz's 1956 Apophonie gave a better understanding of Indo-European ablaut . From the 1960s, knowledge of Anatolian became robust enough to establish its relationship to PIE. Scholars have proposed multiple hypotheses about when, where, and by whom PIE was spoken. The Kurgan hypothesis , first put forward in 1956 by Marija Gimbutas , has become
946-415: A hundred exemplars are known. This culture is now known as Castro Culture ; another characteristic of this culture is the absence of known burials: just exceptionally urns with ashes have been found buried at foundational sites, acting probably as protectors. Occasional contacts with Mediterranean navigators, since the last half of the second millennium BCE, became common after the 6th century BCE and
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#17330848133991032-606: A language. From the 1870s, the Neogrammarians proposed that sound laws have no exceptions, as illustrated by Verner's law , published in 1876, which resolved apparent exceptions to Grimm's law by exploring the role of accent (stress) in language change. August Schleicher 's A Compendium of the Comparative Grammar of the Indo-European, Sanskrit, Greek and Latin Languages (1874–77) represented an early attempt to reconstruct
1118-667: A local relational suffix -aik- , also attested in Celtiberian language and so meaning 'the highlanders'; or either from Proto-Celtic * kallī - 'forest' and so means 'the forest (people)'. Another recent proposal comes from the linguist Francesco Benozzo , who is not specialized in Celtic languages and identified the root gall- / kall- in a number of Celtic words with the meaning "stone" or "rock", as follows: gall (old Irish), gal (Middle Welsh), gailleichan (Scottish Gaelic), galagh (Manx) and gall (Gaulish). Hence, Benozzo explains
1204-585: A maritime campaign along the Atlantic shores which ended in Brigantium . According to Cassius Dio , the locals, who had never seen a Roman fleet, surrendered in awe. Recent excavations at the Castro de Elviña hillfort, near A Coruña, have found both evidences of siege and partial destruction of the walls of the site, and also of a temple, dated to the middle of the first century BCE. Finally, in 29 BCE, Augustus launched
1290-450: A narrow circuit, the city of Adrobrica and the mouth of four rivers." The Atlantic and northern coast of today's Galicia was inhabited by Celtic peoples, with the exception of the southern extreme. Others geographers and authors (Pliny, Strabo), as well as the local Latin epigraphy, confirm the presence of Celtic peoples. As for the language or languages spoken by the Galicians previously to their romanization , most scholars usually perceive
1376-534: A pack of three aurochs ; the genetic study of her remains revealed a woman that was an admixture of Western Hunter-Gatherer and Magdalenian people. This type of admixture has been observed in France, also. Later on, some 6,500 years ago, a new population arrived from the Mediterranean , bringing agriculture and husbandry with them. Half of the woodland was razed to pasture and farmland, almost replacing all of
1462-542: A primitive Indo-European layer, another later one hardly distinguishable from Celtic and identifiable with Lusitanian , most notable in the south, the Gallaecia Bracarense (as a result, Lusitanian is sometimes called Lusitanian-Gallaecian ) and finally Celtic proper; as stated by Alberto J. Lorrio: "the presence of Celtic elements in the Northwest is indisputable, but there is no unanimity in considering whether there
1548-555: A stone footing ; later on they were entirely made with stone walls, having up to two storeys. Specially in the south, houses or public spaces were adorned with carved stones and warrior sculptures. Stone heads, mimicking severed heads, are found at several locations and were perhaps placed near the gates of the forts. A number of public installations are known, for example saunas of probable ritual use. Of ritual use and great value were also items such as bronze cauldrons, richly figured sacrificial hatchets and gold torcs, of which more than
1634-505: A straight bank, then, having taken a slight bend, soon protrudes a little bit and then it is drawn back, and again and again; then, lying on a straight line, the coast extends to the promontory which we call Celtic. All of it is inhabited by Celtics, except from the Durio until the bend, where the Grovi dwelt —and through them flow the rivers Avo, Celadus, Nebis, Minius and Limia, also called Oblivio—. On
1720-597: A thousand years. According to the prevailing Kurgan hypothesis , the original homeland of the Proto-Indo-Europeans may have been in the Pontic–Caspian steppe of eastern Europe. The linguistic reconstruction of PIE has provided insight into the pastoral culture and patriarchal religion of its speakers. As speakers of Proto-Indo-European became isolated from each other through the Indo-European migrations ,
1806-522: A very large culture impact, replacing collectivism with individualism , as exemplified by their burial in individual cists , along with the reuse of old Neolithic tombs. From this period and later dates a rich tradition of petroglyphs , which find close similarities in the British Isles, Scandinavia or northern Italy . Motives include cup and ring marks , labyrinths , Bronze Age weaponry, deer and deer hunting, warriors, riders and ships . During
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#17330848133991892-422: Is a consistent correspondence of the initial consonants ( p and f ) that emerges far too frequently to be coincidental, one can infer that these languages stem from a common parent language . Detailed analysis suggests a system of sound laws to describe the phonetic and phonological changes from the hypothetical ancestral words to the modern ones. These laws have become so detailed and reliable as to support
1978-571: Is also characterized by the apparition of longhouses of ultimately north European tradition which were replaced later in much of Galicia by roundhouses . By the 4th century BCE hill-forts have expanded all along Galicia, also on lowlands, soon becoming the only type of settlements. These hill-forts were delimited usually by one or more walls; the defences also include ditches, ramparts and towers, and could define several habitable spaces. The gates were also heavily fortified. Inside, houses were originally built with perishable materials, with or without
2064-517: Is believed to have had an elaborate system of morphology that included inflectional suffixes (analogous to English child, child's, children, children's ) as well as ablaut (vowel alterations, as preserved in English sing, sang, sung, song ) and accent . PIE nominals and pronouns had a complex system of declension , and verbs similarly had a complex system of conjugation . The PIE phonology , particles , numerals , and copula are also well-reconstructed. Asterisks are used by linguists as
2150-528: Is distinct from Gaulish *cal(l)io- "hoof" or "testicle", related to Welsh caill , Breton kell "testicle" (> Gaulish *caliavo > Old French chaillou , French caillou ), all from the Proto-Indo-European root *kal- "hard hardness" (perhaps via suffixed zero-grade *kl̥H-no-(m)). For instance, in Latin callum "hard or thick substance" is also found and so both E. Rivas and Juan J. Moralejo relate
2236-619: Is simply one variety of Galician-Portuguese, along with European Portuguese, Brazilian Portuguese, African Portuguese, the Galician-Portuguese still spoken in Spanish Extremadura, ( Fala ), and other variations. Nowadays, despite the positive effects of official recognition of the Galician language, Galicia's socio-linguistic development has experienced the growing influence of Spanish and persistent linguistic erosion of Galician due to
2322-424: Is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European language family . No direct record of Proto-Indo-European exists; its proposed features have been derived by linguistic reconstruction from documented Indo-European languages. Far more work has gone into reconstructing PIE than any other proto-language , and it is the best understood of all proto-languages of its age. The majority of linguistic work during
2408-706: The Cantabrian mountains after the war, later reduced to the Legio VII Gemina in León , with three auxiliary cohorts in Galicia (the Cohors I Celtiberorum in Ciadella, Sobrado dos Monxes , near Brigantium ; other unity at Aquis Querquennis , and another one near Lucus Augusti ) and others elsewhere. Soon Roma began to recruit auxiliary troops locally: five cohorts of Gallaecians from
2494-564: The Gothic personal name Froila , "lord"); Giance (Latin Iulianici ); González ; Henríquez ( Henry ); Martís ( Martin ); Méndez ( Menendici ); Miguéns , Miguez (from Michaelici , equivalent to Michaels ); Páez , Pais , Paz (from Pelagici , Pelagio ); Ramírez ; Reimúndez ( Raymond ); Rodríguez ; Sánchez ; Sueiro (from Suarius ); Tomé (from Thomas ); Viéitez , Vieites (Benedictici, Benedict ), among many others. Because of
2580-549: The Indian subcontinent became aware of similarities between Indo-Iranian languages and European languages, and as early as 1653, Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn had published a proposal for a proto-language ("Scythian") for the following language families: Germanic , Romance , Greek , Baltic , Slavic , Celtic , and Iranian . In a memoir sent to the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres in 1767, Gaston-Laurent Coeurdoux ,
2666-576: The Neogrammarian hypothesis : the Indo-European sound laws apply without exception. William Jones , an Anglo-Welsh philologist and puisne judge in Bengal , caused an academic sensation when in 1786 he postulated the common ancestry of Sanskrit , Greek , Latin , Gothic , the Celtic languages , and Old Persian , but he was not the first to state such a hypothesis. In the 16th century, European visitors to
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2752-535: The Portuguese Empire . The two varieties are still close together, and in particular northern Portuguese dialects share an important number of similarities with Galician ones. The official institution regulating the Galician language, backed by the Galician government and universities, the Royal Galician Academy, claims that modern Galician must be considered an independent Romance language belonging to
2838-471: The 19th century was devoted to the reconstruction of PIE and its daughter languages , and many of the modern techniques of linguistic reconstruction (such as the comparative method ) were developed as a result. PIE is hypothesized to have been spoken as a single language from approximately 4500 BCE to 2500 BCE during the Late Neolithic to Early Bronze Age , though estimates vary by more than
2924-615: The 2nd century of our era, the formula: The known personal names used by locals in northern Gallaecia were largely Celtic: Aio , Alluquius , Ambatus , Ambollus , Andamus , Angetus , Arius , Artius , Atius , Atia , Boutius , Cadroiolo , Caeleo , Caluenus , Camalus , Cambauius , Celtiatus , Cloutaius , Cloutius , Clutamus , Clutosius , Coedus , Coemia , Coroturetis , Eburus , Eburia , Louesus , Medamus , Nantia , Nantius , Reburrus , Secoilia , Seguia , Talauius , Tridia , Vecius , Veroblius , Verotus , Vesuclotus , among others. Three legions were stationed near
3010-708: The Andrade, Soutomaior or Lemos (who originated in Monforte de Lemos ). As a result, these surnames are by now distributed all around the world. The third group of surnames are the occupational ones, derived from the job or legal status of the bearer: Ferreiro ("Smith"), Carpinteiro ("Carpenter"), Besteiro ("Crossbow bearer"), Crego ("Priest"), Freire ("Friar"), Faraldo ("Herald"), Pintor ("Painter"), Pedreiro ("Stonemason"), Gaiteiro ("Bagpiper"); and also Cabaleiro ("Knight"), Escudeiro ("Esquire"), Fidalgo ("Nobleman"), Juiz ("Judge"). The fourth group includes
3096-531: The Guide's child) and Mesón do Bento (Galician: Benedict's house ) was translated as Mesón del Viento (Spanish: House of Wind). The oldest human occupation of Galicia dates to the Palaeolithic , when Galicia was covered by a dense oak temperate rain forest . The oldest human remains found, at Chan do Lindeiro , are from a woman who lived some 9,300 years ago and died because of a landslide, apparently while leading
3182-565: The Holy Land ) Many Galician surnames have become Castilianized over the centuries, most notably after the forced submission of the Galician nobility obtained by the Catholic Monarchs in the last years of the 15th century. This reflected the gradual spread of the Spanish language through the cities, in Santiago de Compostela , Lugo , A Coruña , Vigo and Ferrol , in the last case due to
3268-549: The Late Bronze Age a new type of ceremonial henge -like ring structures, of some 50 metres in diameter, are built all along Galicia. This period and interchange network, usually known as Atlantic Bronze Age , which appears to have had its centre in modern-day Brittany , was proposed by John T. Koch and Sir Barry Cunliffe as the one that originated Celtic languages —as a product of pre-existing and closely related Indo-European languages— which could have expanded along with
3354-468: The Late Bronze Age and until 800-600 BCE the contacts with both southern Spain to the south, and Armorica and the Atlantic Isles to the north, intensified, probably fuelled by the abundance of local gold and metals such as tin , which allowed the production of high quality bronze . It is at this moment that began the deposition or hoarding of prestige items, frequently in aquatic context. Also, during
3440-733: The Lethes or Oblivio ( Limia , which frightened his troops because of its other name ), in a successful campaign, managing to conquer many places of the Galicians. After reaching the Minho river, and in his way back, he attacked (again successfully) the Bracari , who had been harassing his supply chain: Appian describe the Bracari women fighting bravely side by side with their men; of the women who were taken prisoners, some killed themselves, and others killed their children, preferring death to servitude. The spoils of war allowed Decimus Junius Brutus to celebrate
3526-759: The Lougei, Gigurri and Tiburi dwelt lands now in Galicia; finally the Bracarenses 24 civitates and 285,000, of whom the Grovi , Helleni, Querquerni , Coelerni , Bibali, Limici , Tamacani and Interamici dwelt, at least partially, in modern-day Galicia. The names of some of these peoples have been preserved as the names of regions, parishes and villages: Lemos < Lemavos, Cabarcos, Soneira < *Sub Nerii, Céltigos < Celticos, Valdeorras < Valle de Gigurris, Trives < Tiburis, Támagos < Tamacanos. Some other Galician regions derive from some populi or subdivision not listed by
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3612-558: The North Adriatic region are sometimes classified as Italic. Albanian and Greek are the only surviving Indo-European descendants of a Paleo-Balkan language area, named for their occurrence in or in the vicinity of the Balkan peninsula . Most of the other languages of this area—including Illyrian , Thracian , and Dacian —do not appear to be members of any other subfamilies of PIE, but are so poorly attested that proper classification of them
3698-468: The Northwest of the Iberian Peninsula from Vulgar Latin , becoming the language spoken and written in the medieval kingdoms of Galicia (from 1230 united with the kingdoms of León and Castille under the same sovereign) and Portugal . The Galician-Portuguese language developed a rich literary tradition from the last years of the 12th century. During the 13th century it gradually replaced Latin as
3784-622: The Pontic–Caspian steppe and into eastern Europe. Other theories include the Anatolian hypothesis , which posits that PIE spread out from Anatolia with agriculture beginning c. 7500–6000 BCE, the Armenian hypothesis , the Paleolithic continuity paradigm , and the indigenous Aryans theory. The last two of these theories are not regarded as credible within academia. Out of all the theories for
3870-517: The Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Kartvelian languages due to early language contact , as well as some morphological similarities—notably the Indo-European ablaut , which is remarkably similar to the root ablaut system reconstructible for Proto-Kartvelian. The Lusitanian language was a marginally attested language spoken in areas near the border between present-day Portugal and Spain . The Venetic and Liburnian languages known from
3956-426: The Proto-Indo-European language. By the early 1900s, Indo-Europeanists had developed well-defined descriptions of PIE which scholars still accept today. Later, the discovery of the Anatolian and Tocharian languages added to the corpus of descendant languages. A subtle new principle won wide acceptance: the laryngeal theory , which explained irregularities in the reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European phonology as
4042-433: The bearer. These places can be European countries (as is the case in the surnames Bretaña , Franza , España , Portugal ) or nations ( Franco , " Frenchman "); Galician regions ( Bergantiños , Carnota , Cavarcos , Sanlés ); or cities, towns or villages, which gave origin to a few thousand surnames. Another related group is formed with the preposition de , usually contracted with the definite article as da or do , and
4128-510: The bend there is the city of Lambriaca and the receding part receives the rivers Laeros and Ulia. The prominent part is inhabited by the Praestamarci, and through them flow the rivers Tamaris and Sars —which are born not afar— Tamaris by harbour Ebora, Sars by the tower of Augustus, of memorable title. For the rest, the Supertamarici and Neri inhabit in the last tract. Up to here what belongs to
4214-402: The classic authors, among them: Bergantiños < Brigantinos, from Briganti , Nendo < Nemetos, from Nemeton , Entíns < Gentinis ('the chieftains'). A common characteristic of both Gallaecians and western Astures were their onomastic formula and social structure: while most of the other Indo-European peoples of Hispania used a formula such as: Gallaecians and western Astures used, until
4300-822: The coasts of northwestern Iberia: Frons illa aliquamdiu rectam ripam habet, dein modico flexu accepto mox paululum eminet, tum reducta iterum iterumque recto margine iacens ad promunturium quod Celticum vocamus extenditur. Totam Celtici colunt, sed a Durio ad flexum Grovi, fluuntque per eos Avo, Celadus, Nebis, Minius et cui oblivionis cognomen est Limia. Flexus ipse Lambriacam urbem amplexus recipit fluvios Laeron et Ullam. Partem quae prominet Praesamarchi habitant, perque eos Tamaris et Sars flumina non longe orta decurrunt, Tamaris secundum Ebora portum, Sars iuxta turrem Augusti titulo memorabilem. Cetera super Tamarici Nerique incolunt in eo tractu ultimi. Hactenus enim ad occidentem versa litora pertinent. Deinde ad septentriones toto latere terra convertitur
4386-588: The common origin of Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, and German. In 1833, he began publishing the Comparative Grammar of Sanskrit, Zend , Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, Old Slavic, Gothic, and German . In 1822, Jacob Grimm formulated what became known as Grimm's law as a general rule in his Deutsche Grammatik . Grimm showed correlations between the Germanic and other Indo-European languages and demonstrated that sound change systematically transforms all words of
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#17330848133994472-579: The conventus Lucenses, other five of bracarenses, two mixed ones of Galicians and Asturians, and an ala and cohort of Lemavi. Proto-Indo-European Caucasus East Asia Eastern Europe Northern Europe Pontic Steppe Northern/Eastern Steppe Europe South Asia Steppe Europe Caucasus India Indo-Aryans Iranians East Asia Europe East Asia Europe Indo-Aryan Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Others European Proto-Indo-European ( PIE )
4558-577: The effects of hypothetical sounds which no longer exist in all languages documented prior to the excavation of cuneiform tablets in Anatolian. This theory was first proposed by Ferdinand de Saussure in 1879 on the basis of internal reconstruction only, and progressively won general acceptance after Jerzy Kuryłowicz 's discovery of consonantal reflexes of these reconstructed sounds in Hittite. Julius Pokorny 's Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch ('Indo-European Etymological Dictionary', 1959) gave
4644-585: The elite ideology associated with this cultural complex ( Celtic from the west theory). Alleged difficulties with this theory and with pre-existing theories ("Celtic from the east") have led Patrick Simms-Williams to propose an intermediate "Celtic from the centre" theory, with an expansion of Celtic languages from the Alps during the Bronze Age. A recent study shows the large scale admixture of an earlier population from Britain with people arriving probably from France during
4730-403: The entrails of beasts, the flight of birds and the divine lightnings; sometimes they delight to chant rude songs in their fatherland's tongues, other times they make the ground tremble with alternative foot while happily clashing their caetra at the same time. This leisure and diversion is a sacred delight for the men, the feminine laboriosity do the rest: adding the seed to the furrow and working
4816-453: The establishment of an important base of the Spanish navy there in the 18th century. For example, surnames like Orxás , Veiga , Outeiro , became Orjales , Vega , Otero . Toponyms like Ourense , A Coruña , Fisterra became Orense , La Coruña , Finisterre . In many cases this linguistic assimilation created confusion, for example Niño da Aguia (Galician: Eagle's Nest ) was translated into Spanish as Niño de la Guía (Spanish:
4902-537: The ground with the plough while the men idle. Everything which must be done, with the exception of the hard war, is made restlessly by the wife of the Galician." He later also mentions the Grovii of southern Galicia and northwestern Portugal, with their capital Tui , apart from the other Galicians; other authors also marked the distinctness of the Grovii: Pomponius Mela by addressing that they were non Celtic, unlike
4988-645: The group of Ibero-Romance languages and having strong ties with Portuguese and its northern dialects. However, the Associaçom Galega da Língua (Galician Language Association) and Academia Galega da Língua Portuguesa (Galician Academy of the Portuguese Language), belonging to the Reintegrationist movement, support the idea that differences between Galician and Portuguese speech are not enough to justify considering them as separate languages: Galician
5074-723: The islands and peninsulas of western Galicia (probable origin of the Cassiterides island myth) and probably also gold. Incidentally, Avienus ' Ora Maritima says after Himilco that the Oestrymni (inhabitants of western Iberia) used hide boats to navigate, an assertion confirmed by Pliny the Elder for the Galicians. First recorded contact with Rome happened during the Second Punic War , when Gallaecians and Astures , together with Lusitanians , Cantabrians and Celtiberians —that is,
5160-418: The language used in public and private charters, deeds, and legal documents, in Galicia, Portugal, and in the neighbouring regions in Asturias and Leon. Galician-Portuguese diverged into two linguistic varieties – Galician and Portuguese – from the 15th century on. Galician became a regional spoken language under the influence of Castilian Spanish , while Portuguese became the international one, as language of
5246-573: The late Bronze Age. These people, in the opinion of the authors, constitute a plausible vector for the expansion of Celtic languages into Britain, as no further Iron Age people movement of relevant scale is shown in their data. The Bronze Age - Iron Age transition (locally 1000-600 BCE) coincides with the hoarding of large quantity of bronze axes, unused, both in Galicia, Brittany , and southern Britain . During this same transitional period, some communities began to protect their villages, settling in very protected areas where they built hill-forts . Among
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#17330848133995332-524: The later stages of the war, against Asturians and Cantabrians, some twenty of them in Galicia. Augustus' victory over the Gallaecians is celebrated in the Sebasteion of Aphrodisias, Turkey, where a triumphal monument to Augustus mentions them among other fifteen nations conquered by him. Also, the triumphal arch of Capentras probably represents a Gallaecian among other nations defeated by Augustus. Pomponius Mela (a geographer from Tingentera, modern day Algeciras in Andalusia) described, circa 43 CE,
5418-414: The local farmers, the Bell beaker people, coming ultimately from the Pontic steppe , who introduced copper metallurgy and weaponry , and probably also new cultivars and breeds . Some scholars consider that they were the first people to bring Indo-European languages into Western Europe. They lived in open villages , only protected by fences or ditches; local archaeologists consider that they caused
5504-654: The main Indo-European language families, comprising the languages descended from Proto-Indo-European. Slavic: Russian , Ukrainian , Belarusian , Polish , Czech , Slovak , Sorbian , Serbo-Croatian , Bulgarian , Slovenian , Macedonian , Kashubian , Rusyn Iranic: Persian , Pashto , Balochi , Kurdish , Zaza , Ossetian , Luri , Talyshi , Tati , Gilaki , Mazandarani , Semnani , Yaghnobi ; Nuristani Commonly proposed subgroups of Indo-European languages include Italo-Celtic , Graeco-Aryan , Graeco-Armenian , Graeco-Phrygian , Daco-Thracian , and Thraco-Illyrian . There are numerous lexical similarities between
5590-698: The major Indo-European nations of Iberia— figured among the mercenary armies hired by Hannibal to go with him into Italy. According to Silus Italicus 's Punica III: Fibrarum, et pennæ, divinarumque sagacem Flammarum misit dives Callæcia pubem, Barbara nunc patriis ululantem carmina linguis, Nunc, pedis alterno percussa verbere terra, Ad numerum resonas gaudentem plaudere cætras. Hæc requies ludusque viris, ea sacra voluptas. Cetera femineus peragit labor: addere sulco Semina, et inpresso tellurem vertere aratro Segne viris: quidquid duro sine Marte gerendum, Callaici conjux obit inrequieta mariti. "Opulent Galicia sent her youth, expert in divination through
5676-548: The media as well as legal imposition of Spanish in learning. Galicia also boasts a rich oral tradition, in the form of songs, tales, and sayings, which has made a vital contribution to the spread and development of the Galician language. Still flourishing today, this tradition shares much with that of Portugal. Galician surnames, as is the case in most European cultures, can be divided into patronymic (originally based on one's father's name), occupational , toponymic or cognominal . The first group, patronymic includes many of
5762-517: The most frequent surnames and became fixed during the Low Middle Ages ; it includes surnames derived from etyma formed with or without the additions of the patronymical suffixes -az, -ez, -iz: Alberte ( Albert ); Afonso (Alfons); Anes , Oanes , Yanes ( Iohannes ); Arias ; Bernárdez ( Bernard ); Bermúdez (Medieval Galician Uermues , cf. Wermuth ); Cristobo ( Christopher ); Diz (from Didaci ); Estévez ( Stephan ); Fernández ; Fiz (from Felici ); Froiz , Frois (From Froilaci , from
5848-423: The most popular. It proposes that the original speakers of PIE were the Yamnaya culture associated with the kurgans (burial mounds) on the Pontic–Caspian steppe north of the Black Sea. According to the theory, they were nomadic pastoralists who domesticated the horse , which allowed them to migrate across Europe and Asia in wagons and chariots. By the early 3rd millennium BCE, they had expanded throughout
5934-528: The name Callaecia and its ethnonym Callaeci as being "the stone people" or "the people of the stone" ("those who work with stones"), in reference to the ancient megaliths and stone formations that are so common in Galicia and Portugal. Specialists of the Celtic languages do not consider there is a hypothetical Gaulish root *gall meaning "stone" or "rock", but *galiā "strength" (> French gaill-ard "strong"), related to Old Irish gal "berserk rage, war fury", Welsh gallu and Breton galloud "power". It
6020-400: The name has been studied since the 7th century by authors such as Isidore of Seville , who wrote, "Galicians are called so because of their fair skin, as the Gauls" and related the name to the Greek word for "milk," γάλα (gála). However, modern scholars like J.J. Moralejo and Carlos Búa have derived the name of the ancient Callaeci either from Proto-Indo-European *kl̥(H)‑n‑ 'hill', through
6106-423: The name of a local Celtic tribe known to the Greeks as Καλλαϊκoί ( Kallaikoí ). They lived in what is now Galicia and northern Portugal and were defeated by the Roman General Decimus Junius Brutus Callaicus in the 2nd century BCE and later conquered by Augustus . The Romans later applied that name to all the people who shared the same culture and language in the north-west, from the Douro River valley in
6192-722: The name of some Galician noble houses, later expanding when these nobles began to serve as officials of the Spanish Empire , in Spain or elsewhere, as a way of maintaining them both far from Galicia and useful to the Empire: Andrade (from the house of Andrade, itself from the name of a village), Mejía or Mexía (from the house of Mesía ), Saavedra , Soutomaior (Hispanicized Sotomayor ), Ulloa , Moscoso , Mariñas , Figueroa among others. Some of these families also served in Portugal, as
6278-530: The oldest of these are Chandebrito in Nigrán , Penas do Castelo in A Pobra do Brollón and O Cociñadoiro in Arteixo , on a sea cliff and protected by a 3-metre-tall wall, it was also a metal factory, perhaps dedicated to the Atlantic commerce, all of them founded some 2,900-2,700 years ago. These earlier fortified settlements seem to be placed to control metallurgical resources and commerce. This transitional period
6364-625: The province of Hispania Tarraconensis . Pliny wrote that the Lucenses comprised 16 populi and 166,000 free heads, and mentions the Lemavi , Albiones , Cibarci , Egivarri Namarini , Adovi, Arroni , Arrotrebae, Celtici Neri, Celtici Supertamarci , Copori, Celtici Praestamarci , Cileni among them (other authors mention also the Baedui, Artabri and Seurri ); the Astures comprised 22 populi and 240,000, of whom
6450-428: The regional dialects of Proto-Indo-European spoken by the various groups diverged, as each dialect underwent shifts in pronunciation (the Indo-European sound laws ), morphology, and vocabulary. Over many centuries, these dialects transformed into the known ancient Indo-European languages. From there, further linguistic divergence led to the evolution of their current descendants, the modern Indo-European languages. PIE
6536-527: The rest of the inhabitants of the coasts of Galicia; Pliny by signalling their Greek origin. After ending victoriously the Lusitanian war with the assassination of Viriathus , consul Caepio tried to wage war, unsuccessfully, on Gallaecians and Vettones , for the help they lent to the Lusitanians. In 138 BCE, another consul, Decimus Junius Brutus , in command of two legions, passed de Douro river and later
6622-708: The set of correspondences in his prize essay Undersøgelse om det gamle Nordiske eller Islandske Sprogs Oprindelse ('Investigation of the Origin of the Old Norse or Icelandic Language'), where he argued that Old Norse was related to the Germanic languages, and had even suggested a relation to the Baltic, Slavic, Greek, Latin and Romance languages. In 1816, Franz Bopp published On the System of Conjugation in Sanskrit , in which he investigated
6708-537: The settlement of Galician colonists in southern Spain during the Reconquista , some of the more frequent and distinctively Galician surnames also became popular in Spanish (which had its own related forms) and were taken later into the Americas , as a consequence of the expansion of the Spanish empire : The largest surname group is the one derived from toponyms, which usually referred to the place of origin or residence of
6794-459: The south and the Mediterranean; adoption or development of sculpture and stone carving; the warrior ethos appear to increase in social importance; some hill-forts are built new or rebuilt as true urban centres, oppida , with streets and definite public spaces, as San Cibrao de Las (10 ha ) or Santa Trega (20 ha). In 61 BCE Julius Caesar , commanding thirty cohorts , launched from Cádiz
6880-833: The south to the Cantabrian Sea in the north and west to the Navia River . That encompassed such tribes as the Celtici , the Artabri , the Lemavi and the Albiones . The oldest known inscription referring to the Gallaeci (reading Ἔθνο[υς] Καλλαικῶ[ν] , "people of the Gallaeci") was found in 1981 in the Sebasteion of Aphrodisias, Turkey; a triumphal monument to Roman Emperor Augustus mentions them among other 15 nations that he conquered. The etymology of
6966-975: The surnames derived from nicknames, which can have very diverse motivations: a) External appearance, as eye colour ( Ruso , from Latin roscidus, grey-eyed ; Garzo , blue-eyed ), hair colour ( Dourado , "Blonde"; Bermello , "Red"; Cerviño , literally "deer-like", "Tawny, Auburn"; Cao , "white"), complexion ( Branco , "White"; Pardo , "Swarth"; Delgado , "Slender") or other characteristics: Formoso ("Handsome"), Tato ("Stutterer"), Forte ("Strong"), Calviño ("Bald"), Esquerdeiro ("Left-handed"). b) Temperament and personality: Bonome , Bonhome ("Goodman"), Fiúza ("Who can be trusted"), Guerreiro ("Warlike"), Cordo ("Judicious"). c) Tree names: Carballo ("Oak"); Amieiro , Ameneiro ("Alder"); Freijo ("Ash tree"). d) Animal names: Gerpe (from Serpe , "Serpent"); Falcón ("Falcon"); Baleato ("Young Whale"); Gato ("Cat"); Coello ("Rabbit"); Aguia ("Eagle") e) Deeds: Romeu (a person who pilgrimaged to Rome or
7052-523: The toponym Gallaecia / Callaecia with the Latin word callus . Galician is a Romance language belonging to the Western Ibero-Romance branch; as such, it derives from Latin . It has official status in Galicia . Galician is also spoken in the neighbouring autonomous communities of Asturias and Castile and León , near their borders with Galicia. Medieval or Old Galician, also known by linguists as Galician-Portuguese , developed locally in
7138-435: The voyage of Himilco . Punic importations from southern Spain became frequent along the coast of southern Galicia, although they didn't penetrate very far to the north or to the interior; also, new decorative motives, as the six-petal rosettes , are popularized, together with new metallurgical techniques and pieces (ear pendants) and some other innovations as the round hand mill. In exchange, Punics obtained tin , abundant in
7224-608: The western coast. From there all the coast is turned to the north, from the Celtic promontory to the Pyrenees. Its regular coast, except where there are small retreats and small headlands, is almost straight by the Cantabrians. On it first of all are the Artabri, still a Celtic people, then the Astures. Among the Artabri there is a bay which lets the sea through a narrow mouth, and encircles, not in
7310-517: The woodland some 5,000 years ago. This new population also changed the landscape with the first permanent human structures, megaliths such as menhirs , barrows and cromlechs . During the Neolithic Galicia was one of the foci of Atlantic European Megalithic Culture , putting in contact the Mediterranean and south Iberia with the rest of Atlantic Europe. Some 4,500 years ago a new culture and population arrived and presumingly admixed with
7396-501: Was an only Indo-European language in the West of Iberia, of Celtic kind, or either a number of languages derived from the arrival of non-Celtic Indo-Europeans first, and Celts later on". Some academic positions on this issue: After the Roman conquest, the lands and people of northwestern Iberia were divided in three conventi ( Gallaecia Lucensis , Gallaecia Bracarensis and Asturia) and annexed to
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