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130-582: Ernst Heinrich Philipp August Haeckel ( German: [ɛʁnst ˈhɛkl̩] ; 16 February 1834 – 9 August 1919) was a German zoologist , naturalist , eugenicist , philosopher, physician, professor, marine biologist and artist. He discovered, described and named thousands of new species, mapped a genealogical tree relating all life forms and coined many terms in biology , including ecology , phylum , phylogeny , and Protista . Haeckel promoted and popularised Charles Darwin 's work in Germany and developed

260-547: A habilitation in comparative anatomy and became a professor of zoology at the University at Jena , where he remained for 47 years, from 1862 to 1909. Between 1859 and 1866 Haeckel worked on many phyla, such as radiolarians , poriferans ( sponges ) and annelids (segmented worms). During a trip to the Mediterranean , Haeckel named nearly 150 new species of radiolarians. From 1866 to 1867 Haeckel made an extended journey to

390-511: A 'just' state; his belief that harsh, inexorable laws of evolution ruled human civilization and nature alike, conferring upon favored races the right to dominate others ... all contributed to the rise of Nazism." In his introduction to the Nazi party ideologue Alfred Rosenberg 's 1930 book, [The Myth of the Twentieth Century] , Peter Peel affirms that Rosenberg had indeed read Haeckel. In

520-476: A Dutchman named Eugène Dubois searched the East Indies from 1887 to 1895, discovering the remains of Java Man in 1891, consisting of a skullcap, thighbone, and a few teeth. These remains are among the oldest hominid remains ever found. Dubois classified Java Man with Haeckel's Pithecanthropus label, though they were later reclassified as Homo erectus . Some scientists of the day suggested Dubois' Java Man as

650-637: A book which would go on to influence the Art Nouveau artistic movement. As a philosopher, Ernst Haeckel wrote Die Welträthsel (1895–1899; in English: The Riddles of the Universe , 1900), the genesis for the term " world riddle " ( Welträtsel ); and Freedom in Science and Teaching to support teaching evolution. Haeckel was also a promoter of scientific racism and embraced the idea of Social Darwinism . He

780-599: A coastline length of 254.2 kilometres (158.0 mi). The highest peak is Sv. Nikola, at 628 metres (2,060 ft). The island is part of Split-Dalmatia County in Dalmatia , Croatia. The island has two towns ( Hvar and Stari Grad ) and two municipalities ( Jelsa and Sućuraj ). Population figures are from 2021. The climate of Hvar is hot-summer Mediterranean ( Csa in the Köppen climate classification ). It has mild winters and hot summers. The yearly average air temperature

910-435: A doctrine of evolutionary polygenism based on the ideas of the linguist August Schleicher , in which several different language groups had arisen separately from speechless prehuman Urmenschen ( German : proto-humans ), which themselves had evolved from simian ancestors. These separate languages had completed the transition from animals to man, and under the influence of each main branch of languages, humans had evolved – in

1040-539: A dramatic double page illustration showing "early", "somewhat later" and "still later" stages of 8 different vertebrates. Though Haeckel's views had attracted continuing controversy, there had been little dispute about the embryos and he had many expert supporters, but Wilhelm His revived the earlier criticisms and introduced new attacks on the 1874 illustrations. Others joined in: both expert anatomists and Catholic priests and supporters were politically opposed to Haeckel's views. While it has been widely claimed that Haeckel

1170-419: A drawing of an embryo, I have given one of man and another of a dog, at about the same early stage of development, carefully copied from two works of undoubted accuracy" with a footnote citing the sources and noting that "Häckel has also given analogous drawings in his Schöpfungsgeschichte. " The fifth edition of Haeckel's book appeared in 1874, with its frontispiece a heroic portrait of Haeckel himself, replacing

1300-463: A dwarf human type, has recently been discovered in the island of Flores). The creationist polygenism of Samuel George Morton and Louis Agassiz , which presented human races as separately created species , was rejected by Charles Darwin , who argued for the monogenesis of the human species and the African origin of modern humans . In contrast to most of Darwin's supporters, Haeckel put forward

1430-484: A forerunner of the views of Carleton Coon , who also believed that human races evolved independently and in parallel with each other. These ideas eventually fell from favour. Haeckel also applied the hypothesis of polygenism to the modern diversity of human groups. He became a key figure in social darwinism and leading proponent of scientific racism , stating for instance: The Caucasian, or Mediterranean man ( Homo Mediterraneus ), has from time immemorial been placed at

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1560-453: A grid conveyed a powerful evolutionary message. As a book for the general public, it followed the common practice of not citing sources. The book sold very well, and while some anatomical experts hostile to Haeckel's evolutionary views expressed some private concerns that certain figures had been drawn rather freely, the figures showed what they already knew about similarities in embryos. The first published concerns came from Ludwig Rütimeyer ,

1690-468: A kind of Lamarckian use-inheritance – as separate species, which could be subdivided into races. From this, Haeckel drew the implication that languages with the most potential yield the human races with the most potential, led by the Semitic and Indo-Germanic groups, with Berber, Jewish, Greco-Roman and Germanic varieties to the fore. As Haeckel stated: We must mention here one of the most important results of

1820-601: A laboratory setting. Ethologists have been particularly concerned with the evolution of behavior and the understanding of behavior in terms of the theory of natural selection . In one sense, the first modern ethologist was Charles Darwin , whose book, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals , influenced many future ethologists. A subfield of ethology is behavioral ecology which attempts to answer Nikolaas Tinbergen 's four questions with regard to animal behavior: what are

1950-687: A major industry for the island in the Middle Ages. The island eventually again fell under Byzantine rule, and then under the Kingdom of Croatia and Hungary. In 1331 the Venetians put the island under protection from threats of piracy. According to the 1358 Treaty of Zadar , the island was handed over to the Kingdom of Hungary . For short time in the summer of 1390, it was held by the Bosnian king Stephen Tvrtko I . In 1409,

2080-443: A mammal, a bird, or of a reptile, and Darwin's own research using embryonic stages of barnacles to show that they are crustaceans , while cautioning against the idea that one organism or embryonic stage is "higher" or "lower", or more or less evolved. Haeckel disregarded such caution, and in a year wrote his massive and ambitious Generelle Morphologie , published in 1866, presenting a revolutionary new synthesis of Darwin's ideas with

2210-413: A new footing, by explaining the processes by which it can occur, and providing observational evidence that it had done so. Darwin's theory was rapidly accepted by the scientific community and soon became a central axiom of the rapidly developing science of biology. The basis for modern genetics began with the work of Gregor Mendel on peas in 1865, although the significance of his work was not realized at

2340-406: A new perspective on the fundamental basis of life. Having previously been the realm of gentlemen naturalists, over the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries, zoology became an increasingly professional scientific discipline . Explorer-naturalists such as Alexander von Humboldt investigated the interaction between organisms and their environment, and the ways this relationship depends on geography, laying

2470-487: A part of People's Republic of Croatia , a constituent republic of Communist Yugoslavia . Ivan Vučetić , the man who perfected dactyloscopy at the turn of the 20th century, came from Hvar island. In the 21st century, Hvar's citizens include football player Igor Tudor and politician Tonči Tadić . Residents of Hvar mostly work in the fishing and tourism industries. Hvar has a very mild Mediterranean climate , several beaches and Mediterranean vegetation that make it one of

2600-456: A potential intermediate form between modern humans and the common ancestor we share with the other great apes . The current consensus of anthropologists is that the direct ancestors of modern humans were African populations of Homo erectus (possibly Homo ergaster ), rather than the Asian populations exemplified by Java Man and Peking Man . (Ironically, a new human species, Homo floresiensis ,

2730-709: A process involving the union of a male and female haploid gamete , each gamete formed by meiosis . Ordinarily, gametes produced by separate individuals unite by a process of fertilization to form a diploid zygote that can then develop into a genetically unique individual progeny. However, some animals are also capable, as an alternative reproductive process, to reproduce parthenogenetically. Parthenogenesis has been described in snakes and lizards (see Misplaced Pages Parthenogenesis in squamates ), in amphibians (see Misplaced Pages Parthenogenesis in amphibians ) and in numerous other species (see Misplaced Pages Parthenogenesis ). Generally, meiosis in parthanogenetically reproducing animals occurs by

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2860-407: A professor of comparative anatomy . Although Haeckel's ideas are important to the history of evolutionary theory , and although he was a competent invertebrate anatomist most famous for his work on radiolaria , many speculative concepts that he championed are now considered incorrect. For example, Haeckel described and named hypothetical ancestral microorganisms that have never been found. He

2990-511: A professor of zoology and comparative anatomy at the University of Basel who had placed fossil mammals in an evolutionary lineage early in the 1860s and had been sent a complimentary copy. At the end of 1868 his review in the Archiv für Anthropologie wondered about the claim that the work was "popular and scholarly", doubting whether the second was true, and expressed horror about such public discussion of man's place in nature with illustrations such as

3120-467: A proposal for a "strictly scholarly and objective" second edition. Haeckel's aim was a reformed morphology with evolution as the organising principle of a cosmic synthesis unifying science, religion, and art. He was giving successful "popular lectures" on his ideas to students and townspeople in Jena , in an approach pioneered by his teacher Rudolf Virchow . To meet his publisher's need for a popular work he used

3250-518: A similar process to that in sexually reproducing animals, but the diploid zygote nucleus is generated by the union of two haploid genomes from the same individual rather than from different individuals. Hvar Hvar's location at the north east centre of the Adriatic sailing routes has long made this island an important base for commanding trade up and down the Adriatic, across to Italy and throughout

3380-1164: A student's transcript of his lectures as the basis of his Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte of 1868, presenting a comprehensive presentation of evolution. In the Spring of that year he drew figures for the book, synthesising his views of specimens in Jena and published pictures to represent types. After publication he told a colleague that the images "are completely exact, partly copied from nature, partly assembled from all illustrations of these early stages that have hitherto become known". There were various styles of embryological drawings at that time, ranging from more schematic representations to "naturalistic" illustrations of specific specimens. Haeckel believed privately that his figures were both exact and synthetic, and in public asserted that they were schematic like most figures used in teaching. The images were reworked to match in size and orientation, and though displaying Haeckel's own views of essential features, they support von Baer's concept that vertebrate embryos begin similarly and then diverge. Relating different images on

3510-419: A version of the earlier recapitulation theory previously set out by Étienne Serres in the 1820s and supported by followers of Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire including Robert Edmond Grant . It proposed a link between ontogeny (development of form) and phylogeny (evolutionary descent), summed up by Haeckel in the phrase " ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny ". His concept of recapitulation has been refuted in

3640-506: Is " Csa " (Mediterranean Climate). The first inhabitants of Hvar Island were Neolithic people who probably established trade links between Hvar and the eastern shores of the Mediterranean . The Hvar Culture lasted from 3500 to 2500 B.C. Beginning in the 4th century BC, the Greeks colonized the island. In 384 BC the Greek colonisers of Pharos defeated Iadasinoi warriors and their allies, invited by

3770-590: Is 16 °C (61 °F), 703 mm (27.7 in) of precipitation fall on Hvar on average every year and the town has a total of 2800 sunshine hours per year. For comparison Hvar has an average of 7.7 sunshine hours per day while Dubrovnik has 7.2. The sea temperatures average from the lowest readings in February of 14 °C (57 °F) to their warmest during summer, when the sea temperatures usually stay between 23 °C (73 °F) to 27 °C (81 °F). The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate

3900-453: Is a form of scientific taxonomy . Modern biological classification has its root in the work of Carl Linnaeus , who grouped species according to shared physical characteristics. These groupings have since been revised to improve consistency with the Darwinian principle of common descent . Molecular phylogenetics , which uses nucleic acid sequence as data, has driven many recent revisions and

4030-657: Is administered by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature . A merging draft, BioCode, was published in 1997 in an attempt to standardize nomenclature, but has yet to be formally adopted. Vertebrate zoology is the biological discipline that consists of the study of vertebrate animals, that is animals with a backbone , such as fish , amphibians , reptiles , birds and mammals . The various taxonomically oriented disciplines i.e. mammalogy , biological anthropology , herpetology , ornithology , and ichthyology seek to identify and classify species and study

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4160-480: Is an integrative field of study, uniting concepts and information from evolutionary biology , taxonomy , ecology , physical geography , geology , paleontology and climatology . The origin of this field of study is widely accredited to Alfred Russel Wallace , a British biologist who had some of his work jointly published with Charles Darwin . Molecular biology studies the common genetic and developmental mechanisms of animals and plants, attempting to answer

4290-402: Is being studied. For example, what is learned about the physiology of yeast cells can also apply to human cells. The field of animal physiology extends the tools and methods of human physiology to non-human species. Physiology studies how, for example, the nervous , immune , endocrine , respiratory , and circulatory systems function and interact. Developmental biology is the study of

4420-645: Is called "Universal History", first rose to a flourishing condition on the shores of the Mediterranean. ... This species alone (with the exception of the Mongolian) has had an actual history; it alone has attained to that degree of civilisation which seems to raise men above the rest of nature. Haeckel divided human beings into ten races, of which the Caucasian was the highest and the primitives were doomed to extinction. In his view, 'Negroes' were savages and Whites were

4550-406: Is done on both the microscopic and molecular levels for single-celled organisms such as bacteria as well as the specialized cells in multicellular organisms such as humans . Understanding the structure and function of cells is fundamental to all of the biological sciences. The similarities and differences between cell types are particularly relevant to molecular biology. Anatomy considers

4680-517: Is everywhere. Haeckel became the most famous proponent of Monism in Germany. In 1906 Haeckel belonged to the founders of the Monist League ( Deutscher Monistenbund ), which took a stance against philosophical materialism and promote a "natural Weltanschauung". This organization lasted until 1933 and included such notable members as Wilhelm Ostwald , Georg von Arco (1869–1940), Helene Stöcker and Walter Arthur Berendsohn . Haeckel's affinity for

4810-443: Is likely to continue to do so. Biological classification belongs to the science of zoological systematics . Many scientists now consider the five-kingdom system outdated. Modern alternative classification systems generally start with the three-domain system : Archaea (originally Archaebacteria); Bacteria (originally Eubacteria); Eukaryota (including protists , fungi , plants , and animals ) These domains reflect whether

4940-415: Is partly based on paleontology , which uses the fossil record to answer questions about the mode and tempo of evolution, and partly on the developments in areas such as population genetics and evolutionary theory. Following the development of DNA fingerprinting techniques in the late 20th century, the application of these techniques in zoology has increased the understanding of animal populations. In

5070-406: Is quantitative, and recently a significant amount of work has been done using computer science techniques such as bioinformatics and computational biology . Molecular genetics , the study of gene structure and function, has been among the most prominent sub-fields of molecular biology since the early 2000s. Other branches of biology are informed by molecular biology, by either directly studying

5200-698: Is reflected in zoology by the presence of animals in Egyptian hieroglyphics. Although the concept of zoology as a single coherent field arose much later, the zoological sciences emerged from natural history reaching back to the biological works of Aristotle and Galen in the ancient Greco-Roman world . In the fourth century BC, Aristotle looked at animals as living organisms, studying their structure, development and vital phenomena. He divided them into two groups: animals with blood, equivalent to our concept of vertebrates , and animals without blood, invertebrates . He spent two years on Lesbos , observing and describing

5330-506: Is the cultivation of lavender , used for aromatic oils and soaps. Hvar is often called the "island of lavender". Hvar is also one of the two most famous winemaking zones in Croatia. Vineyards on the southern side of the island are famous for red wines produced from the Plavac Mali grape. The central plain between Stari Grad and Jelsa is famous for its white wines. As a Greek colony ,

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5460-559: Is the genus, and sapiens the specific epithet, both of them combined make up the species name. When writing the scientific name of an organism, it is proper to capitalize the first letter in the genus and put all of the specific epithet in lowercase. Additionally, the entire term may be italicized or underlined. The dominant classification system is called the Linnaean taxonomy . It includes ranks and binomial nomenclature . The classification, taxonomy , and nomenclature of zoological organisms

5590-448: Is the scientific study of animals . Its studies include the structure , embryology , classification , habits , and distribution of all animals, both living and extinct , and how they interact with their ecosystems . Zoology is one of the primary branches of biology . The term is derived from Ancient Greek ζῷον , zōion ('animal'), and λόγος , logos ('knowledge', 'study'). Although humans have always been interested in

5720-614: Is the subfield of biology that studies the evolutionary processes (natural selection, common descent, speciation) that produced the diversity of life on Earth. Evolutionary research is concerned with the origin and descent of species , as well as their change over time, and includes scientists from many taxonomically oriented disciplines. For example, it generally involves scientists who have special training in particular organisms such as mammalogy , ornithology , herpetology , or entomology , but use those organisms as systems to answer general questions about evolution. Evolutionary biology

5850-611: The Canary Islands with Hermann Fol . On 17 October 1866 he arrived in London. Over the next few days he met Charles Lyell , and visited Thomas Huxley and family at their home. On 21 October he visited Charles Darwin at Down House in Kent. In 1867 he married Agnes Huschke. Their son Walter was born in 1868, their daughters Elizabeth in 1871 and Emma in 1873. In 1869 he traveled as a researcher to Norway , in 1871 to Croatia (where he lived on

5980-551: The German Zoological Society , rejects the idea of human " races " and distances itself from the racial theories of Ernst Haeckel and other 20th century scientists. It claims that genetic variation between human populations is smaller than within them, demonstrating that the biological concept of "races" is invalid. The statement highlights that there are no specific genes or genetic markers that match with conventional racial categorizations . It also indicates that

6110-630: The Stari Grad Plain , now a UNESCO World Heritage Site . In medieval times, the town of Hvar rose to importance within the Venetian Empire as a major naval base. Prosperity brought culture and the arts, with one of the first public theatres in Europe, nobles' palaces and many fine communal buildings. The 16th century was an unsettled time, with the Hvar Rebellion , coastal raids by pirates and

6240-545: The anatomy of different groups. It is closely related to evolutionary biology and phylogeny (the evolution of species). Physiology studies the mechanical, physical, and biochemical processes of living organisms by attempting to understand how all of the structures function as a whole. The theme of "structure to function" is central to biology. Physiological studies have traditionally been divided into plant physiology and animal physiology , but some principles of physiology are universal, no matter what particular organism

6370-483: The asteroid 12323 Haeckel . In Jena he is remembered with a monument at Herrenberg (erected in 1969), an exhibition at Ernst-Haeckel-Haus, and at the Jena Phyletic Museum , which continues to teach about evolution and share his work to this day. The ratfish, Harriotta haeckeli is named in his honor. The research vessel Ernst Haeckel is named in his honor. In 1981, a botanical journal called Ernstia

6500-455: The missing link was to be found on the lost continent of Lemuria located in the Indian Ocean. He believed that Lemuria was the home of the first humans and that Asia was the home of many of the earliest primates ; he thus supported that Asia was the cradle of hominid evolution. Haeckel also claimed that Lemuria connected Asia and Africa, which allowed the migration of humans to the rest of

6630-550: The proximate causes of the behavior, the developmental history of the organism, the survival value and phylogeny of the behavior? Another area of study is animal cognition , which uses laboratory experiments and carefully controlled field studies to investigate an animal's intelligence and learning. Biogeography studies the spatial distribution of organisms on the Earth , focusing on topics like dispersal and migration , plate tectonics , climate change , and cladistics . It

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6760-399: The taxonomist . Originally it was thought that species were immutable, but with the arrival of Darwin's theory of evolution, the field of cladistics came into being, studying the relationships between the different groups or clades . Systematics is the study of the diversification of living forms, the evolutionary history of a group is known as its phylogeny , and the relationship between

6890-542: The 16th century. During the Renaissance and early modern period, zoological thought was revolutionized in Europe by a renewed interest in empiricism and the discovery of many novel organisms. Prominent in this movement were Andreas Vesalius and William Harvey , who used experimentation and careful observation in physiology , and naturalists such as Carl Linnaeus , Jean-Baptiste Lamarck , and Buffon who began to classify

7020-470: The 1980s, developmental biology re-entered evolutionary biology from its initial exclusion from the modern synthesis through the study of evolutionary developmental biology . Related fields often considered part of evolutionary biology are phylogenetics , systematics , and taxonomy . Ethology is the scientific and objective study of animal behavior under natural conditions, as opposed to behaviorism , which focuses on behavioral response studies in

7150-471: The French perfume industry. However, this prosperity did not continue into the 20th century as wooden sailing boats went out of fashion, and the phylloxera blight hit wine production. Many islanders left to make a new life elsewhere. One industry, tourism , has however continued to grow and is now a significant contributor to the island's economy. The formation of The Hygienic Association of Hvar in 1868 for

7280-503: The German Romantic movement , coupled with his acceptance of a form of Lamarckism , influenced his political beliefs. Rather than being a strict Darwinian , Haeckel believed that the characteristics of an organism were acquired through interactions with the environment and that ontogeny reflected phylogeny . He saw the social sciences as instances of "applied biology", and that phrase was picked up and used for Nazi propaganda. He

7410-687: The German tradition of Naturphilosophie going back to Goethe and with the progressive evolutionism of Lamarck in what he called Darwinismus . He used morphology to reconstruct the evolutionary history of life , in the absence of fossil evidence using embryology as evidence of ancestral relationships. He invented new terms, including ontogeny and phylogeny , to present his evolutionised recapitulation theory that "ontogeny recapitulated phylogeny". The two massive volumes sold poorly, and were heavy going: with his limited understanding of German, Darwin found them impossible to read. Haeckel's publisher turned down

7540-798: The Hvar Channel ( Hvarski kanal ), to the west is Vis , separated by the Vis Channel, and to the south Korčula lies across the Korčula Channel, while the Pelješac Peninsula is across the Neretva Channel. The eastern end of Hvar is just 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) from the mainland. Along the southern coast of the island there are several smaller islands, notably the Paklinski islands at the western end and Šćedro island, while Zečevo island lies off

7670-650: The Hvar indigenes in their resistance to the Greek colonization. The first coins which Pharos minted after the war depicted a goat standing opposed to a snake. The two animals symbolize the Pharian Greeks (goat) and the Illyrians (snake). Their victory over much larger forces was immortalized in one of the oldest known inscriptions of Croatia. Following Roman victory in the Second Illyrian War against Demetrius of Pharos ,

7800-570: The Ottoman army from the mainland, resulting in some unusual fortified buildings on the northern shore to protect the local population. After a brief time under Napoleonic rule , the island became part of the Austrian Empire , a more peaceful and prosperous time. On the coast, harbours were expanded, quays built, fishing and boat building businesses grew. At the same time, the island's wine exports increased, along with lavender and rosemary production for

7930-583: The Republic of Venice finally again became its long-term owner. The island became prosperous from fishing, and the cultivation of rosemary, lavender and olives. Hvar is important to the history of Croatia as it was one of the centres of Croatian literature during the Renaissance , with writers such as Petar Hektorović and Hanibal Lucić . In Stari Grad, tourists can see the Petar Hektorović fortress/villa called Tvrdalj Castle , architectonically designed by

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8060-442: The adult of another species, showing affinity to an archetype but no relation to other types or any transmutation of species . By the time Haeckel was teaching he was able to use a textbook with woodcut illustrations written by his own teacher Albert von Kölliker , which purported to explain human development while also using other mammalian embryos to claim a coherent sequence. Despite the significance to ideas of transformism, this

8190-508: The anatomist-physiologist Johannes Peter Müller (1801–1858). Together with Hermann Steudner he attended botany lectures in Würzburg. In 1857 Haeckel attained a doctorate in medicine, and afterwards he received the license to practice medicine. The occupation of physician appeared less worthwhile to Haeckel after contact with suffering patients. Haeckel studied under Carl Gegenbaur at the University of Jena for three years. In 1861 he earned

8320-449: The animals and plants, considering the adaptations of different organisms and the function of their parts. Four hundred years later, Roman physician Galen dissected animals to study their anatomy and the function of the different parts, because the dissection of human cadavers was prohibited at the time. This resulted in some of his conclusions being false, but for many centuries it was considered heretical to challenge any of his views, so

8450-536: The assistance of visitors to the island has been instrumental in developing an infrastructure of hotels, apartments, restaurants, marinas, museums, galleries and cafés . Today, the island of Hvar is a tourist destination, consistently listed in the top 10 islands by Conde Nast Traveler magazine. The island of Hvar is located in the Adriatic Sea , off the Dalmatian coast. To the north, the island of Brač lies across

8580-504: The book's first publication in 1899; ultimately, over 400,000 copies were sold. Haeckel argued that human evolution consisted of precisely 22 phases, the 21st – the " missing link " – being a halfway step between apes and humans. He even formally named this missing link Pithecanthropus alalus , translated as "ape man without speech". Zoologist Zoology ( UK : / z u ˈ ɒ l ə dʒ i / zoo- OL -ə-jee , US : / z oʊ ˈ ɒ l ə dʒ i / zoh- OL -ə-jee )

8710-427: The cells have nuclei or not, as well as differences in the chemical composition of the cell exteriors. Further, each kingdom is broken down recursively until each species is separately classified. The order is: Domain ; kingdom ; phylum ; class ; order ; family ; genus ; species . The scientific name of an organism is generated from its genus and species. For example, humans are listed as Homo sapiens . Homo

8840-434: The clades can be shown diagrammatically in a cladogram . Although someone who made a scientific study of animals would historically have described themselves as a zoologist, the term has come to refer to those who deal with individual animals, with others describing themselves more specifically as physiologists, ethologists, evolutionary biologists, ecologists, pharmacologists, endocrinologists or parasitologists. Although

8970-514: The claims of fraud. It was later said that "there is evidence of sleight of hand" on both sides of the feud between Haeckel and Wilhelm His . Robert J. Richards , in a paper published in 2008, defends the case for Haeckel, shedding doubt against the fraud accusations based on the material used for comparison with what Haeckel could access at the time. Haeckel was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society in 1885. He

9100-502: The comparative study of languages, which for the Stammbaum of the species of men is of the highest significance, namely that human languages probably had a multiple or polyphyletic origin. Human language as such probably developed only after the species of speechless Urmenschen or Affenmenschen ( German : ape-men ) had split into several species or kinds. With each of these human species, language developed on its own and independently of

9230-514: The determination of the double helical structure of the DNA molecule by Francis Crick and James Watson in 1953, the realm of molecular biology opened up, leading to advances in cell biology , developmental biology and molecular genetics . The study of systematics was transformed as DNA sequencing elucidated the degrees of affinity between different organisms. Zoology is the branch of science dealing with animals . A species can be defined as

9360-643: The discovery of the structure of DNA by Francis Crick and James Watson in 1953, the realm of molecular biology opened up, leading to advances in cell biology , developmental biology and molecular genetics . The history of zoology traces the study of the animal kingdom from ancient to modern times. Prehistoric people needed to study the animals and plants in their environment to exploit them and survive. Cave paintings, engravings and sculptures in France dating back 15,000 years show bison, horses, and deer in carefully rendered detail. Similar images from other parts of

9490-456: The diversity of life and the fossil record , as well as studying the development and behavior of organisms. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek did pioneering work in microscopy and revealed the previously unknown world of microorganisms , laying the groundwork for cell theory . van Leeuwenhoek's observations were endorsed by Robert Hooke ; all living organisms were composed of one or more cells and could not generate spontaneously. Cell theory provided

9620-595: The early Middle Ages, Slavic tribes occupied the island. In the first half of the 7th century the Narentines took over the island. Venetian sailors saw the island while sailing towards the south and were threatened by the Narentine pirates from the island. In the 11th century the island joined the Kingdom of Croatia . In the 12th century, the rise of the Republic of Venice brought vines and wine cultivation which blossomed into

9750-410: The evolutionary trees being shown to non-experts. Though he made no suggestion that embryo illustrations should be directly based on specimens, to him the subject demanded the utmost "scrupulosity and conscientiousness" and an artist must "not arbitrarily model or generalise his originals for speculative purposes" which he considered proved by comparison with works by other authors. In particular, "one and

9880-400: The field of study, concluding that "Embryology rises greatly in interest, when we thus look at the embryo as a picture, more or less obscured, of the common parent-form of each great class of animals." It mentioned von Baer's 1828 anecdote (misattributing it to Louis Agassiz ) that at an early stage embryos were so similar that it could be impossible to tell whether an unlabelled specimen was of

10010-459: The form he gave it (now called "strong recapitulation"), in favour of the ideas first advanced by Karl Ernst von Baer . The strong recapitulation hypothesis views ontogeny as repeating forms of adult ancestors, while weak recapitulation means that what is repeated (and built upon) is the ancestral embryonic development process. Haeckel supported the theory with embryo drawings that have since been shown to be oversimplified and in part inaccurate, and

10140-404: The forms of macroscopic structures such as organs and organ systems. It focuses on how organs and organ systems work together in the bodies of humans and other animals, in addition to how they work independently. Anatomy and cell biology are two studies that are closely related, and can be categorized under "structural" studies. Comparative anatomy is the study of similarities and differences in

10270-431: The foundations for biogeography , ecology and ethology . Naturalists began to reject essentialism and consider the importance of extinction and the mutability of species . These developments, as well as the results from embryology and paleontology , were synthesized in the 1859 publication of Charles Darwin 's theory of evolution by natural selection ; in this Darwin placed the theory of organic evolution on

10400-423: The ground. Farming in such areas requires careful conservation of water and protection of the soil against erosion. The water cisterns in the fields, and the dry-stone walls, especially terracing on the slopes are necessary for the continued success of agriculture on the island. The island has a typical Mediterranean vegetation , mostly bare with woody scrub at higher, steeper elevations, turning to pine forests on

10530-474: The head of all the races of men, as the most highly developed and perfect. It is generally called the Caucasian race, but as, among all the varieties of the species, the Caucasian branch is the least important, we prefer the much more suitable appellation proposed by Friedrich Müller , namely, that of Mediterranese . For the most important varieties of this species, which are moreover the most eminent actors in what

10660-462: The idea of "races" is based on racism rather than any scientific factuality. Haeckel claimed the origin of humanity was to be found in Asia: he believed that Hindustan (Indian subcontinent) was the actual location where the first humans had evolved. Haeckel argued that humans were closely related to the primates of Southeast Asia and rejected Darwin's hypothesis of Africa. Haeckel later claimed that

10790-512: The illustrations were praised by experts such as Michael Foster of the University of Cambridge . In the introduction to his 1871 The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex , Darwin gave particular praise to Haeckel, writing that if Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte "had appeared before my essay had been written, I should probably never have completed it". The first chapter included an illustration: "As some of my readers may never have seen

10920-450: The influential but no longer widely held recapitulation theory ("ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny") claiming that an individual organism's biological development, or ontogeny , parallels and summarises its species' evolutionary development, or phylogeny . The published artwork of Haeckel includes over 100 detailed, multi-colour illustrations of animals and sea creatures , collected in his Kunstformen der Natur ("Art Forms of Nature"),

11050-476: The interactions of molecules in their own right such as in cell biology and developmental biology , or indirectly, where molecular techniques are used to infer historical attributes of populations or species , as in fields in evolutionary biology such as population genetics and phylogenetics . There is also a long tradition of studying biomolecules "from the ground up", or molecularly, in biophysics . Animals generally reproduce by sexual reproduction ,

11180-726: The island became a part of the Roman Republic in 219 BC and the Greek name Pharos was changed to Pharia. After the fall of the Roman Empire in the west, the island was under the control of the Byzantine or Eastern Roman Empire. The population increased in the Late Antiquity with an abundance of archaeological finds. A large number of new villa rustica in Stari Grad Plain and also on the previously vacant eastern shores were built. In

11310-534: The island in 1815 with the Treaty of Vienna . The beginning of the 20th century brought a period of relative prosperity. The Italian army occupied the island from 1918 until 1921, when Hvar with the rest of Croatia joined the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . In 1939, an autonomous Croatian Banate was formed that included the island. During WWII, it was under the control of Independent State of Croatia , but under military occupation of Fascist Italy until 1943. After 1945, it became

11440-453: The island initially was known as Paros (Πάρος) because it was colonized by Greeks from the island of Paros in Aegean , and later as Pharos (Φάρος) "lighthouse". However, it is not clear if the name really comes from the Greek word for lighthouse. It was more likely an Illyrian word "Fara" that in modern Albanian, translates to seed!since it is unlikely that the lighthouse preceded the name for

11570-507: The island of Hvar in a monastery), and in 1873 to Egypt , Turkey , and Greece . In 1907 he had a museum built in Jena to teach the public about evolution . Haeckel retired from teaching in 1909, and in 1910 he withdrew from the Evangelical Church of Prussia . On the occasion of his 80th birthday celebration he was presented with a two-volume work entitled Was wir Ernst Haeckel verdanken (What We Owe to Ernst Haeckel) , edited at

11700-598: The island. During the 3rd century BC, the Greek poet Apollonius of Rhodes referred to it as Piteyeia – a name derived from the Greek word pitys , meaning pine tree . From the 7th century onwards, the Byzantine Theme of Dalmatia , including Fara , was settled by the Pannonian Avars and Croats . However, the population initially remained culturally Illyro-Roman and part of the Byzantine Roman world. Under

11830-404: The largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate sex can produce fertile offspring; about 1.5 million species of animal have been described and it has been estimated that as many as 8 million animal species may exist. An early necessity was to identify the organisms and group them according to their characteristics, differences and relationships, and this is the field of

11960-626: The linguistic influence of the newcomers, the official name became Quarra – because the Slavic languages did not originally have the /f/-sound . Later, the name was Slavicised further as Hvar. Since the late 11th century, the Italian name of the island has been Lesina or, in Venetian , Liesena . These names appear to have their origin in the Proto-Slavic root les- , meaning "wood" or "forest". Liesena

12090-434: The lower slopes with holm oak , Aleppo pines ( Pinus halapensis ) and black pines ( Pinus nigra dalmatica ). The islet of Šćedro is especially rich in various Mediterranean trees and plants. Hvar island is 68 kilometres (42 mi) long, and only 10.5 kilometres (6.5 mi) at its widest point. It covers an area of 297 square kilometres (115 sq mi), the 4th largest of the Adriatic islands by area, and has

12220-478: The most attractive tourist centres in Europe. The island promotes itself as "the sunniest spot in Europe", with over 2715 hours of sunlight in an average year. Hvar town is the main tourist centre. It features a large public square (St Stephen's Square/ trg Sv. Stjepana ) that is open to the sea. During the tourist season, the port is filled with large yachts and sailboats . All-night discos attract large crowds of young visitors. Another major economic activity

12350-443: The most civilised: for instance, he claimed that '[t]he Negro' had stronger and more freely movable toes than any other race, which, he argued, was evidence of their being less evolved, and which led him to compare them to ' "four-handed" Apes'. In his Ontogeny and Phylogeny Harvard paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould wrote: "[Haeckel's] evolutionary racism; his call to the German people for racial purity and unflinching devotion to

12480-831: The natural history of the animals they saw around them, and used this knowledge to domesticate certain species, the formal study of zoology can be said to have originated with Aristotle . He viewed animals as living organisms, studied their structure and development, and considered their adaptations to their surroundings and the function of their parts. Modern zoology has its origins during the Renaissance and early modern period, with Carl Linnaeus , Antonie van Leeuwenhoek , Robert Hooke , Charles Darwin , Gregor Mendel and many others. The study of animals has largely moved on to deal with form and function, adaptations, relationships between groups, behaviour and ecology. Zoology has increasingly been subdivided into disciplines such as classification , physiology , biochemistry and evolution . With

12610-412: The north coast. Hvar is a high east–west ridge of Mesozoic limestone and dolomite , which was part of the mainland until approximately 11,000 years ago. Around that time, sea levels rose, filling the valleys that are now the channels between the islands. Hvar has a typical karst landscape, which means limited or no surface water, despite adequate rainfall, which disappears quickly into crevices in

12740-412: The others. At least this is the view of Schleicher, one of the foremost authorities on this subject. ... If one views the origin of the branches of language as the special and principal act of becoming human, and the species of humankind as distinguished according to their language stem, then one can say that the different species of men arose independently of one another. Haeckel's view can be seen as

12870-703: The poet himself. Churches on the island contain many important paintings and artworks by famous Venetian artists, including Tintoretto , Veronese , Bellini and others. In 1797 Hvar was annexed with the fall of the Venetian Republic by the Habsburg monarchy as per the Treaty of Campo Formio . But forces of the French Empire seized it in 1806 during the Napoleonic wars before finally being taken by British marines and sailors in 1812. The Austrians regained control of

13000-586: The previous controversial image of the heads of apes and humans. Later in 1874, Haeckel's simplified embryology textbook Anthropogenie made the subject into a battleground over Darwinism aligned with Bismarck's Kulturkampf ("culture struggle") against the Catholic Church. Haeckel took particular care over the illustrations, changing to the leading zoological publisher Wilhelm Engelmann of Leipzig and obtaining from them use of illustrations from their other textbooks as well as preparing his own drawings including

13130-517: The processes by which animals and plants reproduce and grow. The discipline includes the study of embryonic development , cellular differentiation , regeneration , asexual and sexual reproduction , metamorphosis , and the growth and differentiation of stem cells in the adult organism. Development of both animals and plants is further considered in the articles on evolution , population genetics , heredity , genetic variability , Mendelian inheritance , and reproduction . Evolutionary biology

13260-493: The questions regarding the mechanisms of genetic inheritance and the structure of the gene . In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick described the structure of DNA and the interactions within the molecule, and this publication jump-started research into molecular biology and increased interest in the subject. While researchers practice techniques specific to molecular biology, it is common to combine these with methods from genetics and biochemistry . Much of molecular biology

13390-673: The request of the German Monistenbund by Heinrich Schmidt of Jena. In 1864, his first wife, Anna Sethe, died. Haeckel dedicated some species of jellyfish that he found beautiful (such as Desmonema annasethe ) to her. Haeckel's second wife, Agnes, died in 1915, and he became substantially frailer, breaking his leg and arm. He sold his "Villa Medusa" in Jena in 1918 to the Carl Zeiss foundation , which preserved his library. Haeckel died on 9 August 1919. In Monism as Connecting Religion and Science (1892), he argued in favor of monism as

13520-494: The results of his own investigations. His general approach was surprisingly modern, and he wrote, "For it is [the task] of natural science not simply to accept what we are told but to inquire into the causes of natural things." An early pioneer was Conrad Gessner , whose monumental 4,500-page encyclopedia of animals, Historia animalium , was published in four volumes between 1551 and 1558. In Europe, Galen's work on anatomy remained largely unsurpassed and unchallenged up until

13650-503: The rise of the germ theory of disease , though the mechanism of inheritance remained a mystery. In the early 20th century, the rediscovery of Mendel's work led to the rapid development of genetics , and by the 1930s the combination of population genetics and natural selection in the modern synthesis created evolutionary biology . Research in cell biology is interconnected to other fields such as genetics, biochemistry , medical microbiology , immunology , and cytochemistry . With

13780-739: The same line of thought, historian Daniel Gasman states that Haeckel's ideology stimulated the birth of Fascist ideology in Italy and France. However, in 2009 Robert J. Richards noted: "Haeckel, on his travels to Ceylon and Indonesia, often formed closer and more intimate relations with natives, even members of the untouchable classes, than with the European colonials." and says the Nazis rejected Haeckel, since he opposed antisemitism, while supporting ideas they disliked (for instance atheism, feminism, internationalism, pacifism etc.). The Jena Declaration , published by

13910-437: The same, moreover incorrectly interpreted woodcut, is presented to the reader three times in a row and with three different captions as [the] embryo of the dog, the chick, [and] the turtle". He accused Haeckel of "playing fast and loose with the public and with science", and failing to live up to the obligation to the truth of every serious researcher. Haeckel responded with angry accusations of bowing to religious prejudice, but in

14040-442: The second (1870) edition changed the duplicated embryo images to a single image captioned "embryo of a mammal or bird". Duplication using galvanoplastic stereotypes ( clichés ) was a common technique in textbooks, but not on the same page to represent different eggs or embryos. In 1891 Haeckel made the excuse that this "extremely rash foolishness" had occurred in undue haste but was "bona fide", and since repetition of incidental details

14170-499: The structures and mechanisms specific to those groups. The rest of the animal kingdom is dealt with by invertebrate zoology , a vast and very diverse group of animals that includes sponges , echinoderms , tunicates , worms , molluscs , arthropods and many other phyla , but single-celled organisms or protists are not usually included. Cell biology studies the structural and physiological properties of cells , including their behavior , interactions, and environment . This

14300-529: The study of anatomy stultified. During the post-classical era , Middle Eastern science and medicine was the most advanced in the world, integrating concepts from Ancient Greece, Rome, Mesopotamia and Persia as well as the ancient Indian tradition of Ayurveda , while making numerous advances and innovations. In the 13th century, Albertus Magnus produced commentaries and paraphrases of all Aristotle's works; his books on topics like botany , zoology, and minerals included information from ancient sources, but also

14430-516: The study of animal life is ancient, its scientific incarnation is relatively modern. This mirrors the transition from natural history to biology at the start of the 19th century. Since Hunter and Cuvier , comparative anatomical study has been associated with morphography , shaping the modern areas of zoological investigation: anatomy , physiology , histology , embryology , teratology and ethology . Modern zoology first arose in German and British universities. In Britain, Thomas Henry Huxley

14560-435: The theory is now considered an oversimplification of quite complicated relationships, however comparison of embryos remains a powerful way to demonstrate that all animals are related. Haeckel introduced the concept of heterochrony , the change in timing of embryonic development over the course of evolution. Haeckel was a flamboyant figure, who sometimes took great, non-scientific leaps from available evidence. For example, at

14690-635: The time when Darwin published On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859), Haeckel postulated that evidence of human evolution would be found in the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia ). At that time, no remains of human ancestors had yet been identified. He described these theoretical remains in great detail and even named the as-yet unfound species, Pithecanthropus alalus , and instructed his students such as Richard and Oskar Hertwig to go and find it. One student did find some remains:

14820-433: The time. Darwin gave a new direction to morphology and physiology , by uniting them in a common biological theory: the theory of organic evolution. The result was a reconstruction of the classification of animals upon a genealogical basis, fresh investigation of the development of animals, and early attempts to determine their genetic relationships. The end of the 19th century saw the fall of spontaneous generation and

14950-426: The tiny forms under a reflecting microscope, with the translucent tissues seen against a black background. Developmental series were used to show stages within a species, but inconsistent views and stages made it even more difficult to compare different species. It was agreed by all European evolutionists that all vertebrates looked very similar at an early stage, in what was thought of as a common ideal type, but there

15080-470: The view most compatible with the current scientific understanding of the natural world. His perspective of monism was pantheistic and impersonal. The monistic idea of God, which alone is compatible with our present knowledge of nature, recognizes the divine spirit in all things. It can never recognise in God a "personal being," or, in other words, an individual of limited extension in space, or even of human form. God

15210-476: The wider Mediterranean . It has been inhabited since prehistoric times, originally by a Neolithic people whose distinctive pottery gave rise to the term Hvar culture , and later by the Illyrians . The ancient Greeks founded the colony of Pharos in 384 BC on the site of today's Stari Grad , making it one of the oldest towns in Europe . They were also responsible for setting out the agricultural field divisions of

15340-489: The world illustrated mostly the animals hunted for food and the savage animals. The Neolithic Revolution , which is characterized by the domestication of animals , continued throughout Antiquity. Ancient knowledge of wildlife is illustrated by the realistic depictions of wild and domestic animals in the Near East, Mesopotamia, and Egypt, including husbandry practices and techniques, hunting and fishing. The invention of writing

15470-425: The world. In Haeckel's book The History of Creation (1884) he included migration routes which he thought the first humans had used outside of Lemuria. When Haeckel was a student in the 1850s he showed great interest in embryology , attending the rather unpopular lectures twice and in his notes sketched the visual aids: textbooks had few illustrations, and large format plates were used to show students how to see

15600-501: Was a continuing debate from the 1820s between the Romantic recapitulation theory that human embryos developed through stages of the forms of all the major groups of adult animals, literally manifesting a sequence of organisms on a linear chain of being , and Karl Ernst von Baer 's opposing view, stated in von Baer's laws of embryology , that the early general forms diverged into four major groups of specialised forms without ever resembling

15730-502: Was a prominent figure. His ideas were centered on the morphology of animals. Many consider him the greatest comparative anatomist of the latter half of the 19th century. Similar to Hunter , his courses were composed of lectures and laboratory practical classes in contrast to the previous format of lectures only. Scientific classification in zoology , is a method by which zoologists group and categorize organisms by biological type , such as genus or species . Biological classification

15860-714: Was a technical book rather than a work of popular science: long, difficult and with few illustrations. One of Haeckel's books did a great deal to explain his version of " Darwinism " to the world. It was a bestselling, provocatively illustrated book in German, titled Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte , published in Berlin in 1868, and translated into English as The History of Creation in 1876. Until 1909, eleven editions had appeared, as well as 25 translations into other languages. The Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte cemented Haeckel's reputation as one of Germany's most forceful popularizers of science. His Welträthsel were reprinted ten times after

15990-696: Was awarded the title of Excellency by Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1907 and the Linnean Society of London 's prestigious Darwin-Wallace Medal in 1908. In the United States, Mount Haeckel , a 13,418 ft (4,090 m) summit in the Eastern Sierra Nevada , overlooking the Evolution Basin, is named in his honour, as is another Mount Haeckel , a 2,941 m (9,649 ft) summit in New Zealand ; and

16120-412: Was charged with fraud by five professors and convicted by a university court at Jena, there does not appear to be an independently verifiable source for this claim. Recent analyses (Richardson 1998, Richardson and Keuck 2002) have found that some of the criticisms of Haeckel's embryo drawings were legitimate, but others were unfounded. There were multiple versions of the embryo drawings, and Haeckel rejected

16250-438: Was not really polite enough for the new popular science writing, and was a matter for medical institutions and for experts who could make their own comparisons. Darwin's On the Origin of Species , which made a powerful impression on Haeckel when he read it in 1864, was very cautious about the possibility of ever reconstructing the history of life, but did include a section reinterpreting von Baer's embryology and revolutionising

16380-500: Was obvious on close inspection, it is unlikely to have been intentional deception. The revised 1870 second edition of 1,500 copies attracted more attention, being quickly followed by further revised editions with larger print runs as the book became a prominent part of the optimistic, nationalist, anticlerical "culture of progress" in Otto von Bismarck 's new German Empire . The similarity of early vertebrate embryos became common knowledge, and

16510-497: Was one of the first to consider psychology as a branch of physiology . He also proposed the kingdom Protista in 1866. His chief interests lay in evolution and life development processes in general, including development of nonrandom form, which culminated in the beautifully illustrated Kunstformen der Natur ( Art forms of nature ). Haeckel did not support natural selection , rather believing in Lamarckism . Haeckel advanced

16640-471: Was started being published in the city of Maracay , Venezuela. In 2013, Ernstia , a genus of calcareous sponges in the family Clathrinidae . The genus was erected to contain five species previously assigned to Clathrina . The genus name honors Ernst Haeckel for his contributions towards sponge taxonomy and phylogeny. Darwin's 1859 book On the Origin of Species had immense popular influence, but although its sales exceeded its publisher's hopes it

16770-693: Was the first person to characterize the Great War the "first" World War, which he did as early as 1914. Ernst Haeckel was born on 16 February 1834, in Potsdam (then part of the Kingdom of Prussia ). In 1852 Haeckel completed studies at the Domgymnasium , the cathedral high-school of Merseburg . He then studied medicine in Berlin and Würzburg , particularly with Albert von Kölliker , Franz Leydig , Rudolf Virchow (with whom he later worked briefly as assistant), and with

16900-458: Was the first person to use the term "first world war" about World War I . However, Haeckel's books were banned by the Nazi Party, which refused Monism and Haeckel's freedom of thought. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that Haeckel had often overtly recognized the great contribution of educated Jews to the German culture. Haeckel was a zoologist , an accomplished artist and illustrator, and later

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