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133-490: The English garrisoned and fortified the city against hostile but disunited Moroccan forces. The exclave was expensive to defend and fortify and offered neither commercial nor military advantage to England. When Morocco was later united under the Alaouites , the cost of maintaining the garrison against Moroccan attack greatly increased, and Parliamentary refusal to provide funds for its upkeep partly because of fears of 'Popery' and

266-535: A Catholic and the ecumenical movement has contributed to reducing sectarian tensions between Christians in the country. The Act of Supremacy issued by King Henry VIII in 1534 declared the king to be "the only supreme head on earth of the Church in England" in place of the pope. Any act of allegiance to the latter was considered treasonous because the papacy claimed both spiritual and political power over its followers. It

399-621: A Catholic succession under James II , forced Charles to give up possession. In 1684, the English blew up the city's harbour and defensive works that they had been constructing and evacuated the city, which was swiftly occupied and annexed by Moroccan forces. Tangier has the best natural harbour on the western end of the Strait of Gibraltar , allowing its owner to control naval access to the Mediterranean . Since antiquity , it and Ceuta to its east were

532-574: A Dutch Calvinist. The Act of Settlement 1701 , which was passed by the Parliament of England , stated the heir to the throne must not be a " Papist " and that any heir who is a Catholic or who marries one will be excluded from the succession to the throne "for ever." This law was extended to Scotland through the Act of Union which formed the United Kingdom . The Act was amended in 2013 as regards marriage to

665-795: A Lanarkshire town in the 1950s it was accepted that discriminatory employment practices against Catholics were endemic in the local steel industry, the police, banking and even some high-street shops. And until the 1960s in some of the Clyde shipyards, the power of the foremen with Orange and Masonic loyalties to hire and fire often made it difficult for Catholics to start apprenticeships. However, although Devine accepts that anti-Catholic attitudes do exist in some areas of Scotland, especially in West Central Scotland , he has argued that discrimination against Catholics in Scotland's economic, social and political life

798-634: A Roman Catholic without incurring this ban. Opposition to the State visit by Pope Benedict XVI to the United Kingdom can be found on that page. Ireland's Catholic majority was subjected to persecution from the time of the English Reformation under Henry VIII. This persecution intensified when the Gaelic clan system was completely destroyed by the governments of Elizabeth I and her successor, James I . Land

931-522: A distant frontier. These units were augmented later in 1662 by elements of Rutherfurd's (Scottish Royalist) Regiment and Roger Alsop's (Parliamentarian) Regiment just before Peterborough was replaced by Andrew Rutherfurd, 1st Earl of Teviot as Governor. The regiments were merged (into two in 1662) ultimately becoming a single regiment (1668), and this, the Tangier Regiment, remained in Tangier thereafter,

1064-652: A fire on a farm in Kirkintilloch . All were seasonal workers from Achill Sound in County Mayo, Ireland. The Vanguard , the official newspaper of the Scottish Protestant League , referred to the event in the following text: Sectarianism was a part of the 1994 Monklands East by-election . Although there is a popular perception in Scotland that anti-Catholicism is football related (specifically directed against fans of Celtic F.C.), statistics released in 2004 by

1197-501: A fleet for that purpose in 1660. They tried, unsuccessfully, to strengthen relations with King   Charles   II by the Dutch Gift in July of the same year. The States General also sought in negotiations from July 1660 until September 1662 to secure a treaty or pact of friendship with England, but refused to extend such a treaty to any colonies outside Europe with the sole exception of

1330-608: A further (new) foot regiment, the 2nd Tangier Regiment , (later the King's Own, 4th Regiment of Foot) raised on 13 July 1680, were sent to Tangier, reinforced by a composite King's Battalion formed from the Grenadier and Coldstream Guards , the Duke of York's Regiment (disbanded in 1690) and The Holland Regiment (the later 3rd Foot) and the remnant of the old Tangier Regiment. The King's Battalion landed in July 1680, and fierce attacks were made against

1463-456: A major attack on the city in 1657, forcing the governor and garrison to appeal to Lisbon for assistance. Portugal, hard pressed in its war of independence from Spain and struggling against Dutch aggression in the East Indies , could not hope to maintain all of its overseas possessions without English assistance and could not afford to commit troops to the defence of Tangier while fighting Spain in

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1596-508: A majority of whom are Catholic, and Loyalists the overwhelming majority of whom are Protestant. A Catholic church in Harryville, Ballymena was the site of a series of long-lasting protests by Loyalists in the late 1990s. Church services were often cancelled due to the level of intimidation and violence experienced by those attending. Some Catholics were injured when trying to attend mass and their cars parked nearby were also vandalised. Some of

1729-636: A new Act of Supremacy passed in 1559 under her successor, Elizabeth I , along with an Act of Uniformity which made worship in Church of England compulsory. Anyone who took office in the English church or government was required to take the Oath of Supremacy ; penalties for violating it included hanging and quartering. Attendance at Anglican services became obligatory—those who refused to attend Anglican services, whether Roman Catholics or Puritans , were fined and physically punished as recusants . English anti-Catholicism

1862-612: A new treaty. According to Clarendon's account, the ambassador suggested the treaty and marriage to the lord chamberlain the Earl of Manchester , who informed the King. Charles consulted Clarendon (Lord Chancellor), Southampton (Lord Treasurer), Ormonde (Lord Steward of the Household), Lord Manchester, and Sir Edward Nicholas (Secretary of State) and enquired as to Tangier to the Admirals Lord Sandwich and Sir John Lawson . Clarendon

1995-569: A plastic bullet fired by the RUC during an anti-internment march in Andersontown in 1984. McCrea shouted, "No. No. I'll not condemn the death of John Downes [sic]. No Fenian. Never. No". In Northern Ireland, Fenian is used by some as a derogatory word for Roman Catholics. The Troubles in Northern Ireland were characterised by bitter sectarian antagonism and bloodshed between Irish Republicans ,

2128-519: A short bombardment, but weather prevented more significant action. Sandwich left Lawson to blockade Algiers, and proceeded to Lisbon, not yet in his official capacity as an Ambassador Extraordinaire, but rather to meet a second English fleet which was to take possession of Tangier. There was a perceived danger that the Spanish and Dutch would attack the Portuguese Brazil fleet and, reciprocally, Spain and

2261-628: A softening of opinion towards Catholics on the part of the English Anglican establishment, resulting in the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1791 which allowed Catholics to enter the legal profession, relieved them from taking the Oath of Supremacy, and granted toleration for their schools and places of worship The repeal of the Penal Laws culminated in the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 . Despite

2394-458: A total of 23 years, until the port was finally evacuated in 1684. Each redoubt had four hundred men guarding the excavation site, while to the front balls of spikes, stakes and piles of gunpowder -and-stone mix, which acted as basic landmines , were laid. In 1674, William O'Brien, 2nd Earl of Inchiquin took up the post of governor, in succession to the Earl of Middleton . In 1675, a garrison school

2527-485: A vigorously anti-Catholic book Hypatia (1853). The novel was mainly aimed at the embattled Catholic minority in England, who had recently emerged from a half-illegal status. New Catholic episcopates, which ran parallel to the established Anglican episcopates, and a Catholic conversion drive awakened fears of 'papal aggression' and relations between the Catholic Church and the establishment remained frosty. At

2660-659: Is an easterly wind that blows in the western Mediterranean Sea and southern France, an example of mountain-gap wind . In Roussillon it is called "llevant" and in Corsica "levante". In the western Mediterranean, particularly when the wind blows through the Strait of Gibraltar , it is called the Viento de Levante or the Levanter . It is also known as the Solano . When blowing moderately or strongly,

2793-688: Is considerable overlap between anti-Irish attitudes and anti-Catholicism. For example, the word " Fenian " is regarded by authorities as a sectarian-related word in reference to Catholics. In 2003, the Scottish Parliament passed the Criminal Justice (Scotland) Act 2003 which included provisions to make an assault motivated by the perceived religion of the victim an aggravating factor . Police Scotland statistics in 2024 reveal that 33% of recorded religious hate crimes in Scotland were directed against Catholics, with Catholics making up just 13% of

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2926-638: Is likely that he encouraged the Braganza marriage, but he died on 9 March 1661 and Louis took personal control of his government. In July 1661, Louis sent the Comte d'Estrades as his ambassador to London, and it is clear from the instructions and correspondence between them that the treaty between England and Portugal was welcomed by France. At the time, France had no significant Mediterranean or East Indies naval presence, and English possession of Tangier and Bombay posed no apparent threat. In 1656, Louis or Mazarin had proposed

3059-472: Is no longer systemic in the way it once was. Devine cited survey and research data collected in the 1990s which indicated that there was little difference in the social class of Catholics and non-Catholics in contemporary Scotland, and highlighted increased Catholic representation in politics and the professions, describing the change as a "silent revolution". Devine has suggested that a number of factors are responsible for this change: radical structural changes in

3192-560: Is the theme of the British film Resurrection Man (1998). The Glenanne gang or Glenanne group was a secret informal alliance of Ulster loyalists who carried out shooting and bombing attacks against Catholics and Irish nationalists in the 1970s, during the Troubles. It also launched some attacks elsewhere in Northern Ireland and in the Republic of Ireland. The gang included British soldiers from

3325-535: Is unclear when those detailed terms were agreed upon or became publicly known. Some were widely rumoured early, certainly before the marriage treaty itself. The Portuguese government was content to part with Tangier, though many within the country had reservations. The anchorage was not particularly safe for shipping and, exposed to the Atlantic and to destructive winds from the east , it was expensive to maintain, requiring significant improvement. Khadir Ghaïlan had mounted

3458-759: Is vague, perhaps misleading, as to chronology. Ambassador De Mello had a private audience with Charles on 28 July 1660 (7 August 1660 NS ) and, after other meetings, returned to Lisbon on 18 or 28 October 1660. The Queen Regent was pleased and made him Marquis de Sande. He returned to England on 9 February 1661 (NS) and from then until the announcement of the marriage at the opening of the Cavalier Parliament on 8 or 18 May 1661 there were rumours and counter-rumours, amongst them suggested marriages to Mademoiselle d'Orleans (who had previously rejected Charles), to an unidentified 'Princess of Parma', and to Princess Maria of Nassau . Indeed, rumours continued even after that, but

3591-519: The Balearic Islands and blows westwards reaching its greatest intensity through the Strait of Gibraltar . The winds are moist carrying fog and precipitation in the eastern side of the Strait, but dry in the western side, as the moisture rains on the mountains between Algeciras and Tarifa . The winds are well known for creating a particular cloud formation above the Rock of Gibraltar ; In Almería ,

3724-534: The British Isles . In 1570, Pope Pius V declared Queen Elizabeth who ruled England and Ireland deposed and excommunicated with the papal bull Regnans in Excelsis , which also released all Elizabeth's subjects from their allegiance to her. This rendered conditions impossible even for Elizabeth's subjects, like Richard Gwyn and Robert Southwell , who were completely apolitical but persisted in their allegiance to

3857-567: The Catholic Church in England and Wales , as the Queen and her officials refused to accept that her subjects could maintain both allegiances at once. The Recusancy Acts, legally coercing English, Welsh, and Irish citizens to conform to Anglicanism and attend weekly services on pain of prosecution for high treason , date from Elizabeth's reign. Later, regicide and decapitation strike plots organized by persecuted Catholics were heavily exploited by

3990-617: The Defenders was formed in response to these attacks. This climaxed in the Battle of the Diamond on 21 September 1795 outside the small village of Loughgall between Peep O' Day boys and the Defenders. Roughly 30 Catholic Defenders but none of the better armed Peep O'Day Boys were killed in the fight. Hundreds of Catholic homes and at least one Church were burnt out in the aftermath of the skirmish. After

4123-573: The Dila'i interlude, the Alaouites came to the forefront. Mulai al-Rashid (known as "Tafileta" by the English) took Fes in 1666 and Marrakesh in 1669, essentially unifying all of Morocco except the ports occupied by Portugal, Spain, and England. He was supportive of restoring Muslim control over the ports, but he and the last of the Dila'ites (around Salé) still put their own pressures upon Ghaïlan. The Treaty of

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4256-699: The First Anglo-Dutch War . Although they were at peace for the moment, they were still competing intensely for trade and had no wish to see the English navy further establish the Mediterranean power it had developed under Cromwell. They were at war with the Portuguese and did not want to see the Anglo-Portuguese alliance renewed. The Dutch hoped to seize more of Portugal's overseas possessions and had equipped

4389-552: The Glorious Revolution in England and consequent turbulence in Ireland. The Penal Laws , established first in the 1690s, assured Church of Ireland control of political, economic and religious life. The Mass , ordination, and the presence in Ireland of Catholic Bishops were all banned, although some did carry on secretly. Catholic schools were also banned, as were all voting franchises. Violent persecution also resulted, leading to

4522-663: The Marian Persecutions , were effectively canonised by this work of hagiography . In 1571, the Convocation of the Church of England ordered that copies of the Book of Martyrs should be kept for public inspection in all cathedrals and in the houses of church dignitaries. The book was also displayed in many Anglican parish churches alongside the Holy Bible . The passionate intensity of its style and its vivid and picturesque dialogues made

4655-465: The Scottish Executive showed that 85% of sectarian attacks were not football related. Sixty-three percent of the victims of sectarian attacks are Catholics, but when adjusted for population size this makes Catholics between five and eight times more likely to be a victim of a sectarian attack than a Protestant . Due to the fact that many Catholics in Scotland today have Irish ancestry , there

4788-636: The Treaty of Tordesillas and had left its Portuguese administration largely undisturbed during the Iberian Union and even under the long-running Restoration War, lest a weakened position expose it to Moroccan reconquest. Nonetheless, Spain was strongly opposed to English possession of Tangier and insisted that the cession would be illegal. Indeed, the note presented by the Spanish ambassador in May 1661 openly threatened war. A strongly established English naval presence at

4921-1035: The Ulster Defence Regiment (UDR), police officers from the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC), and members of the Mid-Ulster Brigade of the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF). Twenty-five British soldiers and police officers were named as purported members of the gang. Most of its attacks took place in the "murder triangle" area of counties Armagh and Tyrone in Northern Ireland . Since the ceasefire, sectarian killings have largely ceased, though occasional sectarian murders are still reported and bad feelings between Catholics and Protestants linger. Levant (wind) The levant ( Catalan : Llevant , Italian : Levante , Maltese : Lvant , Greek : Λεβάντες , Spanish : Levante )

5054-556: The infallibility declaration of the Catholic Church sold 150,000 copies in 1874. He urged Catholics to obey the crown and disobey the pope when there was disagreement . on the other hand, when religion ritualistic practices in the Church of England came under attack as too ritualistic and too much akin to Catholicism, Gladstone strongly opposed passage of the Public Worship Regulation Bill in 1874. Benjamin Disraeli ,

5187-455: The restoration of the Church hierarchy . Even in the area of politics, there are changes. The Orange Order has grown in numbers in recent times. This growth is, however, attributed by some to the rivalry between Rangers and Celtic football clubs as opposed to actual hatred of Catholics. Historian Tom Devine , who grew up in a family with Irish Catholic roots in the west of Scotland, described his youth as follows: Among my own family in

5320-603: The 1656 Treaty of Brussels , the converse of the Commonwealth position. After his restoration, Charles declared peace with Spain in September 1660 but there was already speculation about a possible Portuguese marriage. There is debate as to who proposed Charles's marriage to Catherine of Braganza and when; but by a letter dated 5 or 15 June 1660, the queen regent of Portugal Luisa de Guzmán requested Charles's consent to send Francisco de Mello as an ambassador extraordinary to negotiate

5453-690: The 20th century, a "Shrine of the Martyrs at Tyburn" was established at the Catholic Tyburn Convent in London. The persecution of the adherents of the reformed religion, both Anglicans and Nonconformist Protestants alike, which had occurred during the reign of Elizabeth's elder half-sister Queen Mary I, was used in the time of Elizabeth I to fuel strong anti-Catholic propaganda in the hugely influential Foxe's Book of Martyrs . Those who had died in Mary's reign, under

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5586-606: The Catholic seminary in Ireland that would train many priests. The re-establishment of the Roman Catholic ecclesiastical hierarchy in England in 1850 by Pope Pius IX , was followed by a frenzy of anti-Catholic feeling, often stoked by newspapers. Examples include an effigy of Cardinal Wiseman , the new head of the restored hierarchy, being paraded through the streets and burned on Bethnal Green , and graffiti proclaiming 'No popery !' being chalked on walls. Charles Kingsley wrote

5719-471: The Church in England" in place of the Pope. Any act of allegiance to the latter was considered treasonous because the papacy claimed both spiritual and political power over its followers. Ireland was brought under direct English control starting in 1536 during the Tudor conquest of Ireland . The Scottish Reformation in 1560 abolished Catholic ecclesiastical structures and rendered Catholic practice illegal in Scotland . Today, anti-Catholicism remains present in

5852-418: The Commons, but not the Lords ) intended to disinherit the Duke of York (later James II and VII ). The Earl of Shaftesbury (effectively the Prime Minister) urged Parliament to disapprove any taxes unless and until the bill was passed. The King refused to prejudice his brother's right of succession and dismissed the Exclusion Bill Parliament and, later, the Oxford Parliament . But he could no longer afford

5985-408: The Crown for propaganda and further fuelled anti-Catholicism in England. In 1603, James VI of Scotland became also James I of England and Ireland. The Glorious Revolution of 1689 involved the overthrow of King James II , who converted to Catholicism before he became king and sought to implement both Catholic Emancipation and freedom of religion , and his replacement by son-in-law William III ,

6118-599: The Emancipation Act, however, anti-Catholic attitudes persisted throughout the 19th century, particularly following the sudden massive Irish Catholic migration to England during the Great Famine . The forces of anti-Catholicism were defeated by the unexpected mass mobilization of Catholic activists in Ireland, led by Daniel O'Connell . The Catholics had long been passive but now there was a clear threat of insurrection that troubled Prime Minister Wellington and his aide Robert Peel . The passage of Catholic emancipation in 1829, which allowed Catholics to sit in Parliament, opened

6251-439: The Iberian peninsula. Indeed, Portugal had even offered Tangier to France in 1648 to try to solicit support against Spain. However, cession of Tangier to England was not popular with the general public and with many in the army. The governor of Tangier, Fernando de Meneses , refused to co-operate and had to be replaced in 1661 by the more compliant Luis de Almeida . Spain had tolerated Portuguese occupation of Tangier as part of

6384-510: The Laws of England : The gravamen of this charge, then, is that Catholics constitute an imperium in imperio , a sort of fifth column of persons who owe a greater allegiance to the Pope than they do to the civil government, a charge very similar to that repeatedly leveled against Jews. Accordingly, a large body of British laws such as the Popery Act 1698 , collectively known as the Penal Laws , imposed various civil disabilities and legal penalties on recusant Catholics. A change of attitude

6517-420: The Moors, who had gained a footing on the edge of the town, finally defeating them by controlled and well-aimed musket fire. The Battalion remained in Tangier until the fort was abandoned. In 1680 the Earl of Inchiquin resigned and was replaced by Thomas Butler, 6th Earl of Ossory , who died before taking up his post. In October 1680, Colonel Charles FitzCharles, 1st Earl of Plymouth , arrived as governor, but

6650-435: The Pope and England, escalating to extended hostilities and culminating in a failed 1588 invasion by Spanish forces. Elizabeth's resultant persecution of Catholic Jesuit missionaries led to many executions at Tyburn . Priests like Edmund Campion who suffered there as traitors to England are considered martyrs by the Catholic Church, and a number of them were canonized as the Forty Martyrs of England and Wales . In

6783-410: The Pope has temporal as well as spiritual jurisdiction in the realm). Those taking this oath were exempted from some of the provisions of the Popery Act. The section as to taking and prosecuting priests were repealed, as also the penalty of perpetual imprisonment for keeping a school. Catholics were also enabled to inherit and purchase land, nor was a Protestant heir any longer empowered to enter and enjoy

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6916-405: The Portuguese. By 23 January, Sandwich had three to four hundred men ashore. On 6 September 1661, King Charles had appointed Henry Mordaunt, 2nd Earl of Peterborough , as governor and captain general of all the forces in Tangier. Peterborough quite quickly raised a regiment in England, probably in large part from the Parliamentary forces which were being disbanded, but otherwise took some time over

7049-523: The Pyrenees in November 1659 specifically pledged that Louis XIV of France would withdraw support from Portugal under the Braganzas and released Spanish troops and ships to pursue the continuing Portuguese Restoration War . Portugal, severely weakened and with little support in other countries, sought a renewal of its alliance with England to counterbalance the renewed Spanish threat to its independence. The alliance—which had originated in 1373 —had been adjusted and renewed in 1654 under Cromwell —and

7182-409: The Republic hence had no significant influence in Restoration England, and De Witt's diplomatic failures in 1660–1661 marked the beginning of the end of the Dutch Golden Age . Although De Ruyter 's presence in the Mediterranean necessitated caution, the English acquisition of Tangier could not be meaningfully opposed by the Dutch. In France, Cardinal Mazarin was at the height of his powers following

7315-435: The Rock of Gibraltar. However, this is not always the case and a particular set of conditions is required for its formation. Near the surface, the levanter is moist, but is unsaturated. As the moist air, which must be capped to be stable and so unable to rise by convection, is forced to rise over the Rock, the moisture condenses to form a cloud that streams away west from its top. If wind speeds are too low and stability high in

7448-485: The Roman Catholic Relief Act enfranchised forty shilling freeholders in the counties, thus increasing the political value of Catholic tenants to landlords. In addition, Catholics began to enter the linen weaving trade, thus depressing Protestant wage rates. From the 1780s the Protestant Peep O'Day Boys grouping began attacking Catholic homes and smashing their looms. In addition, the Peep O'Day Boys disarmed Catholics of any weapons they were holding. A Catholic group called

7581-485: The Scottish economy, with the decline of manufacturing industries where sectarian prejudices were ingrained; the increase of foreign investment in high-tech industry in Silicon Glen and the post-war expansion of the public sector; the construction of the welfare state and growth of educational opportunities, which provided avenues for social mobility and increased interfaith marriages with Catholics. In 1937, ten young men and boys, aged from 13 to 23, burned to death in

7714-422: The Strait, which is a narrow sea-level passage about 15 km (9.3 mi) wide and 55 km (34 mi) long that is surrounded by terrain reaching several thousand feet. The most pronounced gap wind through the Strait, the Levanter, can produce winds of 20 to 40 kn (40 to 70 km/h) in and to the west of the gap when there is higher pressure to the east, over the Mediterranean, with lower pressure to

7847-608: The Straits of Gibraltar posed a threat to its ports on both the Atlantic and Mediterranean and to communication between them. It also threatened communication not just with Spain's colonial empire but with the maritime links between Spain and the Habsburg's Italian possessions in Sicily and Naples . English fleet activities in the Mediterranean under Robert Blake and Edward Montagu between 1650 and 1659 had shown just how vulnerable Spain's shipping lanes had become. With its emphasis on its transatlantic possessions, Spain had no Mediterranean fleet and could not protect its shipping there:

7980-446: The United Kingdom Anti-Catholicism in the United Kingdom dates back to the martyrdom of Saint Alban in the Roman era . Attacks on the Church from a Protestant angle mostly began with the English and Irish Reformations which were launched by King Henry VIII and the Scottish Reformation which was led by John Knox . Within England, the Act of Supremacy 1534 declared the English crown to be "the only supreme head on earth of

8113-414: The United Kingdom, particularly in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Anti-Catholicism among many of the English was grounded in the fact that the Holy See sought not only to regain its traditional religious and spiritual authority over the English Church, but was also covertly backing regime change in alliance with Philip II of Spain as a means to ending the religious persecution of Catholics throughout

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8246-425: The allied Dutch merchants feared that the English would attack the Spanish treasure fleet; hence there was some careful watching until those both arrived safely. The marriage, by proxy, of Charles and Catherine was notified to the Governor of Tangier (Don Luis D'Almeida) by letter from the King of Portugal on 4 September 1661. Lord Sandwich sailed back to Tangier on 3 October (arriving 10 October) taking transports for

8379-414: The allied tradition of burning an effigy of the Pope on this day has been discontinued – except in the town of Lewes , Sussex. The " Calvinistic Methodists " represented a militant core of anti-Catholics. As a result of the 1701 Act of Settlement , any member of the British royal family who joins the Catholic Church must renounce the throne. The Succession to the Crown Act 2013 allows members to marry

8512-444: The ascension of Charles   II. There was a fear in England that the Portuguese commander at Tangier would hand the port over to Spain rather than " heretic " England or that Spain would otherwise attempt physically to prevent the handover, even if its actions fell short of war. There were further fears that Spain had enlisted Ghaïlan's assistance to attack by land while Spain attacked by sea. The Dutch had suffered intensely during

8645-405: The battle Daniel Winter, James Wilson , and James Sloan changed the name of the Peep O' Day Boys to the Orange Order devoted to maintaining the Protestant ascendency. Although more of the Penal Laws were repealed, and Catholic Emancipation in 1829 ensured political representation at Westminster, significant anti-Catholic hostility remained especially in Belfast where the Catholic population

8778-461: The book very popular among Puritan and Low Church families, Anglican and nonconformist Protestant, down to the nineteenth century. In a period of extreme partisanship on all sides of the religious debate, the partisan church history of the earlier portion of the book, with its grotesque stories of popes and monks, contributed to anti-Catholic prejudices in England, as did the story of the sufferings of several hundred reformers who had been burned at

8911-486: The cession of Tangier to France, but no agreement had been reached and the peace with Spain probably precluded any further similar proposal. In 1659, Cromwell's England was allied to France by the 1657 Treaty of Paris ; was allied to Portugal, was at war with Spain , and was not a party to the Treaty of the Pyrenees. King Charles II's government in exile was, technically, allied to Spain and so pledged to resist Portugal's independence and to raise forces against France by

9044-428: The cloud is classically very near the top of the ridge-line of the Rock at nearly 400 m (1,300 ft) altitude, but the base is usually a little lower in the turbulent flow to the west. The top of the cloud is rarely much more than 450 m (1,500 ft) above Gibraltar Bay . When winds are very strong across the crest of the Rock, usually in excess of 15 m/s (34 mph), the cloud becomes detached from

9177-479: The cost of the colony in Tangier. For some time Parliament had been concerned about the cost of maintaining the Tangier garrison. By 1680 the King had threatened to give up Tangier unless the supplies were voted for its sea defences, intended to provide a safe harbour for shipping. The fundamental problem was that in order to keep the town and harbour free from cannon fire the perimeter of the defended area had to be vastly increased. A number of outworks were built but

9310-405: The course of later medieval and early modern history violence against Catholics has broken out, often resulting in deaths, such as the torture and execution of Jesuit Saint John Ogilvie . In the last 150 years, Irish migration to Scotland increased dramatically. As time has gone on Scotland has become much more open to other religions and Catholics have seen the nationalisation of their schools and

9443-410: The crest of the Rock forming west of a line parallel to the ridge up to about 100 m (300 ft) from it. At the same time, curved arcs of cloud may be seen within or below the pennant cloud, indicating the formation of a roll cloud . Usually, this produces light and rather variable winds near sea level, at times forming a cyclonic circulation area over Gibraltar Bay and the town. However, at times,

9576-464: The demolition of the harbour wall and fortifications, and evacuated the garrison during the early months of 1684. The 2nd Tangier Regiment left late in the second week of February for Plymouth with some 600 men and 30 wives and children. The Earl of Dumbarton's regiment (The Royal Scots) went into quarters at Rochester , and Trelawney's (Second Tangier) Regiment to Portsmouth . Some of the departing soldiers were to be rewarded with large land grants in

9709-576: The dread of Catholicism , and the King's frequent request for more troops to increase the size of the garrison raised suspicions that a standing army was being retained in Tangier to ensure both a Catholic succession and the political system of absolute monarchy . In England, in the Exclusion Crisis , the House of Commons of England petitioned the King to give his assent to the Bill of Exclusion (which had passed

9842-425: The eastern direction of the rising sun. The name of the wind pattern entered English from Middle French levante ( French : rising ), the sun rises in the east, the perceived origin point of the wind and rain. It is used to describe the direction east, the wind coming from the east, as well as a general term for the lands bordering the eastern Mediterranean. The wind rises in the central Mediterranean or around

9975-416: The end of the nineteenth century one contemporary wrote that "the prevailing opinion of the religious people I knew and loved was that Roman Catholic worship is idolatry, and that it was better to be an Atheist than a Papist". The Liberal party leader William Ewart Gladstone had a complex ambivalence about Catholicism. He was attracted by its international success in majestic traditions. More important, he

10108-476: The estate of his Catholic kinsman. However, the passing of this act was the occasion of the anti-Catholic Gordon riots (1780) in which the violence of the mob was especially directed against Lord Mansfield who had balked at various prosecutions under the statutes now repealed. The anti-clerical excesses of the French Revolution and the consequent emigration to England of Catholic priests from France led to

10241-543: The evacuation of the Portuguese Tangier Garrison. He remained there for some three months, while awaiting the further fleet from England bringing the new Governor and troops. Still expecting trouble from Spain or the Netherlands, Lawson's squadron joined him, unsuccessful in subduing Algiers (although a storm severely damaged the harbour there the next year and enabled a peace later). During the waiting time, there

10374-533: The first Prime Minister of Northern Ireland , said, "Since we took up office we have tried to be absolutely fair towards all the citizens of Northern Ireland... They still boast of Southern Ireland being a Catholic State. All I boast of is that we are a Protestant Parliament and a Protestant State." In 1957, Harry Midgley , the Minister of Education in Northern Ireland, said, in Portadown Orange Hall, "All

10507-527: The first meeting of an Archbishop of Canterbury with a Pope since the Reformation when Archbishop Geoffrey Fisher visited Rome in 1960. Since then, dialogue has continued through envoys and standing conferences. Residual anti-Catholicism in England is represented by the burning of an effigy of the Catholic conspirator Guy Fawkes at local celebrations on Guy Fawkes Night every 5 November. This celebration has, however, largely lost any sectarian connotation and

10640-516: The fleet, is a tacit admission of the inadequacy of those brought with the occupation force. Peterborough reported that the Portuguese, leaving, had carried off the very ffloers, the Windowes, and the Dores , but since most of the inhabitants, and their possessions, were repatriated by the English fleet, that may be an exaggeration. Moreover, the idea that the Portuguese inhabitants would enrol as soldiers for

10773-787: The formation of the League of the Rhine in 1658; the defeat—with the help of Cromwell's army and navy—of the Prince of Condé and Spain at the Battle of the Dunes the same year; and the signing of the Treaty of the Pyrenees on 7 November 1659. Spain (then allied with English Royalists) and France (allied with Commonwealth England) made peace, and by the treaty Louis   XIV was betrothed to Maria Theresa of Spain . The treaty also required France to cease direct or indirect support for Portugal. In May 1660, six months after

10906-417: The funnel mechanism was dominant; rather, the strongest winds are in the western Strait and immediately downwind to the west. Levanters are most frequent during the warm season from April until October and often reach a peak in spring, when the Mediterranean is comparatively cool, increasing the stability of the low-level air flow. Sometimes the levanter forms a characteristic cloud named "banner-cloud" over

11039-530: The gap forming the Strait. Under such circumstances, the winds can go from a moderate or fresh easterly over the Alboran Sea (the western part of the Mediterranean) to gale force strength on the western side of the Strait and to its west. Because the flow is accelerating and there is often a significant pressure gradient through the Strait, the strongest winds are not observed mid-Strait, as might be expected if

11172-567: The island of Pulo Run . While that negotiation went on, Charles offered to mediate between the United Provinces and Portugal. (The Anglo-Portuguese treaty, a very short time later, required this.) His intervention resulted in the Treaty of The Hague on 6 August 1661, although it was ignored by the Dutch East India Company . The Company seized Cranganore , Cochin , Nagapattinam , and Cannanore from Portugal in 1662 and 1663. At

11305-485: The lee of the Rock distributes the moisture through a comparatively deep layer and the cloud is, at best, very broken. Often it dissolves immediately west of the Rock in these turbulent windy conditions. In suitable conditions, the characteristic "pennant" cloud forms downwind. It usually extends about 5 km (3 mi) west from the top of the Rock in a turbulent plume. (Similar clouds may sometimes be seen elsewhere – notably

11438-414: The lee protection of the mountain, but strong winds tend to alter this flow regime. The pennant cloud is not seen in westerly winds, although many of the same processes occur - it is just that the air is usually drier and may be warmer, as well as being less stable – so that convection from the surface is deeper and not capped near the mountaintop level. (Low cloud can sometimes be seen on the Rock, early in

11571-561: The levant causes heavy swells on the Mediterranean. Usually gentle and damp, the levant frequently brings clouds and rain. When it brings good weather, it is known as the " levant blanc ", or " levante calma " in Gibraltar. The origin of the name is the same as that of the name Levant for the region of the eastern Mediterranean: it is the Latin word "levante", the participle of levare "to raise" – as in sol levante "rising sun". It thus referred to

11704-653: The long-time Conservative leader, wrote many novels. One of the last was Lothair (1870) – it was "Disraeli's ideological Pilgrim's Progress ". It tells a story of political life with particular regard to the roles of the Anglican and Roman Catholic churches. It reflected anti-Catholicism of the sort that was popular in Britain, and which fuelled support for Italian unification (the "Risorgimento"). Since World War II anti-Catholic feeling in England has much abated. Ecumenical dialogue between Anglicans and Catholics culminated in

11837-514: The major commercial centres on the north-western coast of Africa . The Portuguese started their colonial empire by taking nearby Ceuta in 1415. Years of conflict between Portugal and the Moroccans under the Wattasid and Saadi dynasties followed. In 1471, the Portuguese stormed Asilah to the west and threw Tangier into such chaos that they were able to occupy it completely unopposed. By 1657,

11970-564: The minority are traitors and have always been traitors to the Government of Northern Ireland." The first Catholic to be appointed a minister in Northern Ireland was Gerard Newe , in 1971. In 1986, at the annual conference of the Democratic Unionist Party , MP for Mid Ulster William McCrea interrupted councillor Ethel Smyth when she said she regretted the death of Sean Downes, a 24-year-old Catholic civilian who had been killed by

12103-407: The morning in westerly winds, but this disappears as temperatures rise. It is also likely that the very steep eastern slope of the Rock tends to make the downwind flow too turbulent for cloud formation.) Around dawn, the flow is relatively smooth through the cloud, but later in the morning, as it becomes warmer, some convective overturning develops within the plume as temperatures rise. Formation of

12236-612: The most savage attacks were perpetrated by a Protestant gang dubbed the Shankill Butchers , led by Lenny Murphy who was described as a psychopath and a sadist. The gang gained notoriety by torturing and murdering an estimated thirty Catholics between 1972 and 1982. Most of their victims had no connection to the Provisional Irish Republican Army or any other republican groups but were killed for no other reason than their religious affiliation. Murphy's killing spree

12369-408: The near-surface layer, the cloud does not form and condensation is also sensitive to small changes in moisture content, such that when the wind across the Rock veers into the southeast, the flow becomes too dry for the cloud to form, bringing drier air from North Africa . When the wind speed is too low, the air is blocked and unable to rise to form the cloud. At high wind speeds, the turbulent mixing to

12502-489: The new Government is nowhere reflected in the forecast expenditure of the garrison, except in respect of a troop of horse which did, in fact, enrol. At the time when Peterborough arrived, Ghaïlan was engaged at Salé, fighting with Mohammed al-Hajj ibn Abu Bakr al-Dila'i (known to the English as "Ben Bowker") the last (as it turned out) of the Dila'ites but, with his army, he appeared close to Tangier around 22 March 1662, and Peterborough arranged parleys. Perhaps indicative of

12635-469: The newly acquired Province of New York . Thomas Dongan, 2nd Earl of Limerick , a lieutenant-governor of Tangier, became New York provincial governor and William "Tangier" Smith , the last mayor of Tangier, obtained 50 miles of Atlantic oceanfront property on Long Island . The English planned to improve the harbour by building a mole , which would reach 1,436 feet (438 m; 0.2720 mi) long and cost £340,000 before its demolition. The improved harbour

12768-522: The pennant cloud that forms on the Matterhorn in Switzerland .) This cloud hangs over the centre of the city of Gibraltar , while there is usually sunny weather in to the north and south from the southern outskirts of the city. On the western side of the Rock, the winds near sea level are often from the west or southwest, as the air forms large overturning rolls, more than 350 m (1,100 ft) deep in

12901-514: The population. The state of Northern Ireland came into existence in 1921, following the Government of Ireland Act 1920 . Though Catholics were a majority on the island of Ireland, comprising 73.8% of the population in 1911, they were a third of the population in Northern Ireland. On 21 July 1920, rioting broke out in Belfast, starting in the shipyards and spreading to residential areas. The violence

13034-564: The position had changed. The Saadi dynasty steadily lost control of the country to various warlords and finally came to an end with the death of Ahmad al-Abbas . The main warlord around Tangier was Khadir Ghaïlan (known to the English of the time as "Guyland"). He and his family had taken control of much of the Gharb , the Rif , and the other coastal areas around Tangier. He appears to have considerably increased attacks on Portuguese Tangier. Meanwhile, after

13167-404: The preparations; he finally sailed for Tangier on 15 January 1662, arriving, with a considerable force, on 29 January. When Peterborough landed he found the fleet already in possession. The Tangier Garrison (his new regiment augmented by units from Flanders) disembarked on 30 January and the city keys were handed over with due ceremony. The start was far from auspicious. The available accommodation

13300-547: The presence of a hostile naval force at Tangier would make the transfer of Spanish troops from Italy to Spain for the intended war against Portugal much more difficult. By a proclamation of 7 September 1660 (announced in Spain on 22 September), Charles had declared peace with Spain, but in the same month the Commons passed a bill annexing Dunkirk and Jamaica . Both had been taken under Cromwell and both had been demanded back by Spain upon

13433-472: The problem with borders or limits to English possession of the city is the map of the forts around Tangier in 1680. To the East, beyond York Fort, and beyond the ominous, all-embracing, area marked as "The Moors", are the words "To Portugal Cross". It is perfectly likely that this refers to a form of padrão marking what the Portuguese considered to be the border. English occupation never came close to establishing such

13566-458: The remainder of the force to the city gates. Alarmed, the Governor (Luis de Almeida) requested assistance from Sandwich's fleet in the bay. Sandwich sent parties of seamen ashore to man the defences, under the command of Sir Richard Stayner, effectively (but not formally) taking control of the city to help protect it against attacks by Ghaïlan (supported by Spain) and, perhaps, to ensure a withdrawal by

13699-536: The same time, King Charles sought the advancement of his nephew William (later William   III) as Stadtholder . Johan De Witt , the " Grand Pensionary ", was a confirmed Republican and had excluded William through the 'secret' (but widely leaked) Act of Seclusion annex to the Treaty of Westminster with Cromwell. The States General was unable or unwilling to rein in the Dutch East India Company's aggressively anti-English and anti-Portuguese activities;

13832-451: The siege of 1680 showed that the Moroccans were capable of isolating and capturing these outworks by entrenchments and mining. Although the attempt by Sultan Moulay Ismail of Morocco to seize the town had been unsuccessful, a crippling blockade by the Jaysh al-Rifi ultimately forced the English to withdraw. In 1683, Charles gave Admiral Lord Dartmouth secret orders to abandon Tangier. Dartmouth

13965-633: The slogan "Home Rule means Rome Rule ". In the 16th century, the Scottish Reformation resulted in Scotland's conversion to Presbyterianism through the Church of Scotland . The revolution resulted in a powerful hatred of the Roman Church. High Anglicanism also came under intense persecution after Charles I attempted to reform the Church of Scotland. The attempted reforms caused chaos, however, because they were seen as being overly Catholic in form, being based heavily on sacraments and ritual. Over

14098-581: The stake under Mary and Bishop Bonner . Later several accusations fuelled strong anti-Catholicism in England including the Gunpowder Plot , in which Guy Fawkes and other Catholic conspirators were found guilty of planning to blow up the English Parliament on the day the King was to open it. The Great Fire of London in 1666 was blamed on the Catholics and an inscription ascribing it to 'Popish frenzy'

14231-694: The torture and execution of many Catholics, both clergy and laity. Since then, many have been canonised and beatified by the Vatican , such as Saint Oliver Plunkett , Blessed Dermot O'Hurley , and Blessed Margaret Ball . Although some of the Penal Laws restricting Catholic access to landed property were repealed between 1778 and 1782, this did not end anti-Catholic agitation and violence. Catholic competition with Protestants in County Armagh for leases intensified, driving up prices and provoking resentment of Anglicans and Nonconformist Protestants alike. Then in 1793,

14364-416: The treaty was signed on 23 June 1661 and witnessed by Clarendon, Southampton, Albemarle , Ormonde, Manchester, Nicholas, and Morrice . Before the treaty with Portugal and marriage to Catherine was announced at Charles's coronation on 8 May 1661, Admiral Sir Edward Montagu, 1st Earl of Sandwich was commissioned to bring Catherine over to England. The corsair fleet of Algiers was a growing problem. Montagu

14497-480: The treaty was signed, Charles   II was restored. Mazarin realized that an alliance between Restoration England and Spain, with its extensive lands in Italy and the Netherlands, would almost surround France and leave both more powerful than he wished; he worked quickly to restore relations with Charles's court. By August, he had proposed the marriage of Philippe I, Duke of Orléans , to Charles's sister Henrietta Anne . It

14630-414: The walls. Given that Portugal had been seeking (and, latterly, expecting) to dispose of Tangier; had a major war with Spain at home; and needed to raise a very significant dowry for the marriage; it is not surprising that some neglect may have crept in but it is also clear that Peterborough was not well prepared. The list of the stores which were immediately required, even after Sandwich had provided much from

14763-520: The way for a large Irish Catholic contingent. Lord Shaftesbury (1801–1885), a prominent philanthropist, was a pre-millennial evangelical Anglican who believed in the imminent second coming of Christ, and became a leader in anti-Catholicism. He strongly opposed the Oxford movement in the Church of England, fearful of its high church Catholics features. In 1845, he denounced the Maynooth Grant which funded

14896-418: The west of Gibraltar . The sinking motions accompanying such anticyclonic conditions cause stability in the low-level air flow, strongly suppressing vertical air motion and may result in the formation of an inversion within a few thousand feet of the surface. Such an inversion provides a cap that contains the low-level air and results in greater topographic blocking and the acceleration of the airflow through

15029-513: The winds are well known for making the temperatures rise as the wind blows across the desert interior of the province. The Levanter winds can occur at any time in the year, but are most common from May to October. The Strait of Gibraltar , located at the western entrance to the Mediterranean Sea , is frequently associated with strong gap winds that can produce dangerous seas, especially when they blow against tide , current or swell through

15162-603: Was again renewed in 1660 after the English Restoration . Negotiations for the marriage of Charles to Catherine of Braganza (originally proposed by Charles   I) had started shortly after (perhaps even before) the Restoration, and the proposed marriage was mentioned by the Venetian envoys as early as June 1660. As part of the dowry, Portugal was to hand over the port of Tangier and the island of Bombay (now Mumbai ) but it

15295-566: Was also able to purchase the release of many English prisoners from Ismail's bagnio , including several officers and about 40 men, some of whom had spent 10 years in the hands of the Moroccans. All the forts and walls were mined for last-minute destruction. On 5 February 1684 Tangier was officially evacuated, leaving the town in ruins. Thereafter Kirke's Regiment (i.e., the Tangier Regiment) returned to England. The main force of 2,830 officers and men and 361 wives and children finally completed

15428-544: Was appropriated either by the conversion of native Anglo-Irish aristocrats or by forcible seizure. Many Catholics were dispossessed and their lands given to Anglican and Nonconformist Protestant settlers from Britain. However, the first plantation in Ireland was a Catholic plantation under Queen Mary I; for more see Plantations of Ireland . To cement the power of the Anglican Ascendancy , political and land-owning rights were denied to Ireland's Catholics by law, following

15561-435: Was completely insufficient for the three thousand or so troops, who had little in common (neither language nor, for the most part, religion or custom) with the Portuguese population; the money (such as was available to the new occupants) was English currency, unfamiliar to the townspeople. The basis of the Portuguese garrison had, in large part, been a militia of the men of the town and they, of course, had been driven back within

15694-490: Was correspondence with the other Barbary ports, and with Ghaïlan, who ostensibly welcomed Sandwich. Sandwich had met Ghaïlan before, when watering the fleet during his 1657 voyage with Robert Blake in the Mediterranean. It is likely that Sandwich also used the time to obtain details of the city and its defences – Martin Beckman was with Sandwich's fleet at Algiers and Tangier and produced the map later seen and admired by Pepys. It

15827-683: Was declared a free city by charter , with a mayor and corporation to govern it instead of the army. The charter made it equal to English towns. In 1680, the pressure from the Moroccans increased, as the Moroccan Sultan Moulay Ismail joined forces with the Chief of Fez in order to pursue a war against all foreign troops in his land. Reinforcements were needed at the Garrison, which was raised to 3,000 in number. The Royal Scots , shortly followed by

15960-510: Was engraved on the Monument to the Great Fire of London , which marked the location where the fire started (this inscription was only removed in 1831). The ' Popish Plot ' involving Titus Oates further exacerbated Anglican-Catholic relations. The beliefs that underlie the sort of strong anti-Catholicism once seen in the United Kingdom were summarized by William Blackstone in his Commentaries on

16093-588: Was eventually signalled by the Papists Act 1778 in the reign of King George III . Under this Act, an oath was imposed, which besides being a declaration of loyalty to the reigning sovereign, contained an abjuration of Charles Edward Stuart , the Pretender to the British throne, and of certain doctrines attributed to Roman Catholics (doctrines such as those stating that excommunicated princes may lawfully be murdered, that no faith should be kept with heretics, and that

16226-461: Was founded, led by the Rev. Dr George Mercer. On 30 December 1676, Charles ordered a survey of the city and garrison of Tangier, which was costing about £140,000 a year to maintain. The survey showed that the total inhabitants numbered 2,225, of whom fifty were army officers, 1,231 other ranks, with 302 army wives and children. Amongst the buildings was a hospital and an army school. On 4 June 1668, Tangier

16359-508: Was grounded in the fear that the Pope sought to reimpose not just religio-spiritual authority but also secular power over England, a view which was vindicated by hostile actions of the Vatican. In 1570, Pope Pius V sought to depose Elizabeth with the papal bull Regnans in Excelsis , declaring her a heretic and dissolving Catholics' duty of allegiance to her. This engendered a state of war between

16492-718: Was in the minority. In the same year, the Presbyterians reaffirmed at the Synod of Ulster that the Pope was the anti-Christ, and joined the Orange Order in large numbers when the latter organisation opened its doors to all non-Catholics in 1834. As the Orange order grew, violence against Catholics became a regular feature of Belfast life. Towards the end of the nineteenth and early twentieth century when Irish Home Rule became imminent, Protestant fears and opposition towards it were articulated under

16625-460: Was instructed, by negotiation or by bombardment, to secure a treaty with Algiers not to molest English ships. He also carried instructions to seek peaceful arrangements with Tripoli , Tetuan , and Salé . Sandwich left London on 13 June for the fleet assembled at the Downs and from there, with John Lawson as Vice-Admiral, sailed to Algiers, where he arrived on 29 July. There was little negotiation, and

16758-712: Was partly in response to the IRA killing in Cork of a northern RIC police officer Gerald Smyth, and also because of competition for jobs due to the high unemployment rates. Protestant Loyalists marched on the Harland and Wolff shipyards in Belfast and forced over 11,000 Catholic and left-wing Protestant workers from their jobs. This sectarian action is often referred to as the Belfast Pogrom. The sectarian rioting that followed resulted in about 20 deaths in just three days. In 1934, Sir James Craig ,

16891-509: Was reported that Sir John Lawson and Sir Richard Stayner purchased houses in the town during this time and, perhaps, Sandwich also bought then the house he later owned. In England, a Tangier Committee of the King's Privy Council was appointed, with its members including Samuel Pepys , Secretary to the Admiralty , and Prince Rupert of the Rhine . Pepys later claimed that all Rupert did in meetings

17024-485: Was strongly opposed to the authoritarianism of its pope and bishops, its profound public opposition to liberalism, and its refusal to distinguish between secular allegiance on the one hand and spiritual obedience on the other. The danger came when the pope or bishops attempted to exert temporal power, as in the Vatican decrees of 1870 as the climax of the papal attempt to control churches in different nations, despite their independent nationalism. His polemical pamphlet against

17157-623: Was taken mortally ill soon afterwards. Lt-Colonel Edward Sackville of the Coldstream Guards took over the governorship temporarily until on 28 December 1680 Colonel Piercy Kirke was appointed colonel and governor. The garrison at Tangier had to be constantly reinforced, having cost nearly two million pounds of royal treasure, and many lives had been sacrificed in its defence. Merchant ships continued to be harassed by Barbary pirates , and undefended crews were regularly captured into slavery. The so-called Popish Plot in England had intensified

17290-497: Was to be 600 yards (550 m) long, 30 feet (9.1 m) deep at low tide, and capable of keeping out the roughest of seas. Work began on the fortified harbour at the end of November 1662, and work on the mole in August 1663. The work continued for some years under a succession of governors. With an improved harbour the town would have played the same role that Gibraltar later played in British naval strategy. Anti-Catholicism in

17423-488: Was to laugh and swear occasionally. On 14 January 1662, the Portuguese garrison consisting of 140 cavalry attempted a sally out into the surrounding countryside, taking about 400 head of cattle, and also capturing 35 women and girls. Unsurprisingly, the Moroccans numbering around 100 counter-attacked and recovered the booty, killing some 51 of the Portuguese, including the Aidill (the military commander) and twelve knights, pursuing

17556-690: Was to level the fortifications, destroy the harbour, and evacuate the troops. In August 1683 Dartmouth, as Admiral of the Fleet and governor and captain general in Tangier, sailed from Plymouth. He was accompanied by Samuel Pepys , who wrote an account of the evacuation. Once in Tangier, one of Lord Dartmouth's main concerns was the evacuation of sick soldiers "and the many families and their effects to be brought off". The hospital ship Unity sailed for England on 18 October 1683 with 114 invalid soldiers and 104 women and children, alongside HMS Diamond . HMS Diamond arrived at The Downs on 14 December 1683. Dartmouth

17689-405: Was under this act that Thomas More and John Fisher were executed and became martyrs to the Catholic faith. The Act of Supremacy (which asserted England's independence from papal authority) was repealed in 1554 by Henry's devoutly Catholic daughter Queen Mary I when she reinstituted Catholicism as England's state religion. She executed many Protestants by burning. Her actions were reversed by

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