Misplaced Pages

#640359

68-602: The area around Esino Lario is surrounded by Alpine mountains, where the karst landscape has produced sink-holes and caves, including the "Icebox of Moncodeno ". The municipality is part of the Mountain Community of Valsassina, Valvarrone, Val d'Esino, and Riviera and is entirely within the " Regional Park of Northern Grigna " (Parco delle Grigna Settentrionale). Esino Lario borders the municipalities of Cortenova , Lierna , Mandello del Lario , Parlasco , Pasturo , Perledo , Primaluna , Taceno , and Varenna . The town

136-671: A feud chamber. Although a small town and then very poor, Esino participated in the Risorgimento movement (Italian reunification). At the news of the revolt in Milan in 1848, a group came from Lecco and joined volunteers in the Esino Lario to come to the aid of the Milanese in their Five Days Rebellion . The first 50 years of the Kingdom of Italy were of economical crisis: wood was no longer required for

204-478: A little less than 1,000 metres (3,300 ft). The district is entirely mountainous: the lowest point reached is 554 metres (1,818 ft), while the highest point is the summit of Grigne, 2,409 metres (7,904 ft). The presence of dolomite (rocks composed of calcium carbonate and magnesium) in the area, common to the rest of the foothills of the Alps of Lombardy, has led to the presence of numerous karst areas within

272-507: A pioneer of the study of karst in Slovenia and a fellow of the Royal Society , London, introduced the word karst to European scholars in 1689 to describe the phenomenon of underground flows of rivers in his account of Lake Cerknica . Jovan Cvijić greatly advanced the knowledge of karst regions to the point where he became known as the "father of karst geomorphology". Primarily discussing

340-562: A proper noun, the Slovene form Grast was first attested in 1177. Ultimately, the word is of Mediterranean origin. It has also been suggested that the word may derive from the Proto-Indo-European root karra- 'rock'. The name may also be connected to the oronym Kar(u)sádios oros cited by Ptolemy , and perhaps also to Latin Carusardius . Johann Weikhard von Valvasor ,

408-401: A sport than a science and so the underground karst caves and their associated watercourses were, from a scientific perspective, understudied. Karst is most strongly developed in dense carbonate rock , such as limestone, that is thinly bedded and highly fractured . Karst is not typically well developed in chalk , because chalk is highly porous rather than dense, so the flow of groundwater

476-427: A variety of spatial and temporal scales in karst regions, with the purpose of understanding karst aquifers and ecosystems, and the development of the surface and underground structure, so that the environment can be protected and human activities planned effectively. Quaternary The Quaternary ( / k w ə ˈ t ɜːr n ə r i , ˈ k w ɒ t ər n ɛr i / kwə- TUR -nə-ree, KWOT -ər-nerr-ee )

544-519: A well in a fracture trace or intersection of fracture traces increases the likelihood to encounter good water production. Voids in karst aquifers can be large enough to cause destructive collapse or subsidence of the ground surface that can initiate a catastrophic release of contaminants. Groundwater flow rate in karst aquifers is much more rapid than in porous aquifers. For example, in the Barton Springs Edwards aquifer, dye traces measured

612-448: Is Varenna-Esino , 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) away. Karst Karst ( / k ɑːr s t / ) is a topography formed from the dissolution of soluble carbonate rocks such as limestone and dolomite . It is characterized by features like poljes above and drainage systems with sinkholes and caves underground. There is some evidence that karst may occur in more weathering -resistant rocks such as quartzite given

680-493: Is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Many karst-related terms derive from South Slavic languages , entering scientific vocabulary through early research in the Western Balkan Dinaric Alpine karst. The study of the various aspects of karst regions is called karstology. This includes biological, chemical, ecological, geomorphological, hydrogeological, hydrological, political, socio-economical, and other processes over

748-542: Is a development of karst observed in geological history and preserved within the rock sequence, effectively a fossil karst. There are for example palaeokarst surfaces exposed within the Clydach Valley Subgroup of the Carboniferous Limestone sequence of South Wales which developed as sub-aerial weathering of recently formed limestones took place during periods of non-deposition within the early part of

SECTION 10

#1732890500641

816-525: Is a karst landscape which is developed beneath a cover of insoluble rocks. Typically this will involve a cover of sandstone overlying limestone strata undergoing solution. In the United Kingdom for example extensive doline fields have developed at Cefn yr Ystrad , Mynydd Llangatwg and Mynydd Llangynidr in South Wales across a cover of Twrch Sandstone which overlies concealed Carboniferous Limestone ,

884-529: Is around 10 °C/50 °F (compare, for example, with around 13 °C (55 °F) in Milan). Precipitation is abundant, with more than 1,700 millimetres (67 in) falling in an average year. Rainfall is frequent in every season, with a little less in winter when there can be snowfall. As in most temperate climates, there are prolonged and well-defined intermediate seasons. Summers are moderate, with frequent rain showers and thunderstorms. Mean summer temperature

952-552: Is around 19 °C (66 °F), higher in July and August, and slightly lower in June; even during the most intense heat waves , maximum temperatures rarely exceed 32 °C (90 °F). Winters are quite mild; the average temperature for December, January, and February is around 1–2 °C (34–36 °F), more or less the same temperature recorded in the Po Valley at much lower elevations. This

1020-468: Is developed in areas where salt is undergoing solution underground. It can lead to surface depressions and collapses which present a geo-hazard. Karst areas tend to have unique types of forests. The karst terrain is difficult for humans to traverse, so that their ecosystems are often relatively undisturbed. The soil tends to have a high pH, which encourages growth of unusual species of orchids, palms, mangroves, and other plants. Paleokarst or palaeokarst

1088-459: Is due to the phenomenon of inversion (a deviation from the normal atmospheric behaviour, where temperature increases with elevation) frequently observed in midwinter when subtropical high-pressure systems reach northern Italy. Winters can become snowy, as extratropical cyclones carry moist and cool air from the North Atlantic. The municipality of Esino Lario was created in 1927 by the merger of

1156-612: Is frequently unseen until the roof of a cavern suddenly collapses. Such events have swallowed homes, cattle, cars, and farm machinery. In the United States, sudden collapse of such a cavern-sinkhole swallowed part of the collection of the National Corvette Museum in Bowling Green, Kentucky in 2014. The world's largest limestone karst is Australia's Nullarbor Plain . Slovenia has the world's highest risk of sinkholes, while

1224-407: Is important in petroleum geology because as much as 50% of the world's hydrocarbon reserves are hosted in carbonate rock , and much of this is found in porous karst systems. The English word karst was borrowed from German Karst in the late 19th century, which entered German usage much earlier, to describe a number of geological, geomorphological, and hydrological features found within

1292-545: Is located in the Alpine foothills along the north-eastern slopes of Grigna mountain group, 4.3 kilometres (2.7 mi) from the eastern shore of Lake Como . It is located at the head of the small valley of Valsassina . The town consists of two distinct centres: Upper Esino and Lower Esino , located at an elevation of around 900 metres (3,000 ft); other minor localities within the municipality are Cainallo, at almost 1,300 metres (4,300 ft) above sea level, and Ortanella, at

1360-399: Is not concentrated along fractures. Karst is also most strongly developed where the water table is relatively low, such as in uplands with entrenched valleys , and where rainfall is moderate to heavy. This contributes to rapid downward movement of groundwater, which promotes dissolution of the bedrock, whereas standing groundwater becomes saturated with carbonate minerals and ceases to dissolve

1428-754: Is the current and most recent of the three periods of the Cenozoic Era in the geologic time scale of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS), as well as the current and most recent of the twelve periods of the Phanerozoic eon. It follows the Neogene Period and spans from 2.58 million years ago to the present. The Quaternary Period is divided into two epochs: the Pleistocene (2.58 million years ago to 11.7 thousand years ago) and

SECTION 20

#1732890500641

1496-611: Is the following: In very rare conditions, oxidation can play a role. Oxidation played a major role in the formation of ancient Lechuguilla Cave in the US state of New Mexico and is presently active in the Frasassi Caves of Italy. The oxidation of sulfides leading to the formation of sulfuric acid can also be one of the corrosion factors in karst formation. As oxygen (O 2 )-rich surface waters seep into deep anoxic karst systems, they bring oxygen, which reacts with sulfide present in

1564-684: The Gelasian Stage, which was formerly considered part of the Neogene Period and Pliocene Epoch. This was later revised to 2.58 mya. The Anthropocene was proposed as a third epoch as a mark of the anthropogenic impact on the global environment starting with the Industrial Revolution , or about 200 years ago. The Anthropocene was rejected as a geological epoch in 2024 by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS),

1632-692: The Holocene (11.7 thousand years ago to today); a proposed third epoch, the Anthropocene , was rejected in 2024 by IUGS , the governing body of the ICS. The Quaternary is typically defined by the Quaternary glaciation , the cyclic growth and decay of continental ice sheets related to the Milankovitch cycles and the associated climate and environmental changes that they caused. In 1759 Giovanni Arduino proposed that

1700-626: The range of the Dinaric Alps , stretching from the northeastern corner of Italy above the city of Trieste , across the Balkan peninsula along the coast of the eastern Adriatic to Kosovo and North Macedonia , where the massif of the Šar Mountains begins. The karst zone is at the northwesternmost section, described in early topographical research as a plateau between Italy and Slovenia . Languages preserving this form include Italian : Carso , German : Karst , and Albanian : karsti . In

1768-637: The 12th century, Esino Lario entered the General Community of Valsassina, a free commune . It lays its statutes, derived from ancient practices. Each village was administered by its board, formed by the heads of families. A unique representative of both Esino Superiore and Iniferiore took part in the Council of the Community General, which was based in Introbio . In the first decades of the sixteenth century,

1836-568: The Byzantine Empire, under the command of magister militum Francione, resisted in Esino Lario for 20 years, avoiding the large reprisals that followed the death of king Alboin and housing wealthy Roman refugees. In the end, Francione had to repair in Isola Comacina and, after six months of siege, surrender. The territory was finally conquered by the Lombard king Authari . Towards the end of

1904-541: The Pleistocene includes a portion of what was, prior to 2009, defined as the Pliocene . Quaternary stratigraphers usually worked with regional subdivisions. From the 1970s, the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) tried to make a single geologic time scale based on GSSP 's, which could be used internationally. The Quaternary subdivisions were defined based on biostratigraphy instead of paleoclimate . This led to

1972-515: The archives of Esino reveal misery, oppression, robberies, and injustices. The only glimmer of light is the two pastoral visits of Charles Borromeo to Esino in 1565 and in 1582. The plague of 1630 claimed many victims in Valsassina; fifty in Esino. Along the rest of the century, then, was a continuous drip of starvation and hunger. In the late 17th century, despite the ancient privileges, Valsassina became

2040-581: The area during the ice ages. In one of these caves, the Icebox of Moncodeno, are deposits of underground ice. The locality is also characterised by the abundant presence of marine fossil deposits, a result of the geological history of the Alpine foothills, which emerged from the sea during the tectonic movements of the Alpine orogeny in the Cenozoic era. These deposits have long been studied by palaeontologists ; among

2108-511: The bedrock. The carbonic acid that causes karst features is formed as rain passes through Earth's atmosphere picking up carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), which readily dissolves in the water. Once the rain reaches the ground, it may pass through soil that provides additional CO 2 produced by soil respiration . Some of the dissolved carbon dioxide reacts with the water to form a weak carbonic acid solution, which dissolves calcium carbonate . The primary reaction sequence in limestone dissolution

Esino Lario - Misplaced Pages Continue

2176-407: The coal needed for melting furnaces, and could only be sold afar. The reduction of glaciers was in progress, reducing the cultivated land, and population growth soon pushed emigration. Despite this decline, some public works were performed in the town: there were newly cobbled streets to the lake and to the mountain, and two aqueducts for public fountains were also constructed. After World War I ,

2244-450: The complexity of karst aquifers, and need to be supplemented with dye traces , measurement of spring discharges, and analysis of water chemistry. U.S. Geological Survey dye tracing has determined that conventional groundwater models that assume a uniform distribution of porosity are not applicable for karst aquifers. Linear alignment of surface features such as straight stream segments and sinkholes develop along fracture traces . Locating

2312-728: The daytime. Castle Esino – of which only a tower remains – was one of the fortified points added to a defensive chain. Other archaeological finds with tombs buried document the period. At the fall of the Western Roman Empire , after the domination of Odoacer and of the Ostrogoths , the Byzantines conquered Italy during the Gothic War . Immediately after, however, the Lombards came down from Friuli and in 569 conquered Milan. A contingent from

2380-467: The eastern Lario was close to the armies involved in the dispute between France and Spain . An adventurer, Gian Giacomo Medici , attempted to form a principality on Lake Como and a fleet take long in check the forces of Francesco II Sforza. Bellano was plundered and famine raged in every village. A duke died without heirs, and Milan went to the Spanish in 1535. There followed two centuries of gradual decay:

2448-620: The emergence of the straits of Bosphorus and Skagerrak during glacial epochs, which respectively turned the Black Sea and Baltic Sea into fresh water lakes, followed by their flooding (and return to salt water) by rising sea level; the periodic filling of the English Channel , forming a land bridge between Britain and the European mainland; the periodic closing of the Bering Strait , forming

2516-715: The establishment of the Glacial Theory. In time, thanks to the refinement of geology, it has been demonstrated that there were several periods of glacial advance and retreat and that past temperatures on Earth were very different from today. In particular, the Milankovitch cycles of Milutin Milankovitch are based on the premise that variations in incoming solar radiation are a fundamental factor controlling Earth's climate. During this time, substantial glaciers advanced and retreated over much of North America and Europe, parts of South America and Asia, and all of Antarctica. There

2584-482: The first interested scholars was the geologist and palaeontologist Antonio Stoppani during the 19th century. Esino Lario, like most of the Valsassina valley, features a humid, temperate climate, cooler than in the Po Valley due to the higher elevations. At the nearest weather station, in Barzio , (elevation 770 metres (2,530 ft) — Esino Lario's elevation is about 100 metres (330 ft) higher), mean annual temperature

2652-557: The fissures. The enlarged fissures allow a larger quantity of water to enter which leads to a progressive enlargement of openings. Abundant small openings store a large quantity of water. The larger openings form a conduit system that drains the aquifer to springs. Characterization of karst aquifers requires field exploration to locate sinkholes, swallets , sinking streams , and springs in addition to studying geologic maps . Conventional hydrogeologic methods such as aquifer tests and potentiometric mapping are insufficient to characterize

2720-418: The geological strata of northern Italy could be divided into four successive formations or "orders" ( Italian : quattro ordini ). The term "quaternary" was introduced by Jules Desnoyers in 1829 for sediments of France 's Seine Basin that clearly seemed to be younger than Tertiary Period rocks . The Quaternary Period follows the Neogene Period and extends to the present. The Quaternary covers

2788-466: The global demand for drinkable water. Farming in karst areas must take into account the lack of surface water. The soils may be fertile enough, and rainfall may be adequate, but rainwater quickly moves through the crevices into the ground, sometimes leaving the surface soil parched between rains. The karst topography also poses peculiar difficulties for human inhabitants. Sinkholes can develop gradually as surface openings enlarge, but progressive erosion

Esino Lario - Misplaced Pages Continue

2856-503: The governing body of the ICS. The 2.58 million years of the Quaternary represents the time during which recognisable humans existed. Over this geologically short time period there has been relatively little change in the distribution of the continents due to plate tectonics . The Quaternary geological record is preserved in greater detail than that for earlier periods. The major geographical changes during this time period included

2924-456: The karst groundwater flow rates from 0.5 to 7 miles per day (0.8 to 11.3 km/d). The rapid groundwater flow rates make karst aquifers much more sensitive to groundwater contamination than porous aquifers. Groundwater in karst areas is also just as easily polluted as surface streams, because Karst formations are cavernous and highly permeable, resulting in reduced opportunity for contaminant filtration. Well water may also be unsafe as

2992-525: The karst regions of the Balkans, Cvijić's 1893 publication Das Karstphänomen describes landforms such as karren, dolines and poljes . In a 1918 publication, Cvijić proposed a cyclical model for karst landscape development. Karst hydrology emerged as a discipline in the late 1950s and the early 1960s in France. Previously, the activities of cave explorers, called speleologists , had been dismissed as more of

3060-575: The land bridge between Asia and North America ; and the periodic flash flooding of Scablands of the American Northwest by glacial water. The current extent of Hudson Bay , the Great Lakes and other major lakes of North America are a consequence of the Canadian Shield 's readjustment since the last ice age; different shorelines have existed over the course of Quaternary time. The climate

3128-552: The last-named locality having been declared a site of special scientific interest in respect of it. Kegelkarst is a type of tropical karst terrain with numerous cone-like hills, formed by cockpits, mogotes , and poljes and without strong fluvial erosion processes. This terrain is found in Cuba, Jamaica, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, southern China, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam. Salt karst (or 'halite karst')

3196-492: The late 19th century with scholars coming to study the fossils of Grigne. During the 1970s, tourists coming in the summer period of each year reached 12,000. However, in the 1990s tourism began to decline, and the reducing snowfall meant the closure of skiing structures. The town hosted Wikimania , an annual Wikimedia conference, in June 2016. Esino Lario is served by the Strada Provinciale 65. The closest rail station

3264-412: The local South Slavic languages , all variations of the word are derived from a Romanized Illyrian base (yielding Latin : carsus , Dalmatian : carsus ), later metathesized from the reconstructed form * korsъ into forms such as Slovene : kras and Serbo-Croatian : krš , kras , first attested in the 18th century, and the adjective form kraški in the 16th century. As

3332-460: The local economy was boosted by the construction of a new agro-forestry-pastoral road, opened in 1925. The upper and lower municipalities merged in 1927 to form the new town of Esino Lario. During late World War II , guerilla warfare against the Wehrmacht and RSI troops took place in the area. In 1958, the road from Lake Como was widened and paved, and in 1957 it reached Ortanella. Historically

3400-493: The main economic activity of Esino Lario is linked to the cultivation of forests of beech and hornbeam . Esino Lario was part of a group of local municipalities that provided charcoal for iron production in Valsassina. The management of the forests as a common good is a peculiarity of Esino compared to neighbouring territories; forests still belong to the city and are divided for use between residents and partially transmitted by hereditary right. Tourism in Esino Lario began in

3468-637: The most dramatic of these formations can be seen in Thailand 's Phangnga Bay and at Halong Bay in Vietnam . Calcium carbonate dissolved into water may precipitate out where the water discharges some of its dissolved carbon dioxide. Rivers which emerge from springs may produce tufa terraces, consisting of layers of calcite deposited over extended periods of time. In caves, a variety of features collectively called speleothems are formed by deposition of calcium carbonate and other dissolved minerals. Interstratal karst

SECTION 50

#1732890500641

3536-491: The municipalities of Lower Esino and Upper Esino. The last glaciation of the quaternary period, the Würm , began 70,000 years ago covering the Como area, and it profoundly changed the land's appearance – shaping the sides of the mountains, creating fertile moraine terraces, leaving many signs of its passage with boulders. The landscape of Esino Lario testifies to the Alpine orogeny with

3604-471: The municipality. Geographical features include the Moncodeno, an extensive natural amphitheater located on the north of the northern Grigna at an altitude of between 1,700 metres (5,600 ft) and 2,300 metres (7,500 ft), characterised by the presence of a large number of sinkholes (depressions in the ground) and almost 500 caves, formed by the combined action of the karst and erosion by ice that covered

3672-704: The period. Sedimentation resumed and further limestone strata were deposited on an irregular karst surface, the cycle recurring several times in connection with fluctuating sea levels over prolonged periods. Pseudokarsts are similar in form or appearance to karst features but are created by different mechanisms. Examples include lava caves and granite tors —for example, Labertouche Cave in Victoria, Australia —and paleocollapse features. Mud Caves are an example of pseudokarst. Karst formations have unique hydrology, resulting in many unusual features. A karst fenster (karst window) occurs when an underground stream emerges onto

3740-501: The presence of fossils, boulders, and caves. Human presence in the territory is documented since the Neolithic period. Esino archaeological findings from the 5th century BC show that the area was a crossing point of the main road along the eastern shore of the lake, reaching Colico and the valleys of the Adda and Imera; because of overhanging rocks between Mandello and Bellano , from Lierna

3808-430: The presence of traces of the passage of a glacier at a considerable distance from the Alps. This idea was initially disputed by another Swiss scientist, Louis Agassiz , but when he undertook to disprove it, he ended up affirming his colleague's hypothesis. A year later, Agassiz raised the hypothesis of a great glacial period that would have had long-reaching general effects. This idea gained him international fame and led to

3876-517: The problem that the proposed base of the Pleistocene was at 1.805 million years ago, long after the start of the major glaciations of the northern hemisphere. The ICS then proposed to abolish use of the name Quaternary altogether, which appeared unacceptable to the International Union for Quaternary Research (INQUA). In 2009, it was decided to make the Quaternary the youngest period of the Cenozoic Era with its base at 2.588 mya and including

3944-418: The right conditions. Subterranean drainage may limit surface water, with few to no rivers or lakes. In regions where the dissolved bedrock is covered (perhaps by debris) or confined by one or more superimposed non-soluble rock strata, distinctive karst features may occur only at subsurface levels and can be totally missing above ground. The study of paleokarst (buried karst in the stratigraphic column )

4012-757: The river flows into a cave in a formation known as the Madison Limestone and then rises again 800 m ( 1 ⁄ 2  mi) down the canyon in a placid pool. A turlough is a unique type of seasonal lake found in Irish karst areas which are formed through the annual welling-up of water from the underground water system. Main Article Aquifer#Karst Karst aquifers typically develop in limestone . Surface water containing natural carbonic acid moves down into small fissures in limestone. This carbonic acid gradually dissolves limestone thereby enlarging

4080-509: The road climbed to Ortanella (currently a frazione of Esino) subsequently declined to Vezio and Bellano. Archaeological finds testify numerous tombs and Celtic necropolis in Esino Lario. The area was a strategic point with detachments of warriors-pastors. During the late Western Roman Empire , to defend themselves from the incursions of the barbarians, the Romans prepared protective lines that communicated with each other by fires at night and smoke in

4148-625: The surface between layers of rock, cascades some distance, and then disappears back down, often into a sinkhole. Rivers in karst areas may disappear underground a number of times and spring up again in different places, even under a different name, like Ljubljanica , the "river of seven names". Another example of this is the Popo Agie River in Fremont County, Wyoming , where, at a site named "The Sinks" in Sinks Canyon State Park ,

SECTION 60

#1732890500641

4216-415: The surface, complex underground drainage systems (such as karst aquifers ) and extensive caves and cavern systems may form. Erosion along limestone shores, notably in the tropics , produces karst topography that includes a sharp makatea surface above the normal reach of the sea, and undercuts that are mostly the result of biological activity or bioerosion at or a little above mean sea level . Some of

4284-1002: The system ( pyrite or hydrogen sulfide ) to form sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ). Sulfuric acid then reacts with calcium carbonate, causing increased erosion within the limestone formation. This chain of reactions is: This reaction chain forms gypsum . The karstification of a landscape may result in a variety of large- or small-scale features both on the surface and beneath. On exposed surfaces, small features may include solution flutes (or rillenkarren), runnels , limestone pavement (clints and grikes), kamenitzas collectively called karren or lapiez. Medium-sized surface features may include sinkholes or cenotes (closed basins), vertical shafts, foibe (inverted funnel shaped sinkholes), disappearing streams, and reappearing springs . Large-scale features may include limestone pavements , poljes , and karst valleys. Mature karst landscapes, where more bedrock has been removed than remains, may result in karst towers , or haystack/eggbox landscapes. Beneath

4352-399: The time span of glaciations classified as the Pleistocene , and includes the present interglacial time-period, the Holocene . This places the start of the Quaternary at the onset of Northern Hemisphere glaciation approximately 2.6 million years ago ( mya ). Prior to 2009, the Pleistocene was defined to be from 1.805 million years ago to the present, so the current definition of

4420-461: The water may have run unimpeded from a sinkhole in a cattle pasture, bypassing the normal filtering that occurs in a porous aquifer . Sinkholes have often been used as farmstead or community trash dumps . Overloaded or malfunctioning septic tanks in karst landscapes may dump raw sewage directly into underground channels. Geologists are concerned with these negative effects of human activity on karst hydrology which, as of 2007 , supplied about 25% of

4488-507: The western Highland Rim in the eastern United States is at the second-highest risk of karst sinkholes. In Canada, Wood Buffalo National Park , Northwest Territories contains areas of karst sinkholes. Mexico hosts important karst regions in the Yucatán Peninsula and Chiapas . The West of Ireland is home to The Burren , a karst limestone area. The South China Karst in the provinces of Guizhou , Guangxi , and Yunnan provinces

4556-563: Was a major extinction of large mammals globally during the Late Pleistocene Epoch. Many forms such as sabre-toothed cats , mammoths , mastodons , glyptodonts , etc., became extinct worldwide. Others, including horses , camels and American cheetahs became extinct in North America . The Great Lakes formed and giant mammals thrived in parts of North America and Eurasia not covered in ice. These mammals became extinct when

4624-400: Was one of periodic glaciations with continental glaciers moving as far from the poles as 40 degrees latitude . Glaciation took place repeatedly during the Quaternary Ice age  – a term coined by Schimper in 1839 that began with the start of the Quaternary about 2.58 Mya and continues to the present day. In 1821, a Swiss engineer, Ignaz Venetz , presented an article in which he suggested

#640359