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103-511: In 2015, the ETA was voted Britain's most ethical insurance company by the Good Shopping Guide. The ETA has built a number of unusual vehicles over recent years to promote sustainable transport as well as its own insurance products, two of which have gained Guinness World Records . The Guinness World Record for QTvan is a tiny caravan designed to be towed behind a bicycle or mobility scooter and

206-408: A 'win-win' opportunity. Transport systems are major emitters of greenhouse gases, responsible for 23% of world energy-related GHG emissions in 2004, with about three-quarters coming from road vehicles. Data from 2011 stated that one-third of all greenhouse gases produced are due to transportation. Currently 95% of transport energy comes from petroleum. Energy is consumed in the manufacture as well as

309-454: A 24 km roundtrip along which the bus will receive 100 kW (136 horsepower) electricity at an 85% maximum power transmission efficiency rate while maintaining a 17 cm air gap between the underbody of the vehicle and the road surface. At that power, only a few sections of the road need embedded cables. Hybrid vehicles , which use an internal combustion engine combined with an electric engine to achieve better fuel efficiency than

412-485: A Bike" campaign 2015 - Voted Britain's most ethical insurance company by the Good Shopping Guide Sustainable transport Sustainable transport refers to ways of transportation that are sustainable in terms of their social and environmental impacts. Components for evaluating sustainability include the particular vehicles used for road, water or air transport; the source of energy ; and

515-544: A European urban dweller. These differences cannot be explained by wealth alone but are closely linked to the rates of walking , cycling , and public transport use and to enduring features of the city including urban density and urban design. The cities and nations that have invested most heavily in car-based transport systems are now the least environmentally sustainable, as measured by per capita fossil fuel use. The social and economic sustainability of car-based transportation engineering has also been questioned. Within

618-558: A charitable trust. 1997 - The ETA inaugurated the world's first national Car Free Day as part of Green Transport Week, which is now held on 22 September every year. In 2014 Car Free Days were held in Beijing , Moscow , and Washington . 1998 - Founder member of the Slower Speeds Initiative . 1997 - Began the "20's Plenty" campaign for urban streets and rural lanes. Via the 20's Plenty for Us organisation - partially funded by

721-490: A compilation of air pollutant emission factors for a wide range of industrial sources. The United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, and many other countries have published similar compilations, as well as the European Environment Agency . An air pollutant is a material in the air that can have many effects on humans and the ecosystem. The substance can be solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases, and often takes

824-551: A document containing a non-complete overview. In the UK , employers have for many years been providing employees with financial incentives. The employee leases or borrows a bike that the employer has purchased. You can also get other support. The scheme is beneficial for the employee who saves money and gets an incentive to get exercise integrated in the daily routine. The employer can expect a tax deduction, lower sick leave and less pressure on parking spaces for cars. Since 2010, there has been

927-768: A faster rate of breathing than a child engaged in sedentary activity. The daily exposure must therefore include the amount of time spent in each micro-environmental setting as well as the kind of activities performed there. The air pollutant concentration in each microactivity/microenvironmental setting is summed to indicate the exposure. For some pollutants such as black carbon , traffic related exposures may dominate total exposure despite short exposure times since high concentrations coincide with proximity to major roads or participation in (motorized) traffic. A large portion of total daily exposure occurs as short peaks of high concentrations, but it remains unclear how to define peaks and determine their frequency and health impact. In 2021,

1030-413: A grassroots movement, albeit one which is now recognized as of citywide, national and international significance. Whereas it started as a movement driven by environmental concerns, over these last years there has been increased emphasis on social equity and fairness issues, and in particular the need to ensure proper access and services for lower income groups and people with mobility limitations, including

1133-657: A health environment is not maintained. Even at levels lower than those considered safe by United States regulators, exposure to three components of air pollution, fine particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide and ozone, correlates with cardiac and respiratory illness. Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, and the individual's health status and genetics. The most common sources of air pollution include particulates and ozone (often from burning fossil fuels), nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. Children aged less than five years who live in developing countries are

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1236-549: A legal definition of air pollution, 31 percent lack outdoor air quality standards, 49 percent restrict their definition to outdoor pollution only, and just 31 percent have laws for tackling pollution originating from outside their borders. National air quality laws have often been highly effective, notably the 1956 Clean Air Act in Britain and the US Clean Air Act , introduced in 1963. Some of these efforts have been successful at

1339-482: A link between air pollution levels and longevity. The WHO estimates that in 2016, ~58% of outdoor air pollution-related premature deaths were due to ischaemic heart disease and stroke. The mechanisms linking air pollution to increased cardiovascular mortality are uncertain, but probably include pulmonary and systemic inflammation. India and China have the highest death rate due to air pollution. India also has more deaths from asthma than any other nation according to

1442-486: A logical follow-on from sustainable development , and is used to describe modes of transport, and systems of transport planning, which are consistent with wider concerns of sustainability . There are many definitions of the sustainable transport, and of the related terms sustainable transportation and sustainable mobility . One such definition, from the European Union Council of Ministers of Transport, defines

1545-415: A mixture of natural and human sources. There are also sources from processes other than combustion : Air pollutant emission factors are reported representative values that aim to link the quantity of a pollutant released into the ambient air to an activity connected with that pollutant's release. The weight of the pollutant divided by a unit weight, volume, distance, or time of the activity generating

1648-418: A network of urban motorways. These ideas captured the popular imagination, and are credited with influencing city planning from the 1940s to the 1970s. The emergence of the car in the post-war era led to major changes in the structure and function of cities. There was some opposition to these changes at the time. The writings of Jane Jacobs , in particular The Death and Life of Great American Cities provide

1751-641: A poignant reminder of what was lost in this transformation, and a record of community efforts to resist these changes. Lewis Mumford asked "is the city for cars or for people?" Donald Appleyard documented the consequences for communities of increasing car traffic in "The View from the Road" (1964) and in the UK, Mayer Hillman first published research into the impacts of traffic on child independent mobility in 1971. Despite these notes of caution, trends in car ownership, car use and fuel consumption continued steeply upward throughout

1854-526: A positive contribution to environmental sustainability . Such claims can be legally challenged. For instance the Norwegian Consumer Ombudsman has targeted car manufacturers who claim that their cars are "green", "clean" or " environmentally friendly ". Manufacturers risk fines if they fail to drop the words. The Australian Competition & Consumer Commission (ACCC) describes "green" claims on products as "very vague, inviting consumers to give

1957-874: A regular combustion engine, are already common. Natural gas is also used as a transport fuel, but is a less promising technology as it is still a fossil fuel and still has significant emissions (though lower than gasoline, diesel, etc.). Brazil met 17% of its transport fuel needs from bioethanol in 2007, but the OECD has warned that the success of (first-generation) biofuels in Brazil is due to specific local circumstances. Internationally, first-generation biofuels are forecast to have little or no impact on greenhouse emissions, at significantly higher cost than energy efficiency measures. The later generation biofuels however (2nd to 4th generation) do have significant environmental benefit, as they are no driving force for deforestation or struggle with

2060-559: A scheme in Iceland (Samgöngugreiðslur) where those who do not drive a car to work, get paid a lump of money monthly. An employee must sign a statement not to use a car for work more often than one day a week, or 20% of the days for a period. Some employers pay fixed amounts based on trust. Other employers reimburse the expenses for repairs on bicycles, period-tickets for public transport and the like. Since 2013, amounts up to ISK 8000 per month have been tax-free. Most major workplaces offer this, and

2163-593: A series of serious reports by the Low Emission Development Strategies Global Partnership (LEDS GP) , sustainable transport can help create jobs, improve commuter safety through investment in bicycle lanes, pedestrian pathways and non-pedestrian pathways, make access to employment and social opportunities more affordable and efficient. It also offers a practical opportunity to save people's time and household income as well as government budgets, making investment in sustainable transport

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2266-442: A significant proportion of employees use the scheme. Since 2019 half the amount is tax-free if the employee signs a contract not to use a car to work for more than 40% of the days of the contract period. The EU Directorate-General for Transport and Energy (DG-TREN) has launched a program which focusses mostly on urban transport. Its main measures are: Most of the tools and concepts of sustainable transport were developed before

2369-538: A specific example, a Nissan Leaf in the UK in 2019 produced one third of the greenhouse gases than the average internal combustion car. The Online Electric Vehicle (OLEV), developed by the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), is an electric vehicle that can be charged while stationary or driving, thus removing the need to stop at a charging station. The City of Gumi in South Korea runs

2472-426: A spectrum of clinical disorders that include emphysema , bronchiectasis , and chronic bronchitis . COPD risk factors are both genetic and environmental. Elevated particle pollution contributes to the exacerbation of this disease and likely its pathogenesis. The risk of lung disease from air pollution is greatest for infants and young children, whose normal breathing is faster than that of older children and adults;

2575-440: A sustainable transportation system as one that: Sustainability extends beyond just the operating efficiency and emissions. A life-cycle assessment involves production, use and post-use considerations. A cradle-to-cradle design is more important than a focus on a single factor such as energy efficiency . Sustainable transport has many social and economic benefits that can accelerate local sustainable development. According to

2678-563: A total of 460,000 deaths in the US were attributed to coal PM 2.5 . The largest cause of air pollution is fossil fuel combustion  – mostly the production and use of cars , electricity production, and heating. There are estimated 4.5 million annual premature deaths worldwide due to pollutants released by high-emission power stations and vehicle exhausts. Diesel exhaust (DE) is a major contributor to combustion-derived particulate matter air pollution. In several human experimental studies, using

2781-794: A well-validated exposure chamber setup, DE has been linked to acute vascular dysfunction and increased thrombus formation. A study concluded that PM 2.5 air pollution induced by the contemporary free trade and consumption by the 19 G20 nations causes two million premature deaths annually, suggesting that the average lifetime consumption of about ~28 people in these countries causes at least one premature death (average age ~67) while developing countries "cannot be expected" to implement or be able to implement countermeasures without external support or internationally coordinated efforts. The US EPA has estimated that limiting ground-level ozone concentration to 65 parts per billion (ppb), would avert 1,700 to 5,100 premature deaths nationwide in 2020 compared with

2884-546: A wide range of meanings to the claim, which risks misleading them". In 2008 the ACCC forced a car retailer to stop its green marketing of Saab cars, which was found by the Australian Federal Court to be "misleading". Several European countries are opening up financial incentives that support more sustainable modes of transport. The European Cyclists' Federation , which focuses on daily cycling for transport, has created

2987-494: A year and fine particulate (PM 2.5 ) pollution around another 2.1 million. The scope of the air pollution crisis is large: In 2018, WHO estimated that "9 out of 10 people breathe air containing high levels of pollutants." Although the health consequences are extensive, the way the problem is handled is considered largely haphazard or neglected. The World Bank has estimated that welfare losses (premature deaths) and productivity losses (lost labour) caused by air pollution cost

3090-735: Is carsharing , which is becoming popular in North America and Europe, and according to The Economist , carsharing can reduce car ownership at an estimated rate of one rental car replacing 15 owned vehicles. Car sharing has also begun in the developing world, where traffic and urban density is often worse than in developed countries. Companies like Zoom in India, eHi in China, and Carrot in Mexico, are bringing car-sharing to developing countries in an effort to reduce car-related pollution, ameliorate traffic, and expand

3193-663: Is a human right and committed to work together to form a global coalition for clean air. Papers have been written showing with satellite data that cities with subway systems produce much less greenhouse gas. In 2021 the Institute for Public Policy Research issued a statement saying that car use in the United Kingdom must shrink while active transport and public transport should be used more. The Department for Transport responded that they will spend 2 billion pounds on active transport, more than ever, including making England and

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3296-510: Is a significant risk factor for a number of pollution-related diseases , including respiratory infections , heart disease , chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), stroke , and lung cancer . Growing evidence suggests that air pollution exposure may be associated with reduced IQ scores, impaired cognition, increased risk for psychiatric disorders such as depression and detrimental perinatal health. The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect

3399-851: Is associated with nearly one in three strokes (29%) worldwide (33.7% of strokes in developing countries versus 10.2% in developed countries). In women, air pollution is not associated with hemorrhagic but with ischemic stroke. Air pollution was found to be associated with increased incidence and mortality from coronary stroke. Associations are believed to be causal and effects may be mediated by vasoconstriction, low-grade inflammation and atherosclerosis . Other mechanisms such as autonomic nervous system imbalance have also been suggested. Research has demonstrated increased risk of developing asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) from increased exposure to traffic-related air pollution. Air pollution has been associated with increased hospitalization and mortality from asthma and COPD. COPD comprises

3502-459: Is introduced with the use of air fresheners , incense , and other scented items. Controlled wood fires in cook stoves and fireplaces can add significant amounts of harmful smoke particulates into the air, inside and out. Indoor pollution fatalities may be caused by using pesticides and other chemical sprays indoors without proper ventilation. Also the kitchen in a modern produce harmful particles and gases, with equipment like toasters being one of

3605-613: Is nitrogen dioxide and other nitrogen oxides (NOx) emitted by road vehicles. Across the European Union , air pollution is estimated to reduce life expectancy by almost nine months. In a 2015 consultation document the UK government disclosed that nitrogen dioxide is responsible for 23,500 premature UK deaths per annum. There is a positive correlation between pneumonia -related deaths and air pollution from motor vehicle emissions in England. Eliminating energy-related fossil fuel emissions in

3708-418: Is officially recognized as the world's smallest caravan. The Hornster was designed and built as a way of highlighting the danger posed to cyclists by lorries in urban areas. The bike is fitted with the air horn from a freight train, which is powered by a SCUBA diving cylinder and has been judged by Guinness World Records to be the world's loudest bicycle horn. The BOND bike was built by the ETA in response to

3811-408: Is strong evidence linking both short- and long-term exposure to air pollution with cardiovascular disease mortality and morbidity, stroke, blood pressure, and ischemic heart diseases (IHD). Air pollution is a leading risk factor for stroke, particularly in developing countries where pollutant levels are highest. A systematic analysis of 17 different risk factors in 188 countries found air pollution

3914-927: Is subject to sustainability measurement and optimization. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) estimates that each year 2.4 million premature deaths from outdoor air pollution could be avoided. Particularly hazardous for health are emissions of black carbon , a component of particulate matter , which is a known cause of respiratory and carcinogenic diseases and a significant contributor to global climate change. The links between greenhouse gas emissions and particulate matter make low carbon transport an increasingly sustainable investment at local level—both by reducing emission levels and thus mitigating climate change; and by improving public health through better air quality . The term "green mobility" also refers to clean ways of movement or sustainable transport. The social costs of transport include road crashes, air pollution, physical inactivity, time taken away from

4017-685: The Sail Cargo Alliance . The European Investment Bank committed €314 million between 2018 and 2022 to green marine transport , funding the building of new ships and the retrofitting of current ships with eco-friendly technologies to increase their energy efficiency and lower harmful emissions. The Bank also offered an average of €11 billion per year from 2012 to 2022 for sustainable transportation solutions and climate-friendly initiatives. In 2022, railway projects received around 32% of overall transport loans, while urban mobility received approximately 37%. Car travel increased steadily throughout

4120-562: The Transport Integration Act – to compel its transport agencies to actively consider sustainability issues including climate change impacts in transport policy, planning and operations. Many other cities throughout the world have recognized the need to link sustainability and transport policies, for example by joining the Cities for Climate Protection program . Some cities are trying to become car-free cities , e.g., limit or exclude

4223-462: The family while commuting and vulnerability to fuel price increases . Many of these negative impacts fall disproportionately on those social groups who are also least likely to own and drive cars. Traffic congestion imposes economic costs by wasting people's time and by slowing the delivery of goods and services. Traditional transport planning aims to improve mobility, especially for vehicles, and may fail to adequately consider wider impacts. But

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4326-580: The food vs fuel issue. In practice there is a sliding scale of green transport depending on the sustainability of the option. Green vehicles are more fuel-efficient , but only in comparison with standard vehicles, and they still contribute to traffic congestion and road crashes. Well-patronized public transport networks based on traditional diesel buses use less fuel per passenger than private vehicles, and are generally safer and use less road space than private vehicles. Green public transport vehicles including electric trains, trams and electric buses combine

4429-404: The infrastructure used to accommodate the transport ( roads , railways , airways , waterways , canals and terminals). Transport operations and logistics as well as transit-oriented development are also involved in evaluation. Transportation sustainability is largely being measured by transportation system effectiveness and efficiency as well as the environmental and climate impacts of

4532-454: The world economy $ 5 trillion per year. The costs of air pollution are generally an externality to the contemporary economic system and most human activity, although they are sometimes recovered through monitoring, legislation, and regulation . Many different technologies and strategies are available for reducing air pollution. Although a majority of countries have air pollution laws , according to UNEP , 43 percent of countries lack

4635-526: The 75 ppb standard. The agency projected the more protective standard would also prevent an additional 26,000 cases of aggravated asthma, and more than a million cases of missed work or school. Following this assessment, the EPA acted to protect public health by lowering the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for ground-level ozone to 70 ppb. A 2008 economic study of

4738-945: The American Lung Association; the US Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) 2012; and the US Environmental Protection Agency 2012a. Indoor contaminants that can cause pollution include asbestos, biologic agents, building materials, radon, tobacco smoke, and wood stoves, gas ranges, or other heating systems. Radon (Rn) gas, a carcinogen , is exuded from the Earth in certain locations and trapped inside houses. Building materials including carpeting and plywood emit formaldehyde (H-CHO) gas. Paint and solvents give off volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as they dry. Lead paint can degenerate into dust and be inhaled. Intentional air pollution

4841-460: The ETA, an estimated 13 million people will be living on streets at 20 mph within the year. 2002 - The ETA Trust, a charity, became limited by guarantee. 2008 - ETA Services Ltd., the services arm, and ETA Trust, the campaigning arm, separate. ETA Services funds the ETA Trust through a proportion of its revenue. 2012 - Began the pop-up zebra crossing campaign 2014 - Established the "Back on

4944-508: The EU. In addition, up to the COVID-19 pandemic, emissions have only increased in this one sector. Greenhouse gas emissions from transport are increasing at a faster rate than any other energy using sector. Road transport is also a major contributor to local air pollution and smog . Sustainable transport systems make a positive contribution to the environmental, social and economic sustainability of

5047-614: The USA under the Clean Air Act and in Europe under numerous directives (including the Air "Framework" Directive, 96/62/EC, on ambient air quality assessment and management, Directive 98/24/EC, on risks related to chemical agents at work, and Directive 2004/107/EC covering heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in ambient air). The risk of air pollution is determined by the pollutant's hazard and

5150-555: The United States would prevent 46,900–59,400 premature deaths each year and provide $ 537–$ 678 billion in benefits from avoided PM 2.5 -related illness and death. A study published in 2023 in Science focused on sulfur dioxide emissions by coal power plants (coal PM 2.5 ) and concluded that "exposure to coal PM 2.5 was associated with 2.1 times greater mortality risk than exposure to PM 2.5 from all sources." From 1999 to 2020,

5253-446: The United States, residents of sprawling cities make more frequent and longer car trips, while residents of traditional urban neighborhoods make a similar number of trips, but travel shorter distances and walk, cycle and use transit more often. It has been calculated that New York residents save $ 19 billion each year simply by owning fewer cars and driving less than the average American. A less car intensive means of urban transport

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5356-460: The WHO halved its recommended guideline limit for tiny particles from burning fossil fuels. The new limit for nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) is 75% lower. Growing evidence that air pollution—even when experienced at very low levels—hurts human health, led the WHO to revise its guideline (from 10 μg/m to 5 μg/m ) for what it considers a safe level of exposure of particulate pollution, bringing most of

5459-402: The WHO reported that outdoor air pollution was estimated to cause 4.2 million premature deaths worldwide in 2019. The global mean loss of life expectancy (LLE; similar to YPLL ) from air pollution in 2015 was 2.9 years, substantially more than, for example, 0.3 years from all forms of direct violence. Communities with persons that live beyond 85 years have low ambient air pollution, suggesting

5562-743: The World Health Organization estimated that every year air pollution causes the premature death of 7 million people worldwide, 1 in 8 deaths worldwide. A study published in 2019 indicated that in 2015 the number may be closer to 8.8 million, with 5.5 million of these premature deaths due to air pollution from anthropogenic sources. A 2022 review concluded that in 2019 air pollution was responsible for approximately 9 million premature deaths. It concluded that since 2015 little real progress against pollution has been made. Causes of deaths include strokes, heart disease, COPD , lung cancer, and lung infections. Children are particularly at risk. In 2021,

5665-778: The World Health Organization, these may be defined as asbestosis, lung cancer, and peritoneal mesothelioma (generally a very rare form of cancer, when more widespread it is almost always associated with prolonged exposure to asbestos). Biological sources of air pollution are also found indoors, as gases and airborne particulates. Pets produce dander, people produce dust from minute skin flakes and decomposed hair, dust mites in bedding, carpeting and furniture produce enzymes and micrometre-sized fecal droppings, inhabitants emit methane, mold forms on walls and generates mycotoxins and spores, air conditioning systems can incubate Legionnaires' disease and mold, and houseplants, soil and surrounding gardens can produce pollen , dust, and mold. Indoors,

5768-467: The World Health Organization. In 2019, 1.6 million deaths in India were caused by air pollution. In 2013, air pollution was estimated to kill 500,000 people in China each year. In 2012, 2.48% of China's total air pollution emissions were caused by exports due to US demand, causing an additional 27,963 deaths across 30 provinces. Annual premature European deaths caused by air pollution are estimated at 430,000 to 800,000. An important cause of these deaths

5871-713: The advantages of green vehicles with those of sustainable transport choices. Other transport choices with very low environmental impact are cycling and other human-powered vehicles , and animal powered transport . The most common green transport choice, with the least environmental impact is walking . Transport on rails boasts an excellent efficiency (see fuel efficiency in transportation ). Cities with overbuilt roadways have experienced unintended consequences, linked to radical drops in public transport , walking , and cycling . In many cases, streets became void of "life." Stores, schools, government centers and libraries moved away from central cities, and residents who did not flee to

5974-497: The age, gender, and ability of the individual to cycle in the first place are key determinants of their willingness to shift to a more sustainable mode. Transport system improvements that could reduce the perceived risks of cycling were also seen to be the most impactful changes that could contribute towards the greater use of bicycles. Cities are shaped by their transport systems. In The City in History , Lewis Mumford documented how

6077-445: The air when primary pollutants react or interact. Ground level ozone is a prominent example of a secondary pollutant. Some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: they are both emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants. Pollutants emitted into the atmosphere by human activity include: Secondary pollutants include: There are many other chemicals classed as hazardous air pollutants. Some of these are regulated in

6180-704: The amount of exposure to that pollutant. Air pollution exposure can be measured for a person, a group, such as a neighborhood or a country's children, or an entire population. For example, one would want to determine a geographic area's exposure to a dangerous air pollution, taking into account the various microenvironments and age groups. This can be calculated as an inhalation exposure. This would account for daily exposure in various settings, e.g. different indoor micro-environments and outdoor locations. The exposure needs to include different ages and other demographic groups, especially infants, children, pregnant women, and other sensitive subpopulations. For each specific time that

6283-500: The analysis has been focused on emending the Von Karman model, Dewulf and Van Langenhove have introduced a model based on the second law of thermodynamics and exergy analysis. Chester and Orwath, have developed a similar model based on the first law that accounts the necessary costs for the infrastructure. The environmental impacts of transport can be reduced by reducing the weight of vehicles, sustainable styles of driving, reducing

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6386-411: The body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system . Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, and the individual's health status and genetics . Air pollution is the largest environmental risk factor for disease and premature death and the fourth largest risk factor overall for human health. Air pollution causes

6489-512: The case. Electric vehicle technology significantly reduces transport CO 2 emissions when comparing battery electric vehicles (BEVs) with equivalent internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). The extent to which it does this depends on the embodied energy of the vehicle and the source of the electricity. Lifecycle greenhouse gas emission reductions from BEVs are significant, even in countries with relatively high shares of coal in their electricity generation mix, such as China and India. As

6592-717: The communities they serve. Transport systems exist to provide social and economic connections, and people quickly take up the opportunities offered by increased mobility , with poor households benefiting greatly from low carbon transport options. The advantages of increased mobility need to be weighed against the environmental, social and economic costs that transport systems pose. Short-term activity often promotes incremental improvement in fuel efficiency and vehicle emissions controls while long-term goals include migrating transportation from fossil-based energy to other alternatives such as renewable energy and use of other renewable resources . The entire life cycle of transport systems

6695-565: The entire Ile-de-France region, walking is the most popular way of transportation. In Amsterdam , 28% of trips are made by walking, 31% by bicycle, 18% by public transport and only 23% by car. In Copenhagen 62% of people commute to school or work by bicycle. Outside Western Europe, cities which have consistently included sustainability as a key consideration in transport and land use planning include Curitiba, Brazil ; Bogota, Colombia ; Portland, Oregon ; and Vancouver, Canada . The state of Victoria , Australia passed legislation in 2010 –

6798-663: The extensive use of asbestos in industrial and domestic environments in the past has left a potentially very dangerous material in many localities. Asbestosis is a chronic inflammatory medical condition affecting the tissue of the lungs. It occurs after long-term, heavy exposure to asbestos from asbestos-containing materials in structures. Those with asbestosis have severe dyspnea (shortness of breath) and are at an increased risk regarding several different types of lung cancer . As clear explanations are not always stressed in non-technical literature, care should be taken to distinguish between several forms of relevant diseases. According to

6901-476: The fast-growing population of older citizens. Many of the people exposed to the most vehicle noise, pollution and safety risk have been those who do not own, or cannot drive cars, and those for whom the cost of car ownership causes a severe financial burden. An organization called Greenxc started in 2011 created a national awareness campaign in the United States encouraging people to carpool by ride-sharing cross country stopping over at various destinations along

7004-470: The form of an aerosol (solid particles or liquid droplets dispersed and carried by a gas). A pollutant can be of natural origin or man-made. Pollutants are classified as primary or secondary. Primary pollutants are usually produced by processes such as ash from a volcanic eruption. Other examples include carbon monoxide gas from motor vehicle exhausts or sulfur dioxide released from factories. Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they form in

7107-417: The friction of tires, encouraging electric and hybrid vehicles, improving the walking and cycling environment in cities, and by enhancing the role of public transport , especially electric rail . Green vehicles are intended to have less environmental impact than equivalent standard vehicles, although when the environmental impact of a vehicle is assessed over the whole of its life cycle this may not be

7210-492: The frustrations faced by urban cyclists; it features a handlebar-mounted flamethrower to dissuade motorists from overtaking too close, a caterpillar track to negotiate potholes, and an ejector seat to deal with bike thieves. The ETA was founded in 1990 and became carbon neutral in 2002. It conducts and commissions research into environmental transport issues. It actively lobbies the government and key decision-makers to discuss new thinking in environmental transport. They claim to be

7313-508: The health impacts and associated costs of air pollution in the Los Angeles Basin and San Joaquin Valley of Southern California shows that more than 3,800 people die prematurely (approximately 14 years earlier than normal) each year because air pollution levels violate federal standards. The number of annual premature deaths is considerably higher than the fatalities related to auto collisions in

7416-552: The indoor or outdoor environment either by chemical, physical, or biological agents that alters the natural features of the atmosphere. There are many different types of air pollutants, such as gases (including ammonia , carbon monoxide , sulfur dioxide , nitrous oxides , methane and chlorofluorocarbons ), particulates (both organic and inorganic) and biological molecules . Air pollution can cause diseases, allergies, and even death to humans; it can also cause harm to other living organisms such as animals and crops, and may damage

7519-630: The international level, such as the Montreal Protocol , which reduced the release of harmful ozone depleting chemicals, and the 1985 Helsinki Protocol , which reduced sulfur emissions , while others, such as international action on climate change , have been less successful. There are many different sources of air pollution. Some air pollutants (such as nitrogen oxides) originate mainly from human activities, while some (notably radon gas) come mostly from natural sources. However, many air pollutants (including dust and sulfur dioxide) come from

7622-1014: The lack of air circulation allows these airborne pollutants to accumulate more than they would otherwise occur in nature. Air pollution has both acute and chronic effects on human health, affecting a number of different systems and organs but principally affect the body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Afflictions include minor to chronic upper respiratory irritation such as difficulty in breathing, wheezing, coughing, asthma and heart disease , lung cancer , stroke , acute respiratory infections in children and chronic bronchitis in adults, aggravating pre-existing heart and lung disease, or asthmatic attacks. Short and long term exposures have been linked with premature mortality and reduced life expectancy and can result in increased medication use, increased doctor or emergency department visits, more hospital admissions and premature death. Diseases that develop from persistent exposure to air pollution are environmental health diseases, which develop when

7725-504: The location and layout of cities was shaped around a walkable center, often located near a port or waterway, and with suburbs accessible by animal transport or, later, by rail or tram lines. In 1939, the New York World's Fair included a model of an imagined city, built around a car-based transport system. In this "greater and better world of tomorrow", residential, commercial and industrial areas were separated, and skyscrapers loomed over

7828-724: The main transit that people use is personal vehicles. About 80% of their travel involves cars. Therefore, California, is one of the highest greenhouse gases emitters in the United States. The federal government has to come up with some plans to reduce the total number of vehicle trips to lower greenhouse gases emission. Such as: Other states and nations have built efforts to translate knowledge in behavioral economics into evidence-based sustainable transportation policies. In March 2022, an advertising regulation will come into force in France, requiring all advertising materials for automobiles to include one of three standard disclaimers promoting

7931-422: The most vulnerable population to death attributable to indoor and outdoor air pollution. Under the Clean Air Act , U.S. EPA sets limits on certain air pollutants, including setting limits on how much can be in the air anywhere in the United States. Mixed exposure to both carbon black and ozone could result in significantly greater health affects. Estimates of deaths toll due to air pollution vary. In 2014

8034-494: The natural environment (for example, climate change , ozone depletion or habitat degradation ) or built environment (for example, acid rain ). Air pollution can be caused by both human activities and natural phenomena. Air quality is closely related to the Earth's climate and ecosystems globally. Many of the contributors of air pollution are also sources of greenhouse emission i.e., burning of fossil fuel . Air pollution

8137-486: The needs of persons with reduced mobility , families and children. The C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group (C40) is a group of 94 cities around the world driving urban action that reduces greenhouse gas emissions and climate risks, while increasing the health and wellbeing of urban citizens. In October 2019, by signing the C40 Clean Air Cities Declaration, 35 mayors recognized that breathing clean air

8240-650: The number of people who have access to cars. The European Commission adopted the Action Plan on urban mobility on 30 September 2009 for sustainable urban mobility. The European Commission will conduct a review of the implementation of the Action Plan in the year 2012, and will assess the need for further action. In 2007, 72% of the European population lived in urban areas, which are key to growth and employment. Cities need efficient transport systems to support their economy and

8343-402: The only options for most people in the developing world. Freight was moved by human power, animal power or rail. Air pollution Air pollution is the contamination of air due to the presence of substances called pollutants in the atmosphere that are harmful to the health of humans and other living beings, or cause damage to the climate or to materials. It is also the contamination of

8446-519: The phrase was coined. Walking , the first mode of transport, is also the most sustainable. Public transport dates back at least as far as the invention of the public bus by Blaise Pascal in 1662. The first passenger tram began operation in 1807 and the first passenger rail service in 1825. Pedal bicycles date from the 1860s. These were the only personal transport choices available to most people in Western countries prior to World War II , and remain

8549-742: The pollutant is how these factors are commonly stated (e.g., kilograms of particulate emitted per tonne of coal burned). These criteria make estimating emissions from diverse sources of pollution easier. Most of the time, these components are just averages of all available data of acceptable quality, and they are thought to be typical of long-term averages. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants identified pesticides and other persistent organic pollutants of concern. These include dioxins and furans which are unintentionally created by combustion of organics, like open burning of plastics, and are endocrine disruptors and mutagens . The United States Environmental Protection Agency has published

8652-505: The post-war period. Mainstream transport planning in Europe has, by contrast, never been based on assumptions that the private car was the best or only solution for urban mobility. For example, the Dutch Transport Structure Scheme has since the 1970s required that demand for additional vehicle capacity only be met "if the contribution to societal welfare is positive", and since 1990 has included an explicit target to halve

8755-468: The premature deaths of around 7 million people worldwide each year, or a global mean loss of life expectancy (LLE) of 2.9 years, and there has been no significant change in the number of deaths caused by all forms of pollution since at least 2015. Outdoor air pollution attributable to fossil fuel use alone causes ~3.61 million deaths annually, making it one of the top contributors to human death . Anthropogenic ozone causes around 470,000 premature deaths

8858-455: The rate of growth in vehicle traffic. Some cities outside Europe have also consistently linked transport to sustainability and to land-use planning , notably Curitiba, Brazil , Portland, Oregon and Vancouver, Canada . There are major differences in transport energy consumption between cities; an average U.S. urban dweller uses 24 times more energy annually for private transport than a Chinese urban resident, and almost four times as much as

8961-491: The real purpose of transport is access – to work, education, goods and services, friends and family – and there are proven techniques to improve access while simultaneously reducing environmental and social impacts, and managing traffic congestion. Communities which are successfully improving the sustainability of their transport networks are doing so as part of a wider program of creating more vibrant, livable, sustainable cities . The term sustainable transport came into use as

9064-659: The rest of the UK's railways greener. UK studies have shown that a modal shift to rail from air could result in a sixty fold reduction in CO2 emissions. Some Western countries are making transportation more sustainable in both long-term and short-term implementations. An example is the modification in available transportation in Freiburg, Germany . The city has implemented extensive methods of public transportation, cycling, and walking, along with large areas where cars are not allowed. Since many Western countries are highly automobile-oriented,

9167-459: The retirement of Baby Boomers who now drive less, preference for other travel modes (such as transit) by younger age cohorts, the Great Recession , and the rising use of technology (internet, mobile devices) which have made travel less necessary and possibly less attractive. The term green transport is often used as a greenwash marketing technique for products which are not proven to make

9270-504: The same area, which average fewer than 2,000 per year. A 2021 study found that outdoor air pollution is associated with substantially increased mortality "even at low pollution levels below the current European and North American standards and WHO guideline values" shortly before the WHO adjusted its guidelines. According to the Global Burden of Disease Study , air pollution is responsible for 19% of all cardiovascular deaths. There

9373-462: The subgroup is in the setting and engaged in particular activities, the exposure to an air pollutant must integrate the concentrations of the air pollutant with regard to the time spent in each setting and the respective inhalation rates for each subgroup, playing, cooking, reading, working, spending time in traffic, etc. A little child's inhaling rate, for example, will be lower than that of an adult. A young person engaging in strenuous exercise will have

9476-913: The suburbs experienced a much reduced quality of public space and of public services. As schools were closed their mega-school replacements in outlying areas generated additional traffic; the number of cars on US roads between 7:15 and 8:15 a.m. increases 30% during the school year. Yet another impact was an increase in sedentary lifestyles , causing and complicating a national epidemic of obesity , and accompanying dramatically increased health care costs. Car-based transport systems present barriers to employment in low-income neighbourhoods, with many low-income individuals and families forced to run cars they cannot afford to maintain their income. In developing countries such as Uganda, researchers have sought to determine factors that could possibly influence travelers to opt for bicycles as an alternative to motorcycle taxis (Bodaboda). The findings suggest that generally,

9579-538: The system. Transport systems have significant impacts on the environment, accounting for between 20% and 25% of world energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions . The majority of the emissions, almost 97%, came from direct burning of fossil fuels. In 2019, about 95% of the fuel came from fossil sources. The main source of greenhouse gas emissions in the European Union is transportation. In 2019 it contributes to about 31% of global emissions and 24% of emissions in

9682-487: The twentieth century, but trends since 2000 have been more complex. Oil price rises from 2003 have been linked to a decline in per capita fuel use for private vehicle travel in the US, Britain and Australia. In 2008, global oil consumption fell by 0.8% overall, with significant declines in consumption in North America, Western Europe, and parts of Asia. Other factors affecting a decline in driving, at least in America, include

9785-457: The usage of cars. In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic pushed several cities to adopt a plan to drastically increase biking and walking ; these included Milan , London , Brighton , and Dublin . These plans were taken to facilitate social distancing by avoiding public transport and at the same time prevent a rise in traffic congestion and air pollution from increase in car use. A similar plan

9888-560: The use of sustainable transport practices. This applies to all vehicles, including electric vehicles. In 2028, it will also become illegal to advertise vehicles which emit more than 128 grams of carbon dioxide per-kilometre. Sustainable transport policies have their greatest impact at the city level. Some of the biggest cities in Western Europe have a relatively sustainable transport. In Paris 53% of trips are made by walking, 3% by bicycle, 34% by public transport, and only 10% by car. In

9991-466: The use of vehicles, and is embodied in transport infrastructure including roads, bridges and railways. Motorized transport also releases exhaust fumes that contain particulate matter which is hazardous to human health and a contributor to climate change. The first historical attempts of evaluating the Life Cycle environmental impact of vehicle is due to Theodore Von Karman . After decades in which all

10094-424: The way and documenting their travel through video footage, posts and photography. Ride-sharing reduces individual's carbon footprint by allowing several people to use one car instead of everyone using individual cars. At the beginning of the 21st century, some companies are trying to increase the use of sailing ships , even for commercial purposes, for example, Fairtrannsport and New Dawn Traders They have created

10197-448: The welfare of their inhabitants. Around 85% of the EU's GDP is generated in cities. Urban areas face today the challenge of making transport sustainable in environmental ( CO 2 , air pollution , noise ) and competitiveness ( congestion ) terms while at the same time addressing social concerns. These range from the need to respond to health problems and demographic trends, fostering economic and social cohesion to taking into account

10300-705: The world's first climate-neutral motoring organization. The ETA was a founding member of Transport and the Environment promoting sustainable transport in Europe; which means an approach to transport that is environmentally responsible, economically sound, and socially just. 1992 - Green Transport Week is launched in Weybridge . 1993 - The ETA publishes Britain's first Car Buyers' Guide for people wanting to buy greener vehicles. 1995 - Sets up Walk to School Day in Hertfordshire as part of Green Transport Week. 1995: Sets up

10403-525: The world—97.3 percent of the global population—into the unsafe zone. A lack of ventilation indoors concentrates air pollution where people often spend the majority of their time. Indoor air pollution can pose a significant health risk. According to EPA reports, the concentrations of many air pollutants can be two to five times higher in indoor air than in outdoor air. Indoor air pollutants can be up to 100 times higher in some cases than they are inside. People can spend up to 90% of their time indoors, according to

10506-535: The worst sources. Carbon monoxide poisoning and fatalities are often caused by faulty vents and chimneys, or by the burning of charcoal indoors or in a confined space, such as a tent. Chronic carbon monoxide poisoning can result even from poorly-adjusted pilot lights . Traps are built into all domestic plumbing to keep sewer gas and hydrogen sulfide , out of interiors. Clothing emits tetrachloroethylene , or other dry cleaning fluids, for days after dry cleaning. Though its use has now been banned in many countries,

10609-412: Was adopted by New York City and Paris . The pandemic's impact on urban public transportation means revenue declines will put a strain on operators' finances and may cause creditworthiness to worsen. Governments might be forced to subsidize operators with financial transfers, in turn reducing resources available for investment in greener transportation systems. Sustainable transport is fundamentally

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