126-617: The University of Essex is a public research university in Essex , England . Established by royal charter in 1965, it is one of the original plate glass universities . The university comprises three campuses in the county, in Southend-on-Sea and Loughton with its primary campus in Wivenhoe Park , Colchester . Essex has a largely diverse student community and holds partnerships with more than 100 global higher education institutions. It
252-440: A chemical equation . While in a non-nuclear chemical reaction the number and kind of atoms on both sides of the equation are equal, for a nuclear reaction this holds true only for the nuclear particles viz. protons and neutrons. The sequence of steps in which the reorganization of chemical bonds may be taking place in the course of a chemical reaction is called its mechanism . A chemical reaction can be envisioned to take place in
378-709: A higher reputation domestically and globally . The University Grants Committee funds eight public universities in Hong Kong . The Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts also receives funding from the government . There are four self-financing universities, namely Hong Kong Metropolitan University , Hong Kong Shue Yan University , Hang Seng University of Hong Kong , and Saint Francis University . In India , most universities and nearly all research institutions are public. Some private undergraduate colleges exist but most are engineering schools that are affiliated with public universities. Private schools can be partially aided by
504-673: A university institute , and a distance university in Portugal . Higher education in Portugal provided by state-run institutions is not free; students must pay a tuition fee. However, the tuition fee is lower than that of private universities. The highest tuition fee allowed by law in public universities is €697 per year as of 2022. Public universities include some of the most selective and demanding higher learning institutions in Portugal. In Russia , about 7.5 million students study in thousands of universities. Founded in 1755, Moscow State University
630-467: A chemical reaction is said to have occurred. A chemical reaction is therefore a concept related to the "reaction" of a substance when it comes in close contact with another, whether as a mixture or a solution ; exposure to some form of energy, or both. It results in some energy exchange between the constituents of the reaction as well as with the system environment, which may be designed vessels—often laboratory glassware . Chemical reactions can result in
756-470: A chemical transformation is the rearrangement of electrons in the chemical bonds between atoms. It can be symbolically depicted through a chemical equation , which usually involves atoms as subjects. The number of atoms on the left and the right in the equation for a chemical transformation is equal. (When the number of atoms on either side is unequal, the transformation is referred to as a nuclear reaction or radioactive decay .) The type of chemical reactions
882-412: A dense core called the atomic nucleus surrounded by a space occupied by an electron cloud . The nucleus is made up of positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons (together called nucleons ), while the electron cloud consists of negatively charged electrons which orbit the nucleus. In a neutral atom, the negatively charged electrons balance out the positive charge of the protons. The nucleus
1008-535: A directed beam in a vacuum in a mass spectrometer . Charged polyatomic collections residing in solids (for example, common sulfate or nitrate ions) are generally not considered "molecules" in chemistry. Some molecules contain one or more unpaired electrons, creating radicals . Most radicals are comparatively reactive, but some, such as nitric oxide (NO) can be stable. The "inert" or noble gas elements ( helium , neon , argon , krypton , xenon and radon ) are composed of lone atoms as their smallest discrete unit, but
1134-527: A few private institutions of higher learning, such as the National College of Ireland . However, none of the private institutions have university status and are highly specialized. Almost all universities in Italy are public but have institutional autonomy by law. The Italian state provides the majority of university funding. Therefore, students pay relatively low tuition fees, set by each university according to
1260-1249: A handful of community colleges. In 2008, the Philippine Congress passed Republic Act 9500, declaring the University of the Philippines as the national university to distinguish it from all other state universities and colleges. Other notable public colleges and universities include the Polytechnic University of the Philippines , Technological University of the Philippines , Philippine Normal University , Batangas State University , and Mindanao State University . There are six autonomous public universities in Singapore , including National University of Singapore founded in 1905, Nanyang Technological University founded 1981, Singapore Management University founded in 2000, Singapore University of Technology and Design and Singapore Institute of Technology founded in 2009, and Singapore University of Social Sciences founded in 2017. In Sri Lanka , there are seventeen public universities. Most public universities are funded by
1386-537: A health care centre, day nursery, bookstore, exhibition gallery and constructed new student residences. The School of Law, Human Rights centre, Department of Philosophy and the Department of Biological Sciences were opened. In the late 1970s to the early 80s, the university began concentrating its teaching into large departments. Cooperation with local companies were forged allowing the university to secure vital research contracts. Due to its growing international reputation,
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#17328945559581512-525: A low-interest loan from the Higher Education Loan Board; students must pay back the loan after completing their higher education. In Nigeria , both the federal and state governments may establish public universities. South Africa has 26 public universities which are members of Universities in South Africa. These are categorized as traditional or comprehensive universities. In Tunisia ,
1638-540: A mixed response; Prince Charles referred to it as 'like a dustbin' whilst the Civic Trust, a charity of which he is patron, awarded it a Civic Trust award (2008) for making 'an outstanding contribution to the quality and appearance of the environment'. The building was named after Sir Ivor Crewe in April 2007 to mark his retirement from the position of vice chancellor , a position he chaired since 1995. The Gateway Building at
1764-631: A national institution in 1926, the Academy of Athens is the highest research establishment in Greece. Private higher education institutions cannot operate in Greece and are not recognized as degree-awarding bodies by the Greek government. In Ireland , nearly all universities, institutes of technology, colleges, and some third-level institutions are public. The state pays the cost of educating undergraduates, although students must contribute approximately €3,000. There are
1890-411: A number of steps, each of which may have a different speed. Many reaction intermediates with variable stability can thus be envisaged during the course of a reaction. Reaction mechanisms are proposed to explain the kinetics and the relative product mix of a reaction. Many physical chemists specialize in exploring and proposing the mechanisms of various chemical reactions. Several empirical rules, like
2016-424: A particular substance per volume of solution , and is commonly reported in mol/ dm . In addition to the specific chemical properties that distinguish different chemical classifications, chemicals can exist in several phases. For the most part, the chemical classifications are independent of these bulk phase classifications; however, some more exotic phases are incompatible with certain chemical properties. A phase
2142-679: A proposal from Charles Leatherland, Baron Leatherland to establish a university in the county. A University Promotion Committee was formed, chaired by Lord Lieutenant of Essex , Sir John Ruggles-Brise , which submitted a formal application to the University Grants Committee requesting for the establishment of the University of Essex. Initial reports suggested that the Promotion Committee recommended Hylands Park in Chelmsford as
2268-405: A pure chemical substance that has its unique set of chemical properties, that is, its potential to undergo a certain set of chemical reactions with other substances. However, this definition only works well for substances that are composed of molecules, which is not true of many substances (see below). Molecules are typically a set of atoms bound together by covalent bonds , such that the structure
2394-573: A rainwater pond recycling water to cool the building. The building includes an operating trading floor with Bloomberg terminals offering direct use of Bloomberg market data and information. The building won the RICS Design through Innovation Award for the East of England. Extensions to the Silberrad Student Centre and Albert Sloman Library were made in 2015 which received RIBA's Regional Building of
2520-609: A substance may undergo and the energy changes that may accompany it are constrained by certain basic rules, known as chemical laws . Energy and entropy considerations are invariably important in almost all chemical studies. Chemical substances are classified in terms of their structure , phase, as well as their chemical compositions . They can be analyzed using the tools of chemical analysis , e.g. spectroscopy and chromatography . Scientists engaged in chemical research are known as chemists . Most chemists specialize in one or more sub-disciplines. Several concepts are essential for
2646-573: A university, not a college, can issue doctorate degrees in Israel. In Japan , public universities are run by local governments, either prefectural or municipal. According to the Ministry of Education , public universities have "provided an opportunity for higher education in a region and served the central role of intellectual and cultural base for the local community in the region" and are "expected to contribute to social, economical and cultural development in
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#17328945559582772-531: A year and have to retake them, pay a partial or full tuition fee, ranging from €500 to €2000 per year. Private universities have existed in Serbia since 1989 but are held in less esteem because they are generally less academically rigorous than the public universities. Of the 74 universities in Spain , 54 are public and funded by the autonomous community in which they are based. University funding differs by region. However,
2898-445: Is a multidisciplinary international research centre of excellence for developing work-class research efforts alongside national (NHS Trust, Public Health England, British Heart Foundation) and international (WHO, WHF) organisations for tackling public health issuess and improving health and wellbeing by means of cutting edge innovations. The Essex School of Law is ranked 19th in the UK, 72nd in
3024-562: Is a public research university and the most prestigious university in Russia. Saint Petersburg State University is a state-owned university that was founded in 1724; it is managed by the government of the Russian Federation . In Serbia , over 85% of college students study at state-operated public universities. Academically well-performing students pay only administrative fees of less than €100 per year. Students who fail multiple classes in
3150-414: Is a pure substance which is composed of a single type of atom, characterized by its particular number of protons in the nuclei of its atoms, known as the atomic number and represented by the symbol Z . The mass number is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus. Although all the nuclei of all atoms belonging to one element will have the same atomic number, they may not necessarily have
3276-795: Is a research centre for the analysis of panel data in Economics and Sociology. It opened in 1989 as the ESRC Research Centre on Micro-Social Change in Britain and now houses the ESRC-funded Understanding Society project, a longitudinal study of the socio-economic circumstances and attitudes of 100,000 individuals in 40,000 British households. ISER's work led to Essex receiving the Queen's Anniversary Prize for Higher and Further Education in 2017. The Institute of Public Health and Wellbeing (IPHW)
3402-409: Is a set of states of a chemical system that have similar bulk structural properties, over a range of conditions, such as pressure or temperature . Physical properties, such as density and refractive index tend to fall within values characteristic of the phase. The phase of matter is defined by the phase transition , which is when energy put into or taken out of the system goes into rearranging
3528-582: Is a very useful means for predicting the feasibility of a reaction and determining the state of equilibrium of a chemical reaction, in chemical thermodynamics . A reaction is feasible only if the total change in the Gibbs free energy is negative, Δ G ≤ 0 {\displaystyle \Delta G\leq 0\,} ; if it is equal to zero the chemical reaction is said to be at equilibrium . There exist only limited possible states of energy for electrons, atoms and molecules. These are determined by
3654-422: Is also possible to define analogs in two-dimensional systems, which has received attention for its relevance to systems in biology . Atoms sticking together in molecules or crystals are said to be bonded with one another. A chemical bond may be visualized as the multipole balance between the positive charges in the nuclei and the negative charges oscillating about them. More than simple attraction and repulsion,
3780-439: Is also used to identify the composition of remote objects – like stars and distant galaxies – by analyzing their radiation spectra. The term chemical energy is often used to indicate the potential of a chemical substance to undergo a transformation through a chemical reaction or to transform other chemical substances. When a chemical substance is transformed as a result of its interaction with another substance or with energy,
3906-459: Is called a mixture. Examples of mixtures are air and alloys . The mole is a unit of measurement that denotes an amount of substance (also called chemical amount). One mole is defined to contain exactly 6.022 140 76 × 10 particles ( atoms , molecules , ions , or electrons ), where the number of particles per mole is known as the Avogadro constant . Molar concentration is the amount of
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4032-523: Is composed of gaseous matter that has been completely ionized, usually through high temperature. A substance can often be classified as an acid or a base . There are several different theories which explain acid–base behavior. The simplest is Arrhenius theory , which states that acid is a substance that produces hydronium ions when it is dissolved in water, and a base is one that produces hydroxide ions when dissolved in water. According to Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory , acids are substances that donate
4158-472: Is dense; the mass of a nucleon is approximately 1,836 times that of an electron, yet the radius of an atom is about 10,000 times that of its nucleus. The atom is also the smallest entity that can be envisaged to retain the chemical properties of the element, such as electronegativity , ionization potential , preferred oxidation state (s), coordination number , and preferred types of bonds to form (e.g., metallic , ionic , covalent ). A chemical element
4284-464: Is electrically neutral and all valence electrons are paired with other electrons either in bonds or in lone pairs . Thus, molecules exist as electrically neutral units, unlike ions. When this rule is broken, giving the "molecule" a charge, the result is sometimes named a molecular ion or a polyatomic ion. However, the discrete and separate nature of the molecular concept usually requires that molecular ions be present only in well-separated form, such as
4410-641: Is formed and how environmental pollutants are degraded ( ecology ), the properties of the soil on the Moon ( cosmochemistry ), how medications work ( pharmacology ), and how to collect DNA evidence at a crime scene ( forensics ). Chemistry has existed under various names since ancient times. It has evolved, and now chemistry encompasses various areas of specialisation, or subdisciplines, that continue to increase in number and interrelate to create further interdisciplinary fields of study. The applications of various fields of chemistry are used frequently for economic purposes in
4536-537: Is more easily transferred between substances relative to light or other forms of electronic energy. For example, ultraviolet electromagnetic radiation is not transferred with as much efficacy from one substance to another as thermal or electrical energy. The existence of characteristic energy levels for different chemical substances is useful for their identification by the analysis of spectral lines . Different kinds of spectra are often used in chemical spectroscopy , e.g. IR , microwave , NMR , ESR , etc. Spectroscopy
4662-626: Is organised into three faculties, comprising 21 schools and departments, spanning the Humanities, Social Sciences and Science and Health. Essex has three flagship institutes which bring together academics from across disciplines and departments to deliver research in a specialist area. These are the Human Rights Centre, the Institute for Analytics and Data Science and the Institute for Social and Economic Research. The Human Rights Centre at Essex
4788-468: Is the crystal structure , or arrangement, of the atoms. Another phase commonly encountered in the study of chemistry is the aqueous phase, which is the state of substances dissolved in aqueous solution (that is, in water). Less familiar phases include plasmas , Bose–Einstein condensates and fermionic condensates and the paramagnetic and ferromagnetic phases of magnetic materials. While most familiar phases deal with three-dimensional systems, it
4914-458: Is the quantum mechanical model . Traditional chemistry starts with the study of elementary particles , atoms , molecules , substances , metals , crystals and other aggregates of matter . Matter can be studied in solid, liquid, gas and plasma states , in isolation or in combination. The interactions, reactions and transformations that are studied in chemistry are usually the result of interactions between atoms, leading to rearrangements of
5040-502: Is the probability of a molecule to have energy greater than or equal to E at the given temperature T. This exponential dependence of a reaction rate on temperature is known as the Arrhenius equation . The activation energy necessary for a chemical reaction to occur can be in the form of heat, light, electricity or mechanical force in the form of ultrasound . A related concept free energy , which also incorporates entropy considerations,
5166-453: Is the scientific study of the properties and behavior of matter . It is a physical science within the natural sciences that studies the chemical elements that make up matter and compounds made of atoms , molecules and ions : their composition, structure, properties, behavior and the changes they undergo during reactions with other substances . Chemistry also addresses the nature of chemical bonds in chemical compounds . In
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5292-517: Is useful in identifying periodic trends . A compound is a pure chemical substance composed of more than one element. The properties of a compound bear little similarity to those of its elements. The standard nomenclature of compounds is set by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). Organic compounds are named according to the organic nomenclature system. The names for inorganic compounds are created according to
5418-523: The Korea National Open University which offers distance learning. The University of Seoul is a public municipal university. Manas University in Kyrgyzstan is a public higher education institution that offers associate degrees, undergraduate degrees, and graduate and postgraduate degrees. The University of Macau , Macao Polytechnic University , and Macao University of Tourism are
5544-520: The Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research controls public universities and guarantees admission to students who earn a Tunisian Baccalaureate . Using a state website, the students make a wish list of the universities they want to attend, with the highest-ranking students getting priority choices. Universities rank students according to the results of their baccalaureate. There are forty public universities in Bangladesh . They are overseen by
5670-692: The Queen , and in March Sir John Ruggles-Brise was appointed the first Pro-Chancellor and Charles Leatherland, Baron Leatherland the first Treasurer of the university. Two months after, the university's Armorial Bearings were published with the motto "Thought the harder, heart the keener". In October 1964, the first 122 students arrived with 28 teaching staff in three schools: Comparative Studies, Physical Sciences and Social Studies. Departments of Chemistry , Physics , Government , Sociology , Literature , Mathematics and Economics opened along with
5796-573: The Research Excellence Framework in 2014, Essex recorded the average GPA score of 3.54 with 68 percent of its outputs graded as 4*. An article published by the Political Studies Association noted: "This is a tremendous achievement and further cements Essex's reputation as the leading political science department in the country." The department has four major Research Centres: The Jean Monnet European Centre of Excellence,
5922-785: The University Grants Commission which was created by the government in 1973. Most universities in Brunei are public. In the People's Republic of China , nearly all universities and research institutions are public. Typically, provincial governments run public universities. However, some are administered by municipal governments or are national , which the central government directly administers. Private undergraduate colleges exist but are primarily vocational colleges sponsored by private entities. Private universities usually cannot award bachelor's degrees. Public universities tend to enjoy
6048-708: The University of Mons in 2009. The state-created university founded in Antwerp in 1971 is now part of University of Antwerp . Hasselt University started as a state-created public institution managed by the Province of Limburg . Similarly, the Province of Luxembourg managed the state-created public university in Arlon which became part of ULiège in 2004. Since 1891, private universities have gradually become state-recognized and funded. Some private, mostly Catholic, organizations are called free institutions, as in administratively free from
6174-505: The Woodward–Hoffmann rules often come in handy while proposing a mechanism for a chemical reaction. According to the IUPAC gold book, a chemical reaction is "a process that results in the interconversion of chemical species." Accordingly, a chemical reaction may be an elementary reaction or a stepwise reaction . An additional caveat is made, in that this definition includes cases where
6300-455: The chemical bonds which hold atoms together. Such behaviors are studied in a chemistry laboratory . The chemistry laboratory stereotypically uses various forms of laboratory glassware . However glassware is not central to chemistry, and a great deal of experimental (as well as applied/industrial) chemistry is done without it. A chemical reaction is a transformation of some substances into one or more different substances. The basis of such
6426-487: The chemical industry . The word chemistry comes from a modification during the Renaissance of the word alchemy , which referred to an earlier set of practices that encompassed elements of chemistry, metallurgy , philosophy , astrology , astronomy , mysticism , and medicine . Alchemy is often associated with the quest to turn lead or other base metals into gold, though alchemists were also interested in many of
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#17328945559586552-437: The constitution of Greece , higher education institutions (HEI) include universities, technical universities, and specialist institutions. HEI undergraduate programs are government-funded and do not charge tuition. A quarter of HEI postgraduate programs are tuition-free. After individual assessments, thirty percent of Greek students are entitled to attend any of the statutory postgraduate programs without tuition fees. Founded as
6678-469: The duet rule , and in this way they are reaching the electron configuration of the noble gas helium , which has two electrons in its outer shell. Similarly, theories from classical physics can be used to predict many ionic structures. With more complicated compounds, such as metal complexes , valence bond theory is less applicable and alternative approaches, such as the molecular orbital theory, are generally used. See diagram on electronic orbitals. In
6804-499: The inorganic nomenclature system. When a compound has more than one component, then they are divided into two classes, the electropositive and the electronegative components. In addition the Chemical Abstracts Service has devised a method to index chemical substances. In this scheme each chemical substance is identifiable by a number known as its CAS registry number . A molecule is the smallest indivisible portion of
6930-500: The interconversion of conformers is experimentally observable. Such detectable chemical reactions normally involve sets of molecular entities as indicated by this definition, but it is often conceptually convenient to use the term also for changes involving single molecular entities (i.e. 'microscopic chemical events'). An ion is a charged species, an atom or a molecule, that has lost or gained one or more electrons. When an atom loses an electron and thus has more protons than electrons,
7056-529: The intermolecular forces of a substance are such that the energy of the surroundings is not sufficient to overcome them, it occurs in a more ordered phase like liquid or solid as is the case with water (H 2 O); a liquid at room temperature because its molecules are bound by hydrogen bonds . Whereas hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S) is a gas at room temperature and standard pressure, as its molecules are bound by weaker dipole–dipole interactions . The transfer of energy from one chemical substance to another depends on
7182-438: The size of energy quanta emitted from one substance. However, heat energy is often transferred more easily from almost any substance to another because the phonons responsible for vibrational and rotational energy levels in a substance have much less energy than photons invoked for the electronic energy transfer. Thus, because vibrational and rotational energy levels are more closely spaced than electronic energy levels, heat
7308-579: The 150 universities in Taiwan are public. Because the Taiwanese government provides funding to public universities, their students pay less than half the tuition fees of those at private universities. Ten public universities were established before the 1980s and are the most prestigious in Taiwan. As a result, most students choose public universities for their tertiary education. In the late 19th century Thailand , there
7434-799: The Code de l'éducation states that " private higher education establishments can in no case take the title of university. " Nevertheless, many private institutions, such as the Catholic University of Lille or the Catholic University of Lyon , use the university as their marketing name. Most higher education institutions in Germany are public and operated by the states . All professors are public servants. Public universities are generally held in higher esteem than their private counterparts. From 1972 through 1998, public universities were tuition-free; however, some states have since adopted low tuition fees. According to
7560-619: The Department of Sociology . In December, University Court met for the first time with around 500 members. Six months later, work started on the Lecture Theatre Building and the 'Topping out' ceremony took place for Keynes tower. In October 1966, the Hexagon Restaurant and General Store opened, with the number of students reaching 750. Lord Butler was installed as Chancellor at a ceremony held in Colchester's Moot Hall in 1967 and
7686-541: The Department of Computer Science (which merged in 2007 to create the School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering). In 2003 a new satellite campus was opened at Princess Caroline House in Southend-on-Sea. The Ivor Crewe Lecture Hall , one of the largest lecture theatres in the country hosting a 1,000 seat capacity, opened in 2006. The building was designed by multi-award-winning architect Patel Taylor and attracted
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#17328945559587812-640: The Innovation Centre, Knowledge Gateway opened offering space for more than 50 start-up technology businesses. In 2013, Queen Elizabeth II conferred upon the university the Regius Professorship , recognising "50 years of excellence in research and education in political science at Essex". The first Regius professor was David Sanders of the Government Department, who held the post from 2014–2017. Since December 2017, Kristian Skrede Gleditsch
7938-653: The Language Centre (later the Department of Language and Linguistics ) and the Computing Centre (later the Department of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering ) with Denis Mesure elected as the first President of the Student Council. Work started on the first residential tower, Rayleigh, with The Queen approving the grant of Charter to take effect from 11 January 1965 in December. 1965 drew 399 students for
8064-907: The Michael Nicholson Centre for Conflict and Cooperation, the Centre for Ideology and Discourse Analysis (CIDA) and the Centre on the Politics of Representation in Crisis (CPRC). The Essex Summer School is organised in Social Science Data Analysis since 1967. The department is home to the British Journal of Political Science . The Essex School of Discourse Analysis emerged from the graduate programme in ideology and discourse analysis developed by Ernesto Laclau at Essex and informed by his work with Chantal Mouffe . Notable academics linked to
8190-522: The Ministry of Education controls all public universities. Students enroll after completing a 8-4-4 educational program system and attaining a mark of C+ or above. Students who meet the criteria set annually by the Kenya Universities and Colleges Central Placement Service receive government sponsorship, with the government providing part of their university or college fees. Students are also eligible for
8316-528: The Nursing and Health Studies Unit, now part of the School of Health and Social Care. The Centre for Brain Science opened in 2009 providing a new home for the Department of Psychology. Essex Business School opened in 2015, the UK's first zero-carbon business school building, intended as a symbolic gesture to sustainable and ethical business practices. It houses a winter garden giving the building its own micro-climate and
8442-652: The Punjab is the biggest public university, followed by University of Karachi . The public universities receive guidance and recognition from the Higher Education Commission . There are more than 500 public higher education institutions in the Philippines that are controlled and managed by the Commission on Higher Education . Of the 500, 436 are state colleges and universities, 31 local colleges and universities, and
8568-609: The Southend Campus opened in January 2007 providing facilities for Essex Business School, East 15 Acting School and the School of Health and Social Care plus a business incubation centre. The university also converted a former church into the Clifftown Studios to provide East 15 students with a theatre, studios and workshop spaces, and thus, the university has a theatre at each of its three campuses. The Social Science Research Centre
8694-414: The UK. The Silberrad Student Centre and extension of the Albert Sloman Library completed in 2015 were designed to reflect the Brutalist architecture of the original campus buildings. The project was named RIBA Regional Building of the Year Award in 2016. Essex Business School also opened in 2015 and won the Design through Innovation category at the RICS Awards 2016 for the East of England. The university
8820-420: The Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion model ( VSEPR ), and the concept of oxidation number can be used to explain molecular structure and composition. An ionic bond is formed when a metal loses one or more of its electrons, becoming a positively charged cation, and the electrons are then gained by the non-metal atom, becoming a negatively charged anion. The two oppositely charged ions attract one another, and
8946-482: The Year Award 2016 plus a national RIBA award. The Forum Southend-on-Sea opened in 2013 and was a joint project between Essex, Southend-on-Sea Borough Council and South Essex College and became a runner-up in the 'Buildings that Inspire' category of The Guardian University Awards in 2015. In 2018, a STEM Centre opened to conglomerate the university's science departments and The Copse student accommodation opened offering 643 new single ensuite rooms and studios. In 2019,
9072-491: The atom is a positively charged ion or cation . When an atom gains an electron and thus has more electrons than protons, the atom is a negatively charged ion or anion . Cations and anions can form a crystalline lattice of neutral salts , such as the Na and Cl ions forming sodium chloride , or NaCl. Examples of polyatomic ions that do not split up during acid–base reactions are hydroxide (OH ) and phosphate (PO 4 ). Plasma
9198-424: The campus. No evidence or charges were notified to the students, and no opportunity was given for the students to present their defence. The university's magazine, Wyvern , reported that on Monday, 13 May, "Students picket all entrances to the university from early morning distributing leaflets calling all students and staff to meeting to discuss suspension of the three students. A huge meeting attended by nearly all
9324-408: The central government establishes homogeneous tuition fees for all public universities which are much lower than those of their private counterparts. The highest tuition fee allowed by law was, as of 2010, €14.97 per academic credit, amounting to roughly €900 a year for an average 60-credit full-time course. Tuition fees at private universities might reach €18,000 a year. Chemistry Chemistry
9450-412: The context of chemistry, energy is an attribute of a substance as a consequence of its atomic , molecular or aggregate structure . Since a chemical transformation is accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds of structures, it is invariably accompanied by an increase or decrease of energy of the substances involved. Some energy is transferred between the surroundings and the reactants of
9576-470: The department over its history include Brian Barry , Sarah Birch , R. A. W. Rhodes , Jean Blondel , Sir Ivor Crewe , Peter Frank , Robert E Goodin , Anthony King , Ernesto Laclau and Kristian Skrede Gleditsch , current holder of the Regius Professorship in Political Science. Public university A public university or public college is a university or college that is owned by
9702-429: The energies and distributions characterize the availability of an electron to bond to another atom. The chemical bond can be a covalent bond , an ionic bond , a hydrogen bond or just because of Van der Waals force . Each of these kinds of bonds is ascribed to some potential. These potentials create the interactions which hold atoms together in molecules or crystals . In many simple compounds, valence bond theory ,
9828-1003: The fee was €1,951 in 2015. Non-European Union students and students who want to complete a second bachelor's or master's degree pay a legal school fee. Annually, these legal school fees range between €7,000 for bachelor programs and €30,000 for master's programs in medicine. The Ministry of Education supervises all universities, including private institutions. Almost all universities in Norway are public and state-funded. In Poland , public universities are established by Acts of Parliament. The government pays all tuition fees and other costs of public university students. In contrast, private citizens, societies, or companies operate private universities that charge tuition fees directly to students. These institutions are generally held in lower regard than public universities. A small number of private universities do not charge fees, such as John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin . There are thirteen public universities,
9954-615: The first Honorary Degrees were presented, the university's mace was carried for the first time, while the first annual Degree Congregation saw 135 degrees conferred in July. At the start of the next academic year, the departments of Computer Science and Electronic Systems Engineering accepted their first students, the SSRC Data Bank (later renamed the UK Data Archive ) was established and the Lecture Theatre Building and Library opened along with
10080-617: The first phase of the Social and Comparative Studies building, while work proceeded on Tawney and William Morris residential towers. Amid the worldwide escalation of social conflicts and protests against the Vietnam War , the University of Essex was at the vanguard of the 1960s student uproar. In March 1968, a demonstration against the visitation of the then Shadow Secretary State for Defence, Enoch Powell , received national publicity whereby seven students were summoned to disciplinary hearings to which
10206-444: The formation or dissociation of molecules, that is, molecules breaking apart to form two or more molecules or rearrangement of atoms within or across molecules. Chemical reactions usually involve the making or breaking of chemical bonds. Oxidation, reduction , dissociation , acid–base neutralization and molecular rearrangement are some examples of common chemical reactions. A chemical reaction can be symbolically depicted through
10332-508: The government through the University Grants Commission , which handles undergraduate placements and staff appointments. The top institutions include the University of Peradeniya founded in 1942 and the University of Colombo founded in 1921. Sri Lanka also has a joint service military university, the General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University , which is operated by the Ministry of Defence . One-third of
10458-675: The government. In Egypt, Al-Azhar University was founded in 970 AD as a madrasa ; it formally became a public university in 1961 and is one of the oldest institutions of higher education in the world. In the 20th century, Egypt opened many other public universities with government-subsidized tuition fees, including Cairo University in 1908, Alexandria University in 1912, Assiut University in 1928, Ain Shams University in 1957, Helwan University in 1959, Beni-Suef University in 1963, Zagazig University in 1974, Benha University in 1976, and Suez Canal University in 1989. In Kenya ,
10584-445: The ionic bond is the electrostatic force of attraction between them. For example, sodium (Na), a metal, loses one electron to become an Na cation while chlorine (Cl), a non-metal, gains this electron to become Cl . The ions are held together due to electrostatic attraction, and that compound sodium chloride (NaCl), or common table salt, is formed. In a covalent bond, one or more pairs of valence electrons are shared by two atoms:
10710-658: The legislation of the national government until higher education was moved to the control of the three communities in 1990. Consequently, the Flemish , the French , and the German communities determine which institutes of higher education organize and issue diplomas. Until the 1970s, Belgium had two state universities: the University of Liège (ULiège) and the Ghent University (UGent), both founded in 1817. These are often referred to as
10836-473: The main characteristics of a molecule is its geometry often called its structure . While the structure of diatomic, triatomic or tetra-atomic molecules may be trivial, (linear, angular pyramidal etc.) the structure of polyatomic molecules, that are constituted of more than six atoms (of several elements) can be crucial for its chemical nature. A chemical substance is a kind of matter with a definite composition and set of properties . A collection of substances
10962-527: The national or state governments. India also has an "open" public university, the Indira Gandhi National Open University which offers distance education. In terms of the number of enrolled students, it is now the largest university in the world with over four million students. In Indonesia , the government supports public universities in each province. Funding comes through the Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology and
11088-517: The original plan was to build 29). The landmark buildings include the residential towers, The Hexagon and the Albert Sloman library – which was selected as an 'icon of British design' by the Victoria and Albert Museum in its 2012 exhibition British Design 1948–2012. The library has one of the few still operating continuous-loop paternoster lifts in the country. An exhibition called "Something Fierce"
11214-419: The other isolated chemical elements consist of either molecules or networks of atoms bonded to each other in some way. Identifiable molecules compose familiar substances such as water, air, and many organic compounds like alcohol, sugar, gasoline, and the various pharmaceuticals . However, not all substances or chemical compounds consist of discrete molecules, and indeed most of the solid substances that make up
11340-1123: The primary site, however, in May 1961 an announcement in the House of Commons preferred the foundation of the university within Wivenhoe and in December, Wivenhoe Park was acquired for the new university. In July 1962, R. A. Butler was appointed as chancellor, Albert Sloman as vice-chancellor, with Anthony Rowland-Joins as registrar. The first Professors were appointed in May 1963: Alan Gibson in Physics, Ian Proudman in Mathematics, John Bradley in Chemistry, Richard Lipsey in Economics, Peter Townsend in Sociology, Donald Davie in Literature, and Jean Blondel in Government. Whilst undergoing clearing for construction work, an Appeal Fund
11466-523: The programme is to create 'European Universities' based on cross-border alliances of higher education institutions that share a common long-term strategy in the promotion of European values and identity. Wivenhoe Park, the home of the primary campus, was painted by landscape painter John Constable in 1816. The park houses the main 1960s buildings along with Wivenhoe House , an 18th-century mansion that also features in Constable's painting. Wivenhoe House hotel
11592-512: The provincial and municipal governments. Some of the public universities in Iran offer tuition-free and tuition-based programs. State-run universities are highly selective and competitive. There are nine official universities in Israel , a few dozen colleges, and about a dozen foreign university extensions. The Council for Higher Education in Israel supervises all of these institutions academically. Only
11718-688: The public universities in Macau . There are twenty public universities in Malaysia , funded by the government but governed as self-managed institutions. Tribhuvan University was the first public university in Nepal . It operates through six different institutes and is affiliated with various colleges. There are government-funded Purbanchal University and Pokhara University . There are 107 public universities in Pakistan , compared to 76 private universities. University of
11844-615: The questions of modern chemistry. The modern word alchemy in turn is derived from the Arabic word al-kīmīā ( الكیمیاء ). This may have Egyptian origins since al-kīmīā is derived from the Ancient Greek χημία , which is in turn derived from the word Kemet , which is the ancient name of Egypt in the Egyptian language. Alternately, al-kīmīā may derive from χημεία 'cast together'. The current model of atomic structure
11970-473: The reaction absorbs heat from the surroundings. Chemical reactions are invariably not possible unless the reactants surmount an energy barrier known as the activation energy . The speed of a chemical reaction (at given temperature T) is related to the activation energy E, by the Boltzmann's population factor e − E / k T {\displaystyle e^{-E/kT}} – that
12096-433: The reaction in the form of heat or light ; thus the products of a reaction may have more or less energy than the reactants. A reaction is said to be exergonic if the final state is lower on the energy scale than the initial state; in the case of endergonic reactions the situation is the reverse. A reaction is said to be exothermic if the reaction releases heat to the surroundings; in the case of endothermic reactions ,
12222-801: The region". This contrasts with the research-oriented aspects of national universities. In 2010, 127,872 students were attending 95 public universities, compared to 86 national universities and 597 private universities in Japan. Many public universities are relatively new; in 1980, there were only 34 public universities in Japan. Since July 2003, public universities may incorporate under the Local Independent Administrative Institutions Law. In South Korea , most public universities are national. There are 29 national universities, eighteen special universities, and ten educational universities. In addition, there are two national colleges and
12348-544: The resulting electrically neutral group of bonded atoms is termed a molecule . Atoms will share valence electrons in such a way as to create a noble gas electron configuration (eight electrons in their outermost shell) for each atom. Atoms that tend to combine in such a way that they each have eight electrons in their valence shell are said to follow the octet rule . However, some elements like hydrogen and lithium need only two electrons in their outermost shell to attain this stable configuration; these atoms are said to follow
12474-403: The rules of quantum mechanics , which require quantization of energy of a bound system. The atoms/molecules in a higher energy state are said to be excited. The molecules/atoms of substance in an excited energy state are often much more reactive; that is, more amenable to chemical reactions. The phase of a substance is invariably determined by its energy and the energy of its surroundings. When
12600-676: The same for all public universities. Except for some fields of study, notably medicine, all Austrians who pass the Matura exam have the right to attend any public university. Overenrolled degree programs have introduced additional entrance exams that students must pass in the first year or before starting the degree, especially with scientific subjects such as biology, chemistry, and physics. Private universities have existed since 1999 but are considered easier than public universities and thus hold less esteem. All public universities in Belgium were operated under
12726-474: The same mass number; atoms of an element which have different mass numbers are known as isotopes . For example, all atoms with 6 protons in their nuclei are atoms of the chemical element carbon , but atoms of carbon may have mass numbers of 12 or 13. The standard presentation of the chemical elements is in the periodic table , which orders elements by atomic number. The periodic table is arranged in groups , or columns, and periods , or rows. The periodic table
12852-408: The scope of its subject, chemistry occupies an intermediate position between physics and biology . It is sometimes called the central science because it provides a foundation for understanding both basic and applied scientific disciplines at a fundamental level. For example, chemistry explains aspects of plant growth ( botany ), the formation of igneous rocks ( geology ), how atmospheric ozone
12978-641: The solid crust, mantle, and core of the Earth are chemical compounds without molecules. These other types of substances, such as ionic compounds and network solids , are organized in such a way as to lack the existence of identifiable molecules per se . Instead, these substances are discussed in terms of formula units or unit cells as the smallest repeating structure within the substance. Examples of such substances are mineral salts (such as table salt ), solids like carbon and diamond, metals, and familiar silica and silicate minerals such as quartz and granite. One of
13104-487: The start of the new academic year. The number of academic staff more than doubled to 61 and the first degrees, five MSc and five MA degrees, were awarded. Whilst construction began on the library building (later renamed the Albert Sloman Library), the Physics building opened and the first six floors of Rayleigh tower were ready for occupation. Dorothy E. Smith became the first female lecturer to be appointed, for
13230-399: The state or receives significant funding from a government. Whether a national university is considered public varies from one country (or region) to another, largely depending on the specific education landscape. In contrast a private university is usually owned and operated by a private corporation (not-for-profit or for profit). Both types are often regulated, but to varying degrees, by
13356-1079: The state despite being state-funded. As of 2022, the communities fund all recognized universities, public and private, which follow the same rules and laws. The state runs most public universities in Croatia . Students who perform well academically pay only administrative fees which are less than €100 per year. Students who fail multiple classes in a year must retake the courses and pay a partial or full tuition fee. Almost all universities in Denmark are public and are held in higher esteem than their private counterparts. Danish students attend university for free. All universities in Finland are public and free of charge. Most universities and grandes écoles in France are public and charge very low tuition fees—less than €1000 per year. Major exceptions are semi-private grandes écoles such as HEC , EMLyon or INSEAD . Article L731-14 of
13482-695: The structure of the system, instead of changing the bulk conditions. Sometimes the distinction between phases can be continuous instead of having a discrete boundary' in this case the matter is considered to be in a supercritical state. When three states meet based on the conditions, it is known as a triple point and since this is invariant, it is a convenient way to define a set of conditions. The most familiar examples of phases are solids , liquids , and gases . Many substances exhibit multiple solid phases. For example, there are three phases of solid iron (alpha, gamma, and delta) that vary based on temperature and pressure. A principal difference between solid phases
13608-494: The student's family wealth, the course of study, and exam performance. A few scholarships are available for the best low-income students at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. However, for research, private funding ranges from low to non-existent, compared to most European countries. The Netherlands Ministry of Education funds most public universities. Dutch citizens and those from European Union countries pay an annual tuition fee for their first bachelor's or master's degree;
13734-421: The study of chemistry; some of them are: In chemistry, matter is defined as anything that has rest mass and volume (it takes up space) and is made up of particles . The particles that make up matter have rest mass as well – not all particles have rest mass, such as the photon . Matter can be a pure chemical substance or a mixture of substances. The atom is the basic unit of chemistry. It consists of
13860-547: The two historic state universities. In 1965, small specialized single-faculty public institutions were recognized as universities, including the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and the Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech ; both are now part of the University of Liège . The Belgian state created smaller public universities that have since merged with larger institutions, including the public university at Mons in 1965 which became part of
13986-578: The university began to attract a sizable number of International students. In 1987, Martin Harris was appointed Vice-Chancellor, succeeding the founding Vice-Chancellor, Albert Sloman . Within the same year, University of Essex alumnus Oscar Arias won the Nobel Peace Prize . Entering the 1990s, the university extended further by building more residential space in the face of the increase in student population between 1991 and 1992. The Rab Butler Building
14112-646: The university is typical of England's 1960s universities and was heavily influenced by the international Brutalist architecture movement. Due to its particular form of architecture involving the use of prefabricated concrete and glass, the university is also referred to as a plateglass university . The architect of the campus, Kenneth Capon of the Architects' Co-Partnership , took the Tuscan town of San Gimignano with its squares and towers as an inspiration (the university has six residential towers mainly for undergraduates, but
14238-448: The university population, voted overwhelmingly to refuse to participate in the university – in its place a Free University was declared ". After a week the three students were reinstated. Many Essex students joined protests in Paris over the summer of 1968 and unrest on the Colchester campus continued into 1969. Within the frame of the 1970s to the 1980s, the university expanded by installing
14364-740: The world and 3rd in the UK by research power through THE World University Rankings (2022). Essex Business School (EBS) is deemed the first carbon-zero business school in the UK, and is granted funding by the Economic and Social Research Council . The Essex MBA is accredited by the Association of MBAs ,and in 2024, Essex Business School became one of the top business schools globally when it was awarded AACSB (Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business) accreditation. The Essex Department of Government has been consistently ranked as top for research in every UK Government's assessments of research excellence. In
14490-583: The world; these include Nobel Prize laureates , a head of state , and senior governors and politicians . The University of Essex is one of the seven original plate glass universities established between 1961 and 1965. The university shield consists of the ancient arms attributed to the Kingdom of Essex and the motto: "Thought the harder, heart the keener" is adapted from the Anglo-Saxon poem The Battle of Maldon . In July 1959, Essex County Council accepted
14616-532: The £5.5 million expansion scheme for the provision of 234 new apartments for 1,200 students in a new student village. Between 2003 and 2004, the university continued to expand. University Quays, a student accommodation complex housing 770 students, opened in September 2003 and within the campus at the Network Centre building opened in May 2004 housing the Department of Electronic Systems Engineering and parts of
14742-565: Was a high demand for professional talent by the central government. In 1899, the King founded the School for Training of Civil Officials near the northern gate of the royal palace. Graduates from the school became royal pages, a traditional entrance into the Mahattai Ministry or other government ministries. As of 2019, Thailand has nineteen public universities. In Austria , most universities are public. The state regulates tuition fees, making costs
14868-762: Was appointed as the second Regius Professor. In March 2019, Essex joined seven other universities across European to form the Young Universities for the Future of Europe (YUFE) Alliance. Later in June 2019, the European Commission announced YUFE to be one of 17 projects that will receive funding for a three-year pilot under the European Universities Initiative funded by the Erasmus+ programme. The objective of
14994-503: Was closed in December 2010 for major refurbishment and reopened in 2012 as a combined four-star country house hotel and hotel school. The Edge Hotel School was originally a partnership between the university and the Edge Foundation and is now a department of the university. It is the UK's first working hotel school dedicated to the development of future leaders of the hotel, events and hospitality industry. With its concrete architecture,
15120-527: Was completed in February 2007 housing the Institute for Social and Economic Research and the UK Data Archive . Through a unique collaboration with the University of East Anglia , Essex founded the University of Suffolk in 2007. A new building for the health and human sciences opened in 2008, now named the Kimmy Eldridge Building in honour of Kimmy Eldridge who joined the university in 1994 to establish
15246-620: Was created in The Hexagon to celebrate the university's 50th anniversary in 2014, reflecting on the university's founding vision and its relationship with its architecture. The exhibition was curated by art historian Jules Lubbock and director of the university's Art Exchange gallery. The university's original buildings were also featured in the Futures Found exhibition at the Royal Academy of Arts in 2017 which reflected on post-war architecture in
15372-429: Was deployed upon a development plan and within six months it exceeded its £1million target with The Queen Mother and Sir Winston Churchill among contributors. In Autumn 1963, red was preferred as the university colour, the first prospectus was prepared and work began on the first permanent buildings. In January 1964, the university's academic robes were designed by Sir Hardy Amies , a Royal Warrant holder as designer to
15498-665: Was established in 1982. One of the first academic centres of its kind in the world, the work of the Human Rights Centre led to the university receiving a Queen's Anniversary Prize in 2010 for its work to promote human rights internationally. The Institute for Analytics and Data Science (IADS) works with businesses and local, regional and national authorities on management and transfer of big data; methodological and analytical methods for different types of applications from financial and business to biomedical; and socio-economic aspects of data; and ethical, legal and human rights aspects of data. The Institute for Social and Economic Research (ISER)
15624-809: Was named University of the Year at the Times Higher Education Awards in 2018. Essex's Department of Government received Regius Professorship conferred by Queen Elizabeth II in 2013 and the university was awarded the Queen's Anniversary Prize on two occasions for advancing human rights in 2009 and social and economic research in 2017. In 2025 rankings, Essex is ranked 25th in the Complete University Guide , 23rd in The Guardian University Guide and 46th by The Sunday Times . It has produced alumni in several fields across
15750-586: Was opened in 1991 as the headquarters for the British Household Panel Survey . On the 30th anniversary in 1993, the university had built itself up into 17 key departments, providing education and research opportunities for 5,500 students, and employing 1,300 staff and faculty. The university also contained 5 industrial units and housed the Economic and Social Research Council-funded UK Data Archive. Further expansion continued to take place after 1993, with
15876-598: Was ultimately prevented by student sit-ins. On Tuesday, 7 May 1968, Dr Thomas Inch from Porton Down paid a visit to host a lecture at the university. In a carefully planned demonstration, an indictment was read as Dr Inch began to speak citing chemical and biological warfare activities at Porton Down. Police intervention upon the call of the university was superseded by an insurmountable number of students who managed to prevent arrests. On Friday, 10 May 1968, three students; Pete Archard, Raphael Halberstadt and David Triesman (now The Lord Triesman) were suspended and ordered off
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