64-404: Ernst Karl Abbe HonFRMS (23 January 1840 – 14 January 1905) was a German businessman, optical engineer, physicist, and social reformer. Together with Otto Schott and Carl Zeiss , he developed numerous optical instruments. He was also a co-owner of Carl Zeiss AG , a German manufacturer of scientific microscopes, astronomical telescopes, planetariums, and other advanced optical systems. Abbe
128-417: A boundary or in an enclosed space. Helmholtz scientific work in physiology and mechanics occasioned much that he is known for in philosophy of science , including ideas on the relation between the laws of perception and the laws of nature and his rejection of the exclusive use of Euclidean geometry . His philosophy of science wavered between some version of empiricism and transcendentalism . Despite
192-411: A formula for the resolution limit of a microscope. In 1876, Abbe was offered a partnership by Zeiss and began to share in the considerable profits. Although the first theoretical derivations of Eq. 1 were published by others, it is fair to say that Abbe was the first to reach this conclusion experimentally. In 1878, he built the first homogenous immersion system for the microscope. The objectives that
256-680: A member of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities . He also was a member of the Saxon Academy of Sciences. He was relieved of his teaching duties at the University of Jena in 1891. Abbe died 14 January 1905 in Jena. He was an atheist. In 1866, he became a research director at the Zeiss Optical Works , and in 1868 he invented the apochromatic lens , a microscope lens which eliminates both
320-466: A muscle. This was a rejection of the speculative tradition of Naturphilosophie and vitalism which was at that time a dominant philosophical paradigm in German physiology. He was working against the argument, promoted by some vitalists, that "living force" can power a machine indefinitely. Drawing on the earlier work of Sadi Carnot , Benoît Paul Émile Clapeyron and James Prescott Joule , he postulated
384-617: A priori science of physical space . Helmholtz introduced a new conception of the a priori in space: that of the determination of the manifold of possible orientations in perceptual space. These developments inspired new readings of Kant and contributed to the rise of late modern neo-Kantianism movement in philosophy. Other students and research associates of Helmholtz at Berlin included Max Planck , Heinrich Kayser , Eugen Goldstein , Wilhelm Wien , Arthur König , Henry Augustus Rowland , Albert A. Michelson , Wilhelm Wundt , Fernando Sanford and Michael I. Pupin . Leo Koenigsberger , who
448-454: A professor in Jena , he was hired by Carl Zeiss to improve the manufacturing process of optical instruments, which back then was largely based on trial and error. Abbe was the first to define the term numerical aperture , as the sine of the half angle multiplied by the refractive index of the medium filling the space between the cover glass and front lens. Abbe is credited by many for discovering
512-448: A recently dissected sciatic nerve of a frog and the calf muscle to which it attached. He used a galvanometer as a sensitive timing device, attaching a mirror to the needle to reflect a light beam across the room to a scale which gave much greater sensitivity. Helmholtz reported transmission speeds in the range of 24.6 – 38.4 meters per second. In 1863, Helmholtz published Sensations of Tone , once again demonstrating his interest in
576-468: A relationship between mechanics , heat , light , electricity and magnetism by treating them all as manifestations of a single force , or energy in today's terminology. He published his theories in his book Über die Erhaltung der Kraft ( On the Conservation of Force , 1847). In the 1850s and 60s, building on the publications of William Thomson , Helmholtz and William Rankine helped popularize
640-475: A study of the mind as something separate. Helmholtz had, in his early repudiation of Naturphilosophie , stressed the importance of materialism , and was focusing more on the unity of "mind" and body. In 1851, Helmholtz revolutionized the field of ophthalmology with the invention of the ophthalmoscope ; an instrument used to examine the inside of the human eye . This made him world-famous overnight. Helmholtz's interests at that time were increasingly focused on
704-466: A university lecturer at the University of Jena. In 1870, he accepted a contract as an associate professor of experimental physics , mechanics and mathematics in Jena. In 1871, he married Else Snell, daughter of the mathematician and physicist Karl Snell, one of Abbe's teachers, with whom he had two daughters. He attained full professor status by 1879. He became director of the Jena astronomical and meteorological observatory in 1878. In 1889, he became
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#1733085607256768-514: A wide range of backgrounds within the biological and physical sciences, covering all areas of microscopy and cytometry. After three years of continuous Ordinary Membership, members are invited to become a Fellow of the Society after a set number of criteria have been met, which allows for individuals to benefit from voting and election rights as well as the use of the post-nominal letters FRMS after their names. The Society's by-laws previously limited
832-454: A year, infocus is free to members. The Society is heavily involved with outreach activities, particularly those aimed at children, where the aim is to interest them in science as a whole as opposed to simply lab work. In late 2015, the Society was one of many "subject experts" consulted by awarding organisations as a part of a consultation by the Department for Education regarding reforms to
896-490: Is a learned society for the promotion of microscopy . It was founded in 1839 as the Microscopical Society of London making it the oldest organisation of its kind in the world. In 1866, the Society gained its royal charter and took its current name. Founded as a society of amateurs, its membership consists of individuals of all skill levels in numerous related fields from throughout the world. Every year since 1841,
960-525: Is attained via a flexible portfolio-based course of study that is designed by the candidate with the assistance of their line-manager, and with input from existing Fellows of the Society. This approach ensures that the study is both challenging and rewarding whilst fitting with, and complementing, the candidate's existing employment. Each year the RMS hosts a programme of meetings, courses and conferences, including virtual (online) meetings. The Society's flagship event
1024-597: Is the Microscience Microscopy Congress (mmc) Series, which usually takes place every two years. These events provide opportunities for keeping abreast of the latest developments and attract speakers and delegates active in all areas of science from forensics to flow cytometry, live cell imaging to SPM. Since 2017 the RMS website has hosted a database of women working in microscopy to aid conference and meeting organisers in creating more diverse speaker line-ups for events. Scientists can either add themselves to
1088-524: Is ultimately limited by the aperture of the optics, but also argued that depending on application there are other parameters that should be weighted over the aperture in the design of objectives. In Abbe's 1874 paper, titled "A Contribution to the Theory of the Microscope and the nature of Microscopic Vision", Abbe states that the resolution of a microscope is inversely dependent on its aperture, but without proposing
1152-453: The Abbe number , a measure of any transparent material's variation of refractive index with wavelength and Abbe's criterion, which tests the hypothesis, that a systematic trend exists in a set of observations (in terms of resolving power this criterion stipulates that an angular separation cannot be less than the ratio of the wavelength to the aperture diameter, see angular resolution ). Already
1216-500: The Abbe sine condition . So monumental and advanced were Abbe's calculations and achievements that Frits Zernike based his phase contrast work on them, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1953, and Hans Busch used them to work on the development of the electron microscope . During his association with Carl Zeiss ' microscope works, not only was he at the forefront of the field of optics but also labor reform. He founded
1280-684: The Charité hospital (because there was financial support for medical students). Trained primarily in physiology, Helmholtz wrote on many other topics, ranging from theoretical physics to the age of the Earth , and to the origin of the Solar System . Helmholtz's first academic position was as a teacher of anatomy at the Academy of Arts in Berlin in 1848. He then moved to take a post of associate professor of physiology at
1344-520: The Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin. His first important scientific achievement, an 1847 treatise on the conservation of energy , was written in the context of his medical studies and philosophical background. His work on energy conservation came about while studying muscle metabolism . He tried to demonstrate that no energy is lost in muscle movement, motivated by the implication that there were no vital forces necessary to move
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#17330856072561408-542: The Linnean Society elected her as a fellow in 1908. In September 1989, Royal Mail released a set of four stamps to mark the celebration of the Society's 150th anniversary entitled "Microscopes", one of which being the snowflake, its own logo. In 2017, the Society appointed two patrons, Baroness Brown of Cambridge and Baroness Finlay of Llandaff , both of whom are members of the House of Lords . RMS members come from
1472-549: The interference method by Fizeau , in 1884. Abbe, Zeiss, Zeiss' son, Roderich Zeiss , and Otto Schott formed, in 1884, the Jenaer Glaswerk Schott & Genossen . This company, which in time would in essence merge with Zeiss Optical Works, was responsible for research and production of 44 initial types of optical glass. Working with telescopes , he built an image reversal system in 1895. In order to produce high quality objectives, Abbe made significant contributions to
1536-516: The social democratic Jenaische Zeitung (newspaper) in 1890 and in 1900, introduced the eight-hour workday , in remembrance of the 14-hour workday of his own father. In addition, he created a pension fund and a discharge compensation fund. In 1889, Ernst Abbe set up and endowed the Carl Zeiss Foundation for research in science. The aim of the foundation was "to secure the economic, scientific, and technological future and in this way to improve
1600-510: The 1877 fourth German edition was published in 1885; the 1895 and 1912 third and fourth English editions were reprints of the second). Helmholtz studied the phenomena of electrical oscillations from 1869 to 1871, and in a lecture delivered to the Naturhistorisch-medizinischen Vereins zu Heidelberg (Natural History and Medical Association of Heidelberg) on 30 April 1869, titled On Electrical Oscillations he indicated that
1664-581: The Abbe Zeiss collaboration were producing were of ideal ray geometry, allowing Abbe to find that the aperture sets the upper limit of microscopic resolution, not the curvature and placement of the lenses. Abbe's first publication of Eq. 1 occurred in 1882. In this publication, Abbe states that both his theoretical and experimental investigations confirmed Eq. 1 . Abbe's contemporary Henry Edward Fripp, English translator of Abbe's and Helmholtz's papers, puts their contributions on equal footing. He also perfected
1728-570: The Heidelberg Action Group on Democracy and Free Socialism ). The crater Abbe on the Moon was named in his honour. Abbe was a pioneer in optics, lens design, and microscopy, and an authority of his time. He left us with numerous publications of his findings, inventions, and discoveries. Below is a list of publications he authored including many links to the scanned Google Books pages. HonFRMS The Royal Microscopical Society ( RMS )
1792-630: The Prussian University of Königsberg , where he was appointed in 1849. In 1855 he accepted a full professorship of anatomy and physiology at the University of Bonn . He was not particularly happy in Bonn, however, and three years later he transferred to the University of Heidelberg , in Baden , where he served as professor of physiology. In 1871 he accepted his final university position, as professor of physics at
1856-520: The Rev. C. Pritchard, Edwin John Quekett , M.J. Rippingham, Richard Horsman Solly and Robert Warington . With them, forty-five men were enrolled as members. At its foundation, the Society acquired the best microscopes then obtainable from the three leading makers, Powell & Lealand, Ross, and Smith. The first president of the Society was palaeontologist Sir Richard Owen , who is best known for coining
1920-506: The Society has published its own scientific journal , the Journal of Microscopy , which contains peer-reviewed papers and book reviews. The Society is a registered charity that is dedicated to advancing science, developing careers and supporting wider understanding of science and microscopy through its Outreach activities. Probably the Society's greatest contribution is its standardised 3x1 inches microscope glass slides in 1840, which are still
1984-638: The United Kingdom and Ireland for a term at a time. By December 2014, the Kits had gone from 2 to 50 and had been used by over 20,000 children in the UK. The RMS Diploma, launched in 2012 to replace the former RMS DipTech qualification, aims to help microscopists advance in their careers by improving and refining their skills to gain a distinguished qualification. The Diploma from the Royal Microscopical Society
Ernst Abbe - Misplaced Pages Continue
2048-408: The amplitude of a sound wave can be varied, causing the sound to appear louder or softer, but a linear step in sound pressure amplitude does not result in a linear step in perceived loudness. The physical sound needs to be increased exponentially in order for equal steps to seem linear, a fact that is used in current electronic devices to control volume. Helmholtz paved the way in experimental studies on
2112-418: The conservation of energy and on the electrical double layer , work in electrodynamics , chemical thermodynamics , and on a mechanical foundation of thermodynamics . Although credit is shared with Julius von Mayer , James Joule , and Daniel Bernoulli —among others—for the energy conservation principles that eventually led to the first law of thermodynamics , he is credited with the first formulation of
2176-755: The course content of the subject of Geology at GCE Advanced Level (A-level) in the national curriculum. Other advising parties included the British Geological Survey , the Natural History Museum and the Royal School of Mines . One such method is through the use of the Microscope Activity Kit Scheme starting in March 2011, a free scheme sending fully equipped Kits of microscopes and ready-to-go activities to Primary Schools throughout
2240-442: The database or be nominated for inclusion. Helmholtz Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz ForMemRS ( / ˈ h ɛ l m h oʊ l t s / ; German: [ˈhɛʁ.man vɔn ˈhɛlmˌhɔlts] ; 31 August 1821 – 8 September 1894; "von" since 1883) was a German physicist and physician who made significant contributions in several scientific fields, particularly hydrodynamic stability . The Helmholtz Association ,
2304-403: The diagnosis and correction of optical aberrations , both spherical aberration and coma aberration , which is required for an objective to reach the resolution limit of Eq. 1 . In addition to spherical aberration, Abbe discovered that the rays in optical systems must have constant angular magnification over their angular distribution to produce a diffraction limited spot, a principle known as
2368-513: The editor, covering all aspects of microscopy. It is published on behalf of the Society by Wiley-Blackwell . infocus Magazine is the Society's magazine for members. It provides a common forum for scientists and technologists from all disciplines which use any form of microscope, including all branches of microscopy and microbeam analysis. infocus features articles on microscopy related topics, techniques and developments, reports on RMS events, book reviews, news and much more. Published four times
2432-418: The energy conservation principle in its maximally general form. As a philosopher , he is known for his philosophy of science , ideas on the relation between the laws of perception and the laws of nature , the science of aesthetics , and ideas on the civilizing power of science. By the late nineteenth century, Helmholtz's development of a broadly Kantian methodology, including the a priori determination of
2496-591: The first female Fellow of the Society. Although not permitted to attend meetings, her greatest contribution to the scientific community was of her campaign in gaining women rights to full fellowship of learned societies . In 1900 she sent a letter addressed to the Royal Society and the Linnean Society petitioning that "duly qualified women should be eligible for ordinary Fellowship and, if elected, there should be no restriction forbidding their attendance at meetings". Both societies refused her requests to join, eventually
2560-400: The first to demonstrate electromagnetic radiation . Oliver Heaviside criticised Helmholtz's electromagnetic theory because it allowed the existence of longitudinal waves . Based on work on Maxwell's equations , Heaviside pronounced that longitudinal waves could not exist in a vacuum or a homogeneous medium. Heaviside did not note, however, that longitudinal electromagnetic waves can exist at
2624-440: The handbook, frequently updating his work because of his dispute with Ewald Hering who held opposite views on spatial and colour vision. This dispute divided the discipline of physiology during the second half of the 1800s. In 1849, while at Königsberg, Helmholtz measured the speed at which the signal is carried along a nerve fibre. At that time most people believed that nerve signals passed along nerves immeasurably fast. He used
Ernst Abbe - Misplaced Pages Continue
2688-417: The idea of the heat death of the universe . In fluid dynamics, Helmholtz made several contributions, including Helmholtz's theorems for vortex dynamics in inviscid fluids. Helmholtz was a pioneer in the scientific study of human vision and audition. Inspired by psychophysics , he was interested in the relationships between measurable physical stimuli and their correspondent human perceptions. For example,
2752-608: The job security of their employees." He made it a point that the success of an employee was based solely on their ability and performance, not on their origin, religion, or political views. In 1896, he reorganized the Zeiss optical works into a cooperative with profit-sharing. His social views were so respected as to be used by the Prussian state as a model and idealized by Alfred Weber in the 1947 book Schriften der Heidelberger Aktionsgruppe zur Demokratie und Zum Freien Sozialismus ( Writings of
2816-427: The largest German association of research institutions , was named in his honour. In the fields of physiology and psychology , Helmholtz is known for his mathematics concerning the eye , theories of vision , ideas on the visual perception of space, colour vision research, the sensation of tone, perceptions of sound, and empiricism in the physiology of perception. In physics , he is known for his theories on
2880-480: The manifold of possible orientations in perceptual space, had inspired new readings of Kant and contributed to the late modern neo-Kantianism movement in philosophy. Helmholtz was born in Potsdam , the son of the local gymnasium headmaster, Ferdinand Helmholtz, who had studied classical philology and philosophy , and who was a close friend of the publisher and philosopher Immanuel Hermann Fichte . Helmholtz's work
2944-687: The most widely used size today and known as the "RMS standard". The Royal Microscopical Society is a member of the Foundation for Science and Technology , the European Microscopy Society and the International Federation of Societies for Microscopy . On 3 September 1839, a meeting of 17 gentlemen including physicist Joseph Jackson Lister , photography pioneer Joseph Bancroft Reade , the botanists Edwin John Quekett and Richard Kippist , and artist and inventor Cornelius Varley ,
3008-653: The number of Honorary Fellowships to a maximum of 65 at any one time. However, a proposal to enable new Fellowships to be awarded beyond this figure was approved at the 2019 AGM, and subsequently by the Privy Council. The Journal of Microscopy provides a forum for publication, discussion, and education for scientists and technologists who use any form of microscopy or image analysis. This includes technology and applications in physics, chemistry, material and biological sciences. The journal publishes review articles, original research papers, short communications, and letters to
3072-472: The perceptible damped electrical oscillations in a coil joined up with a Leyden jar were about 1/50th of a second in duration. In 1871, Helmholtz moved from Heidelberg to Berlin to become a professor of physics. He became interested in electromagnetism , and the Helmholtz equation is named for him. Although he did not make major contributions to this field, his student Heinrich Rudolf Hertz became famous as
3136-649: The physics of perception. This book influenced musicologists into the twentieth century. Helmholtz invented the Helmholtz resonator to identify the various frequencies or pitches of the pure sine wave components of complex sounds containing multiple tones . Helmholtz showed that different combinations of resonators could mimic vowel sounds: Alexander Graham Bell in particular was interested in this but, not being able to read German, misconstrued Helmholtz's diagrams as meaning that Helmholtz had transmitted multiple frequencies by wire—which would allow multiplexing of telegraph signals—whereas, in reality, electrical power
3200-418: The physiology of the senses. His main publication, titled Handbuch der Physiologischen Optik ( Handbook of Physiological Optics or Treatise on Physiological Optics ; English translation of the 3rd volume here ), provided empirical theories on depth perception , colour vision , and motion perception , and became the fundamental reference work in his field during the second half of the nineteenth century. In
3264-508: The primary and secondary color distortion. By 1870, Abbe invented the Abbe condenser , used for microscope illumination. In 1871, he designed the first refractometer , which he described in a booklet published in 1874. He developed the laws of image of non-luminous objects by 1872. Zeiss Optical Works began selling his improved microscopes in 1872, by 1877 they were selling microscopes with homogenous immersion objective, and in 1886 his apochromatic objective microscopes were being sold. He created
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#17330856072563328-423: The relationship between the physical energy (physics) and its appreciation (psychology), with the goal in mind to develop "psychophysical laws". The sensory physiology of Helmholtz was the basis of the work of Wilhelm Wundt , a student of Helmholtz, who is considered one of the founders of experimental psychology . More explicitly than Helmholtz, Wundt described his research as a form of empirical philosophy and as
3392-430: The resolution limit of the microscope, and the formula (published in 1873) although in a publication in 1874, Helmholtz states this formula was first derived by Joseph Louis Lagrange , who had died 61 years prior. Helmholtz was so impressed as to offer a professorship at the University of Berlin , which he refused due to his ties to Zeiss. Abbe was in the camp of the wide aperturists, arguing that microscopic resolution
3456-429: The speculative associations of the latter, his philosophy of science is thoroughly indebted to his use of mathematical physics to supplant vitalism and articulate the general conservation of energy principle. His rejection of Euclidean geometry as the only possible science of space is central to understanding his appropriation of Kant's philosophy of space, which ostensibly requires Euclidean geometry to be that exclusive
3520-444: The suffix "-al" to the name of the fledgling society to prevent "the possibility of ourselves being mistaken for microscopic objects". John Thomas Quekett (brother of co-founder Edwin John Quekett ) served as the Society's secretary from 1841 to 1860. Distinguished botanist Dukinfield Henry Scott served as president of the Society between 1904 and 1906 In 1885, botanist and women's rights campaigner Marian Farquharson , became
3584-500: The third and final volume, published in 1867, Helmholtz described the importance of unconscious inferences for perception. The Handbuch was first translated into English under the editorship of James P. C. Southall on behalf of the Optical Society of America in 1924–5. His theory of accommodation went unchallenged until the final decade of the 20th century. Helmholtz continued to work for several decades on several editions of
3648-455: The time he left school, his scientific talent and his strong will had already become obvious. Thus, in spite of the family's strained financial situation, his father decided to support Abbe's studies at the Universities of Jena (1857–1859) and Göttingen (1859–1861). During his time as a student, Abbe gave private lessons to improve his income. His father's employer continued to fund him. Abbe
3712-580: The word "dinosaur" and for his role in the creation of London's Natural History Museum . It was renamed the Royal Microscopical Society in 1866, when the Society received its Royal Charter under the Presidency of James Glaisher . Its governing documents are its Charter and By-laws. In 1870, the President, Rev. Joseph Bancroft Reade , in his maiden speech revealed that he had suggested adding
3776-648: Was awarded his PhD in Göttingen on 23 March 1861. While at school, he was influenced by Bernhard Riemann and Wilhelm Eduard Weber , who also happened to be one of the Göttingen Seven . This was followed by two short assignments at the Göttingen observatory and at Physikalischer Verein in Frankfurt (an association of citizens interested in physics and chemistry that was founded by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe in 1824 and still exists today). On 8 August 1863 he qualified as
3840-527: Was born 23 January 1840 in Eisenach , Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach , to Georg Adam Abbe and Elisabeth Christina Barchfeldt. He came from a humble home – his father was a foreman in a spinnery. Supported by his father's employer, Abbe was able to attend secondary school and to obtain the general qualification for university entrance with fairly good grades, at the Eisenach Gymnasium, which he graduated from in 1857. By
3904-424: Was held at Quekett's residence at 50 Wellclose Square "to take into consideration the propriety of forming a society for the promotion of microscopical investigation, and for the introduction and improvement of the microscope as a scientific instrument", following a decade of great advances in the field of microscopy. At this gathering it was agreed that a society should be founded and a committee appointed. It
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#17330856072563968-402: Was influenced by the philosophy of Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Immanuel Kant . He tried to trace their theories in empirical matters like physiology . As a young man, Helmholtz was interested in natural science, but his father wanted him to study medicine. Helmholtz earned a medical doctorate at Medicinisch-chirurgisches Friedrich-Wilhelm-Institute in 1842 and served a one-year internship at
4032-608: Was named the Microscopical Society of London and a constitution was drawn up. On 20 December 1839, a public meeting was held at the Horticultural Society's rooms at 21 Regent Street in London. At the convention, Professor Richard Owen was elected president, along with Nathaniel Ward as Treasurer, and Farre as Secretary. A Council was also appointed, consisting of J.S. Bowerbank, Thomas Edwards , Dr F. Farre, George Gwilt , George Jackson , Dr John Lindley , George Loddiges ,
4096-427: Was used only to keep the resonators in motion. Bell failed to reproduce what he thought Helmholtz had done but later said that, had he been able to read German, he would not have gone on to invent the telephone on the harmonic telegraph principle. The translation by Alexander J. Ellis was first published in 1875 (the first English edition was from the 1870 third German edition; Ellis's second English edition from
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