15-875: See text Encarsia is a large genus of minute parasitic wasps of the family Aphelinidae . The genus is very diverse with currently about 400 described species and worldwide distribution. The number of existing species is expected to be several times higher because many species are still undescribed. Encarsia is a very complex genus, with specimens showing both inter- and intra-specific variations, making morphological classification difficult. The adult wasps, tiny insects about 1 or 2 millimeters in size, are primarily parasitoids of sessile stages of Sternorrhyncha , in particular whiteflies (Aleyrodidae) and scale insects (Diaspididae). A few species are known to parasitize aphids , eggs of shield-back bugs (Plataspidae), and eggs of Lepidoptera . Females mostly develop as primary endoparasitoids, and males are commonly hyperparasitoids of
30-515: Is a group of pollinating fig wasps . They spend their larval stage inside the fruits of figs . The pollinating wasps ( Agaoninae , Kradibiinae , and Tetrapusiinae ) are the mutualistic partners of the fig trees. Extinct forms from the Eocene and Miocene are nearly identical to modern forms, suggesting that the niche has been stable over geologic time. Females emerge from ripe figs and fly to another fig tree with developing syconia (which contain
45-752: Is often metallic in colour. The wings may be developed, reduced or absent. When the wings are developed, they have reduced venation or sometimes none at all. However, the group is morphologically very diverse. Chalcidoids range in size from up to 41.7 mm long (females of the pelecinellid Doddifoenus wallacei , this length includes the ovipositor ) to merely 0.13 mm long (males of the mymarid Dicopomorpha echmepterygis ). Various lineages have convergently evolved features such as enlarged femora, enlarged acropleura, reduced numbers of antennal and tarsal segments, reduced wings or reduced wing venation. Some have significant sexual dimorphism : male fig wasps are "turtle-like fighting machines" that are very different to
60-569: The families of Agaonidae , Epichrysomallidae , Eurytomidae , Eulophidae , Melanosomellidae , Ormyridae , Pteromalidae , Tanaostigmatidae and Torymidae . Agaonidae only develop within figs . Predation is exhibited by larvae of some Encyrtidae (prey on coccid eggs) and some Eurytomidae (prey on Cynipidae larvae). Chalcidoidea is one of the most important taxa of biological control agents. They are used to control pest insects in both natural and agricultural ecosystems. Some herbivorous species are also used in biological control, such as
75-621: The females, while males of the aforementioned D. echmepterygis lack eyes, ocelli , mouthparts, antennal flagella or wings. Most chalcidoids are parasitoids, their hosts including insects , spiders , ticks and mites , pseudoscorpions and even gall-forming nematodes . Some species parasitise a wide range of hosts, while others have a narrow host range. They attack host life stages ranging from eggs to adults. The superfamily includes primary, secondary and tertiary parasitoids, both ecto- and endoparasitoids, and both solitary and gregarious parasitoids. There are also herbivorous chalcidoids within
90-458: The flowers). They enter the syconium via the ostiole , pollinate the flowers, and lay their eggs in some of the ovules. The parasitized ovules develop into galls that support the growth of the wasp larvae. Prior to the final ripening of the fig, wingless males emerge from the galls they developed in. The males enter the galls of their winged sibling females and mate with them. The family has changed several times since its taxonomic appearance after
105-570: The future will see further revisions of the classification in use today. There are fifty extant families recognized at present: There are also three extinct families: Of these families, at least five are known to be artificial groups ( paraphyletic ), and have been divided into several families. The most problematic, the Pteromalidae, has recently been split into 24 families, and Eupelmidae into three families. Agaonidae Agaoninae Kradibiinae Tetrapusiinae The family Agaonidae
120-414: The influence of bacterial endosymbionts and the genetics of speciation. The genome of moth parasitoid Copidosoma floridanum was sequenced as part of the i5K project. Chalcidoidea is a superfamily of Hymenoptera , whose family constituency is in constant flux, as new hypotheses of relationships are constantly being proposed and rejected; with the advent of molecular systematics , it seems that
135-444: The males are mostly wingless and whitish. This difference of color is probably due to a clear split in the gender role. Once they have mated, male and female fig wasps have different fates. In some fig species, such as Ficus subpisocarpa or Ficus tinctoria , the males have to chew a hole for the females to leave their natal fig. The winged female wasps can fly over long distances before finding another fig to oviposit in it, while
150-683: The melanosomellid Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae for control of the weed Acacia longifolia . There are also chalcidoids that are agricultural pests themselves, mainly attacking plant seeds. Bruchophagus attack seeds of legumes (e.g. alfalfa ), Systole attack seeds of Apiaceae used as spices (e.g. coriander ) and Megastigmus attack seeds of Pinaceae grown in plantations. Females of family Agaonidae are important as pollinators of figs. Some chalcidoids, especially those in genera Trichogramma ( Trichogrammatidae ) and Nasonia ( Pteromalidae ) are model organisms in scientific research. They have been used to study sex determination,
165-604: The same or other species. This so-called heteronomy, a sexually dimorphic host relationship, occurs in quite a few species. Species of Encarsia are of particular interest because of their economic importance for biological pest control , especially in horticulture and for crops grown under glass. Many seem to be extremely host-specific which is an important trait for an acceptable and effective bio-control agent. Chalcid wasp See text Chalcid wasps ( / ˈ k æ l s ɪ d / , from Greek khalkos 'copper', for their metallic colour) are insects within
SECTION 10
#1733092718671180-456: The superfamily Chalcidoidea , part of the order Hymenoptera . The superfamily contains some 22,500 known species, and an estimated total diversity of more than 500,000 species, meaning the vast majority have yet to be discovered and described. The name "chalcid" is often confused with the name "chalcidid", though the latter refers strictly to one constituent family, the Chalcididae , rather than
195-498: The superfamily as a whole; accordingly, most recent publications (e.g., ) use the name " chalcidoid " when referring to members of the superfamily. Most chalcid wasps are parasitoids of other insects, though other life styles are known, with the herbivorous fig wasps acting as pollinators . Various species are used as biological pest control agents or in scientific research. Chalcidoids are generally small wasps, averaging 1.5 mm in length and usually being less than 3 mm. The body
210-437: The work of Francis Walker in 1846 described from the wasp genus Agaon . Previously the subfamilies Epichrysomallinae , Otitesellinae , Sycoecinae , Sycoryctinae , Sycophaginae , and Agaoninae were the subdivisions of the family. Recent works building strong molecular phylogenies with an extended sampling size have changed the composition of Agaonidae . The paraphyletic groups have been excluded; Epichrysomallinae
225-445: Was raised to family status ( Epichrysomallidae ), whereas Otitesellinae, Sycoecinae, Sycophaginae, and Sycoryctinae were transferred to Pteromalidae . New subfamilies have been instated (Kradibiinae and Tetrapusiinae). The relationship between fig trees and agaonid fig wasps is an obligate mutualism that has evolved over a period of about sixty million years. The pollinating female fig wasps are winged and in general dark, while
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